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Air quality in Malaysia: Impacts, management issues and future challenges

Article  in  Respirology · December 2001

DOI: 10.1046/j.1440-1843.2000.00248.x

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Respirology (2000) 5, 183–196

GENERAL LECTURE

Air quality in Malaysia: Impacts, management issues and

future challenges

M B AWANG, A B JAAFAR, A M ABDULLAH, M B ISMAIL,
M N HASSAN, R ABDULLAH, S JOHAN AND H NOOR

Centre for Environmental Technology and Natural Resource Management, Universiti Putra
Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Air quality in Malaysia: Impacts, management issues and future challenges

AWANG MB, JAAFAR AB, ABDULLAH AM, ISMAIL MB, HASSAN MB, ABDULLAH R, JOHAN S, NOOR
H. Respirology 2000; 5: 183–196
Objective: Observations have been made on the long-term trends of major air pollutants in
Malaysia including nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, the ozone and total suspended particulate
matter (particularly PM10), and sulfur dioxide, emitted from industrial and urban areas from early
1970s until late 1998.
Methodology: The data show that the status of atmospheric environment in Malaysia, in particu-
lar in highly industrialized areas such as Klang Valley, was determined both by local and trans-
boundary emissions and could be described as haze and non-haze periods.
Results: During the non-haze periods, vehicular emissions accounted for more than 70% of the
total emissions in the urban areas and have demonstrated two peaks in the diurnal variations of
the aforementioned air pollutants, except ozone. The morning ‘rush-hour’ peak was mainly due to
vehicle emissions, while the late evening peak was mainly attributed to meteorological conditions,
particularly atmospheric stability and wind speed. Total suspended particulate matter was the main
pollutant with its concentrations at few sites often exceeding the Recommended Malaysia Air Quality
Guidelines. The levels of other pollutants were generally within the guidelines. Since 1980, six major
haze episodes were officially reported in Malaysia: April 1983, August 1990, June 1991, October 1991,
August to October 1994, and July to October 1997. The 1997 haze episode was the worst ever ex-
perienced by the country. Short-term observations using continuous monitoring systems during the
haze episodes during these periods clearly showed that suspended particulate matter (PM10) was the
main cause of haze and was transboundary in nature. Large forest fires in parts of Sumatra and Kali-
mantan during the haze period, clearly evident in satellite images, were identified as the probable
key sources of the widespread heavy haze that extended across Southeast Asia from Indonesia to
Singapore, Malaysia and Brunei. The results of several studies have also provided strong evidence
that biomass burning is the dominating source of particulate matter. The severity and extent of
1997’s haze pollution was unprecedented, affecting some 300 million people across the region. The
amount of economic costs suffered by Southeast Asian countries during this environmental disas-
ter was enormous and is yet to be fully determined. Among the important sectors severely affected
were air and land transport, shipping, construction, tourism and agro-based industries. The eco-
nomic cost of the haze-related damage to Malaysia presented in this study include short-term health
costs, production losses, tourism-related losses and the cost of avertive action. Although the cost
reported here is likely to be underestimated, they are nevertheless significant (roughly RM1 billion).
Conclusions: The general air quality of Malaysia since 1970 has deteriorated. Studies have shown
that should no effective countermeasures be introduced, the emissions of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen
oxides, particulate matter, hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide in the year 2005 would increase by
1.4, 2.12, 1.47 and 2.27 times, respectively, from the 1992 levels.

Key words: air quality, forest fire, haze, Malaysia, pollution.

Correspondence: MB Awang, Centre for Environmental Technology and Natural Resource Management, Universiti
Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
Email: awang@fsas.upm.edu.my
Presented at the 4th APSR Workshop. This Workshop was held at the 39th Annual Meeting of Japan Respiratory
Society, Yokohama City, March, 1999.
184 MB Awang et al.

INTRODUCTION dominant air pollutant parameter was PM10 subindex.

A similar approach in monitoring ambient air quality
The choice of air quality parameters that define the is also commonly adopted worldwide, including the
status of air quality in Malaysia is governed by the USA and several other countries, thereby promoting
established Malaysia Ambient Air Quality Guidelines a uniform and comparable Air Quality Index system.
(MAQG) of 1989 issued by the Department of Figure 1 shows the main stages involved in the
Environment as summarized in Table 1. The listed Malaysian API system.
concentration values are regarded as being the ‘safe
levels’. Subsequently, the air pollution index (API) was
introduced as an index system for classifying and
reporting ambient air quality in Malaysia. The API ref- NATIONWIDE AIR QUALITY
erence value of 100 has been set based on the MAQG ASSESSMENT (1981–95)
1989 ‘safe levels’ values (Table 2). Notably, the API
values have been divided into five ranges (i.e. good, Air pollution emission trends (1981–95)
moderate, unhealthy, very unhealthy and hazardous)
based on possible health effects. The API for a given Suspended particulate matter,
time period is calculated based on the subindex sulfur dioxide and lead
values (sub-API) for all the five air pollutants included
in Malaysian API system (i.e. sulfur dioxide or SO2, The status of air quality in Peninsular Malaysia
nitrogen dioxide or NO2, ozone or O3, carbon mon- according to the land use and level of compliance
oxide or CO, particulate matter below 10 micron in based on studies conducted by the Department of
size or PM10). The sub-API are in turn calculated Environment from 1981 to 1983 demonstrated that
based on the relevant data collected from the Con- serious problems existed only in highly urbanized
tinuous Air Quality Monitoring Stations (CAQMS) areas, particularly with respect to dust fall-out, sus-
operated by Alam Sekitar Malaysia Sdn. Bhd. (ASMA). pended particulate matter and lead in the air along
The air quality data are regularly subjected to stan- congested roadsides. Those problems were largely
dard quality control processes and quality assurance attributed to the emissions from motor vehicles. The
procedures. The reported API value are based on the air quality over most of the areas monitored failed
highest of the five sub-API calculated for that par- 50% or more of the time to comply with the previous
ticular time period. The predominant air pollutant proposed standard for total suspended particulates of
parameter contributing towards a particular API 75 mg/m3 (24-h average), notably, the standard was
value is normally indicated alongside the respective not met 99% of the time in Kuala Lumpur near Pudu
API value. During the 1997 haze episode, the pre- Raya and in fact not a single area monitored was free
from dust pollutions at all times. Similarly, lead in
the air continued to be present at rather high levels,
particularly in the central business district of Kuala
Table 1 Malaysia: Selected ambient air quality guidelines Lumpur. In 1982, the standard (1.5 mg/m3 at 24-h
average) was not met 75% of the time. However, in the
Parameter Concentration (API = 100) Average time case of sulfur dioxide, it satisfactorily met the previ-
ous standard (50 mg/m3 at 24-h average) in the areas
CO 9.0 p.p.m. 8h
monitored between 1981 and 1983.
O3 0.10 p.p.m. 1h
On the temporal patterns of SPM, nitrogen oxides
NO2 0.17 p.p.m. 1h
(NOX) and CO, two distinct peaks in the diurnal
SO2 0.04 p.p.m. 24 h
patterns were observed during the four ‘seasons’
PM10 150 mg/m3 24 h
(December 1984–March 1985; April–May, 1985;
June–September, 1985 and October–November,
Source: Department of Environment, 1998.
1985), which coincided with the north-east monsoon,
transitional period, the south-west monsoon and the
other transitional period, respectively. These peaks
Table 2 Malaysia: Ambient air quality guidelines were evident in the morning hours and late evenings.
The morning peaks corresponded fairly well with the
Air pollutant Guideline/ Average time API
morning traffic rush hours as there was a strong indi-
(pseudo-standard)
cation that vehicular emissions may be the main con-
SO2 0.04 p.p.m. 24 h 100 tributory source, as shown by NO and CO. The benefit
0.13 p.p.m. 1h of NO and CO are observed to be higher during the
0.19 p.p.m. 10 min morning peaks compared with the evening peaks.
O3 0.10 p.p.m. 1h 100 The finding was in agreement with the study con-
0.06 p.p.m. 8h ducted by Kimura on the relationship between traffic
NO2 0.17 p.p.m. 1h 100 density and CO concentrations.1 Sham also pointed
CO 30 p.p.m. 1h 100 out that the mixing height and wind velocity are
9 p.p.m. 8h usually still low in the morning which reduces the dis-
PM10 150 mg/m3 1h 100 persive capacity.2 It has been suggested that the gen-
8h erally lower concentrations during the day could be
attributed to greater vertical mixing and relatively
Air quality in Malaysia
Figure 1 Stages involved in the
Malaysia API system.
stronger winds occurring during that period, result-
ing in the dilution of the pollutants especially from
those of low level emissions. Moreover, Kimura in a
numerical simulation study of the air flow around
Kuala Lumpur showed the occurrence of strong sea
breezes and large vertical diffusivity during this
period of the day (F. Kimura, unpubl. data, 1985). This
could explain why, despite the rush hours, there was
no distinct peak at that time of the day. In contrast,
the evening peaks appeared to be more influenced by
the low mixing height and decreased wind speed.2 As
such, pollution buildup could occur despite the gen-
erally lower emission rate. Although these patterns
differed slightly between the sampling sites, they
exhibited remarkable similarity by the seasons. The
levels of SPM tend to be lower during the rainy
October–November period, partially due to particu-
late washout effects and also to the absence of strong
185
ground-based inversions.3 In a separate study on fine
and coarse atmospheric particle concentrations in
Kuala Lumpur between 1988 and 1990, Rashid et al.
showed that the highest monthly mean concentration
was observed between January and March with a
second peak occurring in July–August, while the
levels tend to decrease in June and December.4
Earlier, Chow and Lim observed that maximum
and minimum levels of particulate concentrations
corresponded, respectively, with the relatively dry
and wet seasons experienced in the region.5 They
also suggested that scavenging effects of rainfall on
particulates appeared to be one of the important con-
tributing factors besides frequency of calm condi-
tions and wind directions in determining the air
quality in the area.
The diurnal variations in NO, NO2 and O3 concen-
trations during the four seasons observed by Azman
186
et al. exhibited a typical photochemical pollution
situation.6 The peak was first reached by NO followed
by NO2 and finally by O3 several hours later. Subse-
quently, the after office traffic injected an additional
burden of NO into the atmosphere which scavenged
the remaining traces of O3 by early evening and
followed by the NO and other primary pollutants
reaccumulated for the remainder of the night. This
phenomenon seemed to suggest that the photo-
chemical smog formation was able to occur in the
city. On the contrary, Sham suggested that optimum
conditions necessary for its formation may be lacking
due to the high humidity and the unlikelihood of the
said pollutants to be trapped at times of maximum
radiation by a subsidence inversion, as they often are
in Los Angeles.7 Nonetheless, while humidity may
affect oxidant formation both directly and indirectly,
the magnitude of these effects has not been conclu-
sively established.
A distinct feature observed in those studies was the
occurrence of a peak in the SPM concentration some
time in the middle of the year. It had occurred at a
time when the duration of rainless days had contin-
ued for a fairly long time. This prolonged dry spell,
coupled with the formation of strong ground-based
inversions, and the accompanying local meteorology,
were believed to have accounted for the high par-
ticulate levels. However, during the months of May
and September–December, which included the tran-
sitional periods, the concentrations of SPM appeared
to be rather low values. This could be attributed to the
greater incidence of rain days during those months as
well as the probable absence of strong ground-based
inversions. In the case of NOX and O3, there were no
clear seasonal variations, while CO remained fairly
unchanged throughout the months, as motor vehicle
density in the city, or at least in the vicinity of the sam-
pling site, did not vary significantly throughout the
study period. It is interesting to note that the levels of
sulfur dioxide concentrations registered very low
readings with monthly average ranging only between
2 and 5 p.p.b.
Total suspended particulates and sulfate aerosol
The long-term trends in particulate emissions from
1989 through 1995 indicated that Johor Bharu, George
Town and Kuala Lumpur at certain times of the year
exceeded the level of the current MAQG for total sus-
pended particulates. Kuala Terengganu and Kuching
maintained much lower levels than the level stipu-
lated in the guidelines (90 mg/m3).8 The occurrence of
the peaks during those years (1991, 1992 and 1994)
has been attributed primarily to unusual meteoro-
logical conditions, coupled with local emissions and
forest fires that were conducive for particulates to be
accumulated in the region. The ambient conditions
during 1989–95 provided a range of variability which
was suitable for revealing the impacts of meteorolog-
ical fluctuation. It was obvious that particulate emis-
sion levels peaked around August to October which
coincided with dry season and air stagnation (wind
velocity, 3 m/s). Evidently, the increase in particulate
MB Awang et al.
emission was a result of an increase in a number of
acres of land burnt from wildfires and also due to
exhaust emissions and from construction sources
which increased over the last few years, particularly
in the Klang Valley.
In a separate study of daily samples from July 1988
to December 1990, atmospheric aerosols were segre-
gated into fine (aerodynamic diameter less than
2.5 mm) and coarse particles (2.5–10 mm) and were
analysed for total elemental concentration.4 The
analyses showed that the total elemental concentra-
tion of atmospheric aerosols consists of 19%, 33%,
and 53% fine particle, coarse particle and total parti-
cle fractions, respectively. Approximately 70% of As,
Br, K, Na, Pb, S, and V were found in the fine fractions.
While S and Si constituted the largest percentage ele-
mental concentration, 61% and 44% in the fine and
coarse particles size fractions, respectively, source
apportionment studies also showed that soil and
marine sources contributed 21% and 5% of the total
fraction while the remaining 74% of the aerosol con-
centration is yet to be explained. The results also
showed that the daily fine particle (FP), coarse parti-
cle (CP) and total particle (TP) aerosol concentrations
ranged from 12.2 mg/m3–164 mg/m3, 3.06 mg/m3–
32.6 mg/m3, and 16.6 mg/m3–183 mg/m3, with the mean
daily concentrations being 35.4 mg/m3, 14.2 mg/m3
and 49.7 mg/m3, respectively, and 40% of the daily
total particle concentration samples exceeded the
50 mg/m3 annual mean MAQG. The FP constitutes
71% of the total particulate concentration. It has been
suggested that a high degree of correlation between
the FP and the TP particle concentrations confirms
the preponderance of FP in the area, while the low
correlation between FP and CP concentrations indi-
cates the difference source and/or meteorological
influence upon these different types of particle con-
centration. Fine particulates are linked to high tem-
perature processes related to industrial or vehicular
emissions, while the coarse results from resuspension
of dust materials through constructions and earth-
work activities into the atmosphere.
Subsequently, Ayers et al. focused on the haze
event that occurred in Southeast Asia in September
1994.9 Their study showed that the general chemical
nature of the haze aerosol at Petaling Jaya was that
the PM10 component consisted of approximately
one-quarter inorganic components, one-quarter ele-
mental carbon and one-half organic material. Acid
ammonium sulfate is the major component in the
inorganic fraction. Moreover, even the ‘background’
levels of PM10 at Petaling Jaya, at around 50–60 mg/m3,
were primarily due to anthropogenic emissions. It
was argued that if forest fires were the primary cause
of the threefold increase in PM10 loading during the
extremes of the haze event, then the aerosol com-
position data during that period would be dominated
by biomass burning components; tracers that include
elemental carbon, aerosol potassium and gaseous
NO2. Furthermore, the time series of aerosol com-
ponents indicated correlation with the PM10 series
during the haze event, suggesting a definite smoke
component. Moreover, the time series of traces not
related to biomass burning, such as sulfate and lead
Air quality in Malaysia
showed significant correlations with PM10. The study
suggested that there were a number of different
source-receptors (including biomass burning source)
modulated by local and regional meteorology. Conse-
quently, interpretation of the haze peaks in terms of
a variety of strong local sources will be very difficult.
The model predictions developed by Ayers concluded
that smoke from fires at the two locations (Sumatra
and Kalimantan) specified in the model was pre-
dicted to have reached Petaling Jaya during the haze
event period although the temporal pattern of the
modelled smoke transport to Petaling Jaya was not
identical with the PM10 record. It was anticipated that
the two fires modelled may have played a part in the
extreme haze peak near mid-September, but did not
play a major part in the extreme PM10 peaks at the
height of haze event at the end of September.
In a different study coordinated by the Department
of Environment to determine the origin, formation
and composition of aerosol haze in Malaysia,10,14
approximately 200 representative samples collected
by the Malaysian Meteorological Service (MMS) for
total suspended particulate and PM10 measurements
during the haze episode in 1994 and in the non-haze
years 1995 and 1996 have been analysed by Particle
Induced X-ray Emission at National Environmental
Research Institute (NERI) in Denmark. The objective
of the study was to apportion the sources of the
1994 haze episode based on two mechanisms that
have been proposed for the explanation of the haze
episode. The first mechanism relates to the more
stable atmosphere conditions that exist in the dry
season. This would allow the rather continuous emis-
sions from traffic and industry to build up high local
concentrations of pollutants. This could explain why
during haze episodes the heavy industrialized Klang
Valley often was more polluted than other parts of the
country, but it does not explain why in some years
some localities with little traffic and industries such
as Kuching in Sarawak, were polluted with suspended
particulate matter at levels of the same magnitude as
in Klang Valley or even higher. The second mecha-
nism relates to fire in South Sumatra and Kalimantan
forests, which recur every year in the dry season, but
in some years tend to get out of control.
The results of the analysis ruled out the first
mechanism as there was poor correlation with lead
which is the marker for local pollution. However, the
good correlation with sulfur supports the causal rela-
tion with forest fires or other biomass burning, as
sulfur and potassium are the essential constituents in
biomass. The SPM/sulfur ratios found at geographi-
cally widespread locations in Peninsular Malaysia
(Penang, Kuantan, Klang Valley and Johor) were very
much the same, corresponding to almost constant
contents of sulfur in the SPM (mass ratio 7–8%). This
points to a common origin (and/or type) of source,
perhaps the reported forest fire in South Sumatra. The
high levels found in the Klang Valley could be due to
the combined effects of the geographical vicinity of
the source area, an unfortunate position in the pre-
vailing direction of wind flow, and there may be some
trapping of the biomass burning plume in the valley.
The sulfur content found in Kuching was markedly
187
lower (4%). This pointed to a different biomass
burning source, probably fires in Kalimantan.
Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide
While the particulate levels showed distinct peaks
during the dry periods of the month, especially
during the haze episodes, this was not the case of
gaseous pollutant. It was observed that there were no
distinct variations in the nitrogen oxide, NO and
nitrogen dioxide, NO2 levels. Long-term trends of
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide recorded in Kuala
Lumpur, Petaling Jaya and Shah Alam between 1992
and 1995 demonstrated that monthly concentrations
of these two pollutants did not exceed the MAQG.
However, both NO2 and SO2 concentrations moni-
tored in Petaling Jaya were consistently higher (20–
40 p.p.b. and 15–30 p.p.b., respectively) than those in
Kuala Lumpur and Shah Alam stations.
Ozone
Ozone is a secondary pollutant. Ozone precursors are
volatile organic compounds and NOX from point
sources, particularly in large urban areas. The forma-
tion of the ozone is heavily influenced by sunlight and
temperature. Ozone exhibits strong day-to-day varia-
tion and is sometimes virtually undetectable. Tempo-
ral variability could be over hourly, diurnal, synoptic,
weekly, seasonal and long-term time scales which are
influenced by anthropogenic activities and meteorol-
ogy. Low wind speeds (< 3 m/s) promote the build up
of high local ozone concentrations. The availability
of NO, and non-methane hydrocarbons from local
emissions such as vehicles and other anthropogenic
activities must be considered to be among the
contributing factors. Highest daily ozone maxima
occurred in the late afternoon, exhibiting high ozone
concentrations between around 11.00 and 15.00 h. In
addition, there were distinct differences in the daily
ozone profiles on haze episode and non-haze episode
days. The rate of ozone depletion during the haze
episodes was very much slower and took a longer
time to reach a minimum level compared with
normal conditions. The occurrence of factors con-
ducive for ozone production, such as high atmos-
pheric stability, high insolation and temperature,
coupled with the availability of NOX (>90% con-
stituted NO2) and non-methane hydrocarbons during
the haze episode might have led to a higher rate
of ozone formation as reflected in October 1991
and September–October 1994 haze episodes (40–
97 p.p.b.).
NATIONWIDE AIR QUALITY
ASSESSMENT (1996–98)
Other than a few events largely influenced by the
periodic haze episodes in the Southeast Asian region,
the air quality in Malaysia is generally within the rec-
ommended level or guideline, except for certain times
188 MB Awang et al.

Table 3 Malaysia: The status of air quality, 1996

Per cent of the time hourly measurements Number (%) of places affected by
exceeding government guideline PM10 SO2 O3 CO NO2

0.01–0.1 7.7% (1) 7.7% (1)

0.11–1.0 7.7% (1) 15.4% (2)
1.10–10.0 7.7% (1)
10.1–20.0 9.1% (1)
20.1–30.0
30.1–40.0
40.1–100.0
Total number of places
Affected 2 2 3 0 1
Not affected 11 9 10 13 12
Total number of places monitored (CAQMS) 13 11 13 13 13

Table 4 Malaysia: The status of air quality, 1997

Per cent of the time hourly measurements Number (%) of places affected by
exceeding government guideline PM10 SO2 O3 CO NO2

0.01–0.1 4.5% (1) 23.8% (1) 4.0%

0.11–1.0 10.3% (3) 9.1% (2) 14.3% (3) 4.8% (1)
1.10–10.0 79.3% (23) 4.5% (1) 4.8% (1)
10.1–20.0 6.9% (2) 4.5% (1)
20.1–30.0
30.1–40.0
40.1–100.0
Total number of places
Affected 28 5 9 1 1
Not affected 1 17 12 20 24
Total number of places monitored (CAQMS) 29 22 21 21 25

Table 5 Malaysia: The status of air quality, 1998 (as at 31 August)

Per cent of the time hourly measurements Number (%) of places affected by
exceeding government guideline PM10 SO2 O3 CO NO2

0.01–0.1 6.3% (2) 20.8% (5) 3.6% (1)

0.11–1.0 12.5% (4) 4.0% (1) 20.8% (5)
1.10–10.0 12.5% (4) 16.0% (4) 8.3% (1)
10.1–20.0 3.1% (1)
20.1–30.0
30.1–40.0
40.1–100.0
Total number of places
Affected 12 5 12 0 1
Not affected 20 20 12 24 27
Total number of places monitored (CAQMS) 32 25 24 24 28

of the year and at very few industrial sites or at certain
places within the highly urbanized area, namely the
Klang Valley in the state of Selangor, as well as Federal
Territory and capital city of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur.
Tables 3, 4 and 5 summarize the status of air quality
in Malaysia for 1996, 1997 and 1998 (as at 31 August
1998), respectively. The maximum API recorded for
the same period are presented in Fig. 2. In 1996, only
two out of 13 places monitored were affected by dust,
in terms of particulate matter less than 10 micron in
size (PM10), but only for 0.2% or less of the time. For
99.8% of the time, the air was considered ‘clean’. Also,
only two sites were affected by SO2 largely due to the
heavy dependency on high sulfur fuel for industrial
production and electric-power generation; however,
only one, at a heavy industrial site, was found to have
Air quality in Malaysia
Figure 2 Air pollution index
(API) of selected cities in
Malaysia (1995–1998).
a significant level of SO2 about 17% of the time. Fur-
thermore, two sites were badly affected by ozone (O3)
for 0.4 and 0.2% of the time, because of its geographi-
cal peculiarity being at the back of highly urbanized
valleys, namely Klang and Nilai. At another site,
although not affected by O3, it had to carry the burden
of nitrogen dioxide (NO2), but only less than 10% of
the time.
In 1997, the generally good quality air prevailing
throughout the country had been adversely affected
largely by the forest and peat fires in the region.11,15,16
All 29 (CAQMS) stations, except the latest one in Miri,
Sarawak which came into operation only in October
1997 onwards, had recorded hourly measurements of
PM10 exceeding the MAQG, 150 mg/m3, up to 15% of
the time for the year or about 1300 total number
of hours recorded in Kuala Lumpur, and two other
most affected places were Klang (12%), and Gombak
(10%). In Kuching, although the measurements
exceeding the acceptable level were less than those
places in Klang valley (about 8%), it registered the
highest API ever recorded in Malaysia which was
839 over 24 h average on 23 September 1997. The
maximum API values registered at other places in the
country were less than 460 in API, as shown in Fig. 2.
At least five of the 22 places monitored for sulfur
dioxide were burdened not only by the dust and the
minute particulate hanging over the lower atmos-
phere but also adversely affected by this contami-
189
nant, up to 16% of the time at the Prai Industrial
Estate in Pulau Pinang; four other affected were Pasir
Gudang, Johor (2%), Kajang, Selangor (0.4%), Johor
Bharu, Johor (0.2%), and Shah Alam, Selangor (0.1%).
During the haze episode, the authorities, either
public or the private sector, were concerned over the
synergistic effects of pollutants; particulate plus SO2
could be fatal, as experienced in the London smog of
early December 1952, with 4000 deaths (see Fig. 3),
where the concentrations of sulfur dioxide exceeded
0.10 p.p.m. and reached almost 0.75 p.p.m.12 Fortu-
nately, such an episode did not develop in Malaysia.
The formation of ozone (O3), a secondary pollutant
did affect particularly those places within highly
urbanized valleys, namely Selayang, Gombak (1.3%),
Kajang (0.7%), Shah Alam (0.6%), Kuala Lumpur
(0.2%), Klang (0.1%) as well as Johor Bharu (0.1%),
Ipoh (0.01%) and Pasir Gudang (0.01%). In Kuala
Lumpur, but not the other places, the measurements
of CO and NO2 exceeded the acceptable levels for 0.2
and 0.01% of the time, respectively. These were due to
motor vehicle emissions. As the effects of El Nino
ceased to prevail, the overall conditions did improve
in 1998, except at some places during the early parts
of the year, due to local peat-forest fires in Miri,
Sarawak (30% of the time, the measurements of
PM10 exceeded the acceptable concentrations of
150 mg/m3), Kota Kinabalu (0.4%), Sibu (0.3%),
Seberang Jaya (0.3%), Gombak (0.3%), Pengkalan
190
Chepa (0.1%) and Kota Bahru (0.02%), as shown in
Table 6. Other places, although not adversely affected
by the particulate, continued to register SO2 mea-
surements exceeding the acceptable level of
0.04 p.p.m. for 24 h, namely, Prai Industrial Estate
(5.1%), Prai Seberang Jaya (3.1%), Johor Bahru
(2.35%), Pasir Gudang (2.0%) and Nilai (0.2%); all in
percentage of total monitored time.
The absence of haze in 1998 with improved visibil-
ity and thus more sunshine were also the triggering
conditions for greater frequencies of formation of
photochemical oxidants, namely ozone at the back of
highly urbanized river valleys. As expected, 50% of the
places monitored for ozone were adversely affected:
Shah Alam up to 1.8% of the time, Gombak 1.1%,
Kajang 0.7%, Klang 0.4%, Kuala Lumpur 0.4%, Nilai
0.2%, Bukit Rambai 0.2%, Johor Bahru 0.1%, Pasir
Gudang 0.1%, Jerantut 0.03% as well as Prai Seberang
Jaya 0.02% and Kuantan 0.02%. As at 31 August 1998,
only in Kuala Lumpur did the measurements of NO2
exceed the acceptable level of 0.17 p.p.m. (over 1 h
averaging time) for 0.1% of the time. As drawn from
the annual status of air quality (Tables 3–5; Fig. 4),
the most serious form of localized air pollution
was the formation of ozone (O3). In the order of
decreasing degrees of seriousness were the other pol-
lutants: SO2, PM10, CO, and NO2.
IMPACT OF HAZE ON HUMAN HEALTH
The major air contaminant during the 1997 haze in
Malaysia was suspended particles, while gaseous pol-
lutants were not significantly different compared with
normal days (Table 4). During the period, PM10 con-
centration rose beyond the MAQG (1989) level in
almost all areas monitored. It increased fourfold
higher in Klang Valley, and up to 20-fold in Kuching.
In parallel to the scenario, Hospital Kuala Lumpur
recorded an increase in cases of upper respiratory
tract infections, asthma and conjunctivitis; three dis-
eases directly affected by the haze. The increase in
asthma cases was found to have a 2 day lag behind
MB Awang et al.
Figure 3 Daily concentrations
of smoke and sulphur dioxide,
together with mortality rates in
the London smog of December
1952.
the Malaysian API as reported by the Ministry of
Health Malaysia in 1998. However, no change was
observed for mortality cases.
For respiratory diseases, Selangor recorded a sig-
nificant increase in the total number of cases during
the September haze (Fig. 5). Asthma cases increased
from only 912 in June 1997 to more than 5000 in
September. The total number of acute respiratory
infections cases increased from about 6000 to more
than 30 000 during the same period. However, the
number of cases gradually decreased towards the
June value as the concentration of PM10 began to
decrease after September. In Kuching, Sarawak, a sig-
nificant increase in the number of these cases was
also observed due to extreme API readings during
the last half of September 1997 (Fig. 6). However,
when the air quality was almost back to the values of
non-haze period in October, the number of cases
returned to normal. The trend indicated that short-
term exposure to high levels of PM10 was detrimental
to human health. However, the effect was apparently
reversible. In addition, no increase in mortality was
reported during the period.
Apart from respiratory diseases there was also
a significant increase in conjunctivitis during the
haze period. In Selangor, the total number of cases
increased from only 207 cases in June 1997 to as high
as 3496 cases in October 1997. The same trend was
also observed in Sarawak. In addition, the daily inci-
dence of conjunctivitis in Sarawak during September
was found to have a positive correlation with the API
(representing PM10 concentration).
The data suggest that the adverse effect of haze on
human health could be attributed to the elevated
PM10 levels in the ambient air and not likely to be
due to other pollutants. Despite the reversibility of
the acute effects observed, we believe that exposure
to haze might also lead to long-term effects on the
community. This calls for more vigorous long-term
studies.
Besides the health data, a spirometry study done
on 16-year-old schoolchildren in Kuala Lumpur also
revealed that long-term exposure to a relatively
 Air quality in Malaysia
Table 6 Malaysia: Status of air quality, 1998 (as at 31 August)

Station Start Date Location PM10 SO2 O3 CO NO2

Limit % Time Limit % Time Limit % Time Limit % Time Limit % Time
exceeded exceeded exceeded exceeded exceeded exceeded exceeded exceeded exceeded exceeded
(h)* (h)* (h)* (h)* (h)*

CA0001 October 95 Pasir Gudang, Johor 0 117 2.0% 3 0.1% 0 0

CA0002 January 86 Terengganu, Kemaman 0 0 0 0 0
CA0003 January 96 Perai, Penang 0 298 5.1% 0 0 0
CA0004 March 96 Medical Store, Kuching 0 0 0 0 0
CA0005 April 96 Gombak, Selayang, Selangor 15 0.3% 0 63 1.1% 0 0
CA0006 April 96 Melaka 0 0 14 0.2% 0 0
CA0007 July 96 Jerantut, Pahang 0 0 2 0.03% 0 0
CA0008 July 96 Ipoh, Perak 0 0 0 0 0
CA0009 September 96 Prai, Penang 20 0.3% 179 3.1% 1 0.02% 0 0
CA0010 October 96 Nilai, Negeri Sembilan 0 14 0.2% 13 0.2% 0 0
CA0011 December 96 Kelang, Selangor 104 1.8% 0 24 0.4% 0 0
CA0012 December 96 Kuala Lumpur 22 0.4% NM 22 0.4% 0 3 0.1%
CA0013 December 96 Ipoh, Perak 0 NM 0 0 0
CA0014 January 97 Kuantan, Pahang 0 0 1 0.02% 0 0
CA0015 January 97 Kuantan, Pahang 201 3.4% 0 NM NM 0
CA0016 December 96 Petaling Jaya 0 0 NM NM 0
CA0017 January 97 Sg. Petani, Kedah 0 0 0 0 0
CA0018 January 97 Butterworth, Penang 0 NM 0 0 0
CA0019 January 97 Johor Bahru, Johor 0 132 2.3% 4 0.1% 0 0
CA0020 January 97 Taiping, Perak 0 0 0 0 0
CA0021 January 97 Pengkalan Chepa, Kelantan 8 0.1% 0 NM NM 0
CA0022 January 97 Sultan Ismail College, Kota Bahru 2 0.02% 0 0 0 0
CA0023 January 97 Country Height, Kajang 0 0 39 0.7% 0 0
CA0024 January 97 Industrial Area, Paka, Terengganu 235 4.0% 0 NM NM 0
CA0025 January 97 Shah Alam, Selangor 0 0 107 1.8% 0 0
CA0026 October 97 Sibu, Sarawak 20 0.3% NM NM NM NM
CA0027 October 97 Bintulu, Sarawak 166 2.8% NM NM NM NM
CA0028 October 97 Miri, Sarawak 1774 30.4% NM NM NM NM
CA0029 October 97 Sarawak 0 NM NM NM NM
CA0030 March 98 Sabah, kota Kinabalu 650 14.5% 0 0 0 0
CA0031 March 98 Sarawak, Limbang 0 NM NM NM NM
CA0032 August 98 Kedah, Langkawi 0 0 0 0 0

NM, No equipment installed to measure the pollutant; —, the station has not yet been set up.
*, Number of hourly measurements exceeding Government Recommended Level.

191
192
higher PM10 concentration led to decreased lung
functions and increased prevalence of respiratory
symptoms. The schoolchildren in Kuala Lumpur
were naturally exposed to 103.27 mg/m3 ambient
PM10, while the control group (matched for age,
gender, height, weight and smoking habits) was natu-
rally exposed to only 47.35 mg/m3 PM10. A significant
reduction in spirometry parameters such as the vital
capacity (VC), forced vital capacity (FVC) and forced
expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1) was observed in the
Kuala Lumpur schoolchildren.
A higher prevalence of respiratory symptoms was
observed in the Kuala Lumpur population; the most
commonly reported symptoms were chest tightness,
followed by breathing difficulties, morning phlegm
and coughs. In both groups, females were found to be
more susceptible to the exposure, showing a higher
percentage in the prevalence of the respiratory symp-
toms. Therefore, we conclude that prolonged expo-
sure to a relatively high concentration of PM10 (even
though below the set safety limit) is associated with
MB Awang et al.
Figure 4 The status of air quality and its
annual trend in Malaysia (1996–1998).
reduced lung function and increased respiratory
symptoms in schoolchildren.
There is ample evidence that the most susceptible
groups to exposure to air pollutants are the elderly
and very young children, while youngsters are among
the most resistant. However, the present study clearly
indicates adverse effects of the exposure on the 16
year olds (the most resistant age group).
In addition, a preliminary survey carried out
among secondary schoolchildren in Kuala Lumpur
and Klang revealed that less than 50% of these school-
children sought medical treatment each time they
fell sick. Therefore, the total number of respiratory
cases reported in the clinical health data had actually
underscored the exact degree of adverse effects
caused by the haze on our community. However,
despite this bias, we still observed significant
increases in haze-related diseases.
Although analysis of the health and spirometry
data revealed that short-term exposure to very
high PM10 led to increased cases of related diseases,
Air quality in Malaysia
Figure 5 Cases of respiratory
diseases in Selangor
(June–December 1997).
the effect was apparently reversible. Nevertheless,
prolonged exposure to PM10 even below the MAQG
could reduce the lung function and increased the
prevalence of respiratory symptoms. Therefore, we
conclude that the concentration of PM10 and the
period of exposure might determine the nature of the
adverse effect that it might cause to humans.
MANAGEMENT
Continuous air quality monitoring network and
value added data
Under the privatization program of the government
of Malaysia, a network of 50 CAQM is being built and
has been established for its first 5-year period
(1995–2000). It will be operated and owned by ASMA
for a 20-year period (1995–2015). As of 30 September
193
1998, 37 CAQMS have been commissioned and are
effectively in operation.
The main rationale of the privatized monitoring
network is cost saving. For the same volume and
quality of data, the Government of Malaysia would
save at least 85% of the annual cost of operations, as
the average cost per unit data is to be reduced from
RM40 to RM6. Furthermore, the DOE receives the
data through electronic means, on-line, 24 h a day for
at least 85% of the time in a month. Subject to DOE
concurrence, such data are also accessible to other
environment-related authorities, researchers, and
concerned private citizens, especially those whose
health may be sensitive to air pollution. Once the
network is fully established and stabilized, the Gov-
ernment of Malaysia would share on an equal basis
any net proceeds generated from the value added to
the data and, as such, the DOE may eventually receive
the data virtually for ‘free’.
194
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
The data, other than to help establish the status of
air quality in Malaysia, are invaluable to both the reg-
ulator, in particular the DOE, and the industry at
large. To the DOE, any regulatory action has its scien-
tific basis, and should not be construed as an exercise
of ‘whim and fancy’. To the industry, and other pol-
luting sectors of the economy, the same credible
and timely data should provide the early signal for
MB Awang et al.
Figure 6 Cases of respiratory
diseases in Sarawak during
September 1997.
self-regulation as promoted by the Government of
Malaysia as part of the 1998 Budget strategy for the
environment. Other than relying on stricter enforce-
ment, the private sector can also play an important
role in promoting new mechanisms for protecting the
environment. One that offers considerable promise
is a series of environmental management standards,
known as ISO 14000, being developed and introduced
Air quality in Malaysia
under the auspices of the International Organization
for Standardization in Geneva. The adoption and
implementation of such a standard where there is a
clear and positive stake in participating, hold more
promise for change than the traditional top-down
political approaches we have seen.
POSSIBLE SOURCES OF
MAJOR AIR POLLUTION
Based on the above assessment, it could easily be
deduced that the emissions of unburnt hydrocarbons
from motor vehicles and other oil and gas works were
the most serious source of air pollution in Malaysia.
Equally serious were the emissions of SO2 due to high-
sulfur fuel dependency for industrial production
and electric power generation, as found in Prai, Pasir
Gudang, Johor Bahru, and the Klang Valley. Other
than generated from the biomass burning within the
country or beyond national boundaries, much of
the dust and fine particulate was contributed by the
inefficiency of diesel-powered vehicles, on and off the
road.
FUTURE CHALLENGE
This present study provides a rapid assessment on the
quality of the ambient air in Malaysia and its impact
on human health based on the continuous air quality
data collected by DOE and ASMA for the period
1996–98 and also independent studies conducted by
the Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) between 1984
and 1998 through Intensified Research Priority Area
(IRPA) Grant, Ministry of Science, Technology and the
Environment Malaysia. Both types of air pollution,
their sources, and the affected areas have hereby been
established, for all concerned and responsible, to
ensure that ‘our atmosphere is clear from haze, and
our air is clean’, and to take complementary steps;
stricter enforcement by all regulatory bodies, and
‘self-regulation’ by major polluting activities. The
expected nature and extent of response, spatially and
temporally, from various sectors of the economy can
be easily guided by the on-line availability of air
quality data against the MAQG as acceptable limits of
air pollution. Such a response would help all con-
cerned realize the most economical and equitable
basis of ‘self-regulation’ and common but differ-
entiated responsibility towards ensuring our clean
air.
The annual trends are not that encouraging.
However, these trends can be reversed through
numerous efforts; environmental awareness will have
to be increased, open burning will have to stop; the
responsibility to ensure that our air is clean rests with
one and all; greater provisions of public rather than
private transportation by polluting motor vehicles;
using less sulfur fuel and more gas; using natural gas
for vehicles and not diesel; saving electricity and
power; planning holiday breaks and school holidays
during the month of September; help promoting the
use of public transport systems.
195
In addition, vigorous research and development
efforts should be geared towards establishing long-
term effects of air pollution despite its apparent
reversible acute impact on human health and also
on the long-term implications of tropical rainforest
ecosystem in the region,13 particularly on light-
demanding species.
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