Architectural Teaching Resource

STUDIO GUIDE
Second Edition

c/PLEX Building:
Alsop Architects Ltd
FOREWORD
This Studio Guide, which is also available in an
electronic format, provides an overview of
common structural steelwork solutions and
complements the British Steel Architectural
Teaching Programme distributed to all Schools of
Architecture in the UK in 1996.
The Architectural Teaching Programme
comprises 36 lectures, over 1000 slides, videos
and computer programmes, and provides a
comprehensive review of the architectural
aspects of structural steelwork.
It is intended as an educational resource for
architectural and engineering students and is a
simple reference for use in practice.
General structural design information is
presented in good faith, but is intended only as a
guide for student projects. Full structural
calculations should be used in relation to
building projects.
The Studio Guide was written by Professor
Raymond Ogden (SCI Professor in Architectural
Technology at Oxford Brookes University), with
contributions from Professor Roger Plank of
Sheffield University, and Dr Mark Lawson and
James Atree of the SCI.
Front Cover:
c/PLEX, West Bromwich
c/PLEX represents a radical gesture for community
architecture, born from the conviction that architecture can be a
catalyst for regeneration and renewal. The client, Jubilee Arts,
has long being a champion of the cause – using arts as a source
of community renewal and social and economic regeneration.
The cover picture shows the ‘Sock’, a large sculptural element
within the external envelope of the building. The ‘Sock’
contains three floor levels, which are linked by a snaking ramp.
The ‘Sock’ has a structural steel frame with composite concrete
floors constructed using steel decking.
Scheduled for completion in 2005, c/PLEX represents both a
starting point and an opportunity for the people of West
Bromwich, improving the town’s eroded sense of identity.
ISBN 1 85942 138 5
Publication Number SCI P167
© The Steel Construction Institute 2003
The Steel Construction Institute is an independent,
membership based organisation which was founded in
1986 to develop and promote the effective use of steel in
construction. Having developed a highly valued
framework for engineers, it is now involved in a number
of research programmes focused on architectural issues
including environmental projects.
For membership details (including student membership)
and further information on publications and courses,
please contact the Membership Manager.
The Steel Construction Institute
Silwood Park
Ascot
Berkshire
SL5 7QN
Tel +44 (0) 1344 623345
Fax +44 (0) 1344 622944
E-mail reception@steel-sci.com
www.steel-sci.org
www.steelbiz.org – the 24 x 7 online technical
information system for steel design and construction.
Corus Construction Centre
Corus Construction Centre is an information source for
designers and users of steel in the construction business.
It provides a fast, efficient, ‘one-stop’ technical support
service across all construction and construction-related
products and applications. It can be contacted on a
single hotline number, 01724 40 50 60.
Corus Construction Centre
PO Box 1
Scunthorpe
North Lincolnshire
DN16 1BP
Tel +44 (0) 1724 405060
Fax +44 (0) 1724 404224
E-mail corusconstruction@corusgroup.com
Website www.corusconstruction.com
Although care has been taken to ensure, to the best of our
knowledge, that all data and information contained herein are
accurate to the extent that they relate to either matters of fact or
accepted practice or matters of opinion at the time of
publication, The Steel Construction Institute, the authors and
the reviewers assume no responsibility for any errors or
misinterpretations of such data and/or information or any loss
or damage arising from or related to their use.
 CONTENTS

1 PRODUCTS
Hot rolled steel sections 4
Light steel sections (cold formed sections) 5
Fabricated light steel lattice trusses 5
Fabricated beams 5
Light steel cladding 6
Light steel decking 6

2 FRAMING SCHEMATICS
Composite beam 7
Lowry Centre, Manchester
Slimdek® 8
Portal frame 9
Trusses 10
Space frames 10
Long span structures 11
Light steel frames 12
Modular construction 13

3 CONNECTIONS
Fin plate beam-to-column 14
End plate beam-to-column 14
Haunched beam-to-column 14
Alsop Architects Ltd

Nicolas Grimshaw

End plate beam-to-beam 15

Pinned tube connection 15
Column base connection 15
Peckham Library National Space Centre Quicon™ connection 16
Steel to concrete 16

4 CLADDING SYSTEMS
Strongback system 17
Integral panels 18
Stick system 19
Brick 20
Light steel cladding 21
Wilkinson Eyre (Nick Wood)

Bolted glazing system 22

5 FIRE PROTECTION 23

Gateshead Millennium Bridge

6 FURTHER READING 24

STUDIO GUIDE 1
INTRODUCTION
Steel is synonymous with modern architecture.
Throughout the twentieth century the material has
inspired architects and engineers, for it combines
strength and efficiency with unparalleled opportunities
for sculptural expression. Today, in an era of
architectural pluralism, and of engineering innovation,
steel plays a central role in many of the most
sophisticated and accomplished examples of modern
building design. Partly this is due to the strides that
have been made in metallurgy, structural analysis,
fabrication and construction; but perhaps more
fundamentally it is testament to the continuing
commitment and fascination of architects and engineers
with a material that offers outstanding design
opportunities.
The key attribute of steel is its high strength to weight
ratio, which gives remarkable spanning and load
carrying ability. Steel lends itself to prefabrication. Whole
structures can be created in a factory environment and
then constructed quickly on site. Steel buildings are
highly adaptable, in that frames can be modified and
altered. Costs are low, recycling simple and aesthetic
opportunities rich and varied. As designers, fabricators
and constructors continually advance the boundaries of
steel design, both technically and expressively, the role
as a core part of modern architecture seems assured.
Steel is basically iron and carbon, but its properties can
be enhanced and modified by the addition of other
alloying elements and by the manufacturing process.
The material is then made into sections, plate, or sheet,
Steel Arch, Lehrter Bahnhof, Berlin
2 STUDIO GUIDE
and these simple products used to produce structures
and building components.
Standard approaches have evolved for many types of
structure, the most common of which are described in
the following Sections. They are not constraining
however. Departures from norms are commonplace, for
steel lends itself to creative solutions. Modern
architecture is rich with solutions that defy simple
categorisation.
The most widely used structural frames rely on hot
rolled steel sections; the material has been heated and
passed as a billet through heavy rollers that gradually
reduce the cross-section whilst at the same time
increasing length; the material flows to the required
shape. Simple wide span column and beam frames
where the structural members are arranged in a three
dimensional matrix like the solutions on pages 8, and
portal frames such as that on page 9 are mainly based on
these sections.
For larger spans, hot rolled sections and plate can be
fabricated to form particularly deep beams or other
structural members such as those shown on page 11, and
the same technique can be used for geometrically
complex members such as the roof beams on the Renault
Centre or the steel arch of Lehrter Bahnhof. Standard
sections can also be curved after manufacture using
heavy bending equipment, or be converted to perforated
web profiles using a variety of approaches, some of
which split the beam into two and then reweld it so that
its depth and spanning ability is much increased.
Von Gerkan Mary Architects
Lighter steel sections can be formed by bending sheet
steel to C or Z sections. Normally this is done using
either a press or folding machine for special sections, or
a cold rolling line for standard sections. Cold formed
light steel sections generally have greater structural
capacity than equivalent timber sections, with common
structural profiles ranging from around 75 to 500 mm
deep. These are particularly suitable for close centre
frames such as wall and floor panels, roof purlins that
support cladding, light portal frames, beams and
columns (where spans and loads permit), and for lightly
loaded and non-structural applications such as support
to internal walls and partitions. Increasingly, these
sections are being used for whole buildings such as
houses, apartments, hotels and offices (page 12), and for
modular buildings (page 13). Profiled cladding, floor
decks and similar products are also produced by cold Curved beams at Helsinki Airport
rolling.
Steel members can be joined using a wide variety of
techniques including welding and bolting (Page 14),
and connection design is an important part of any
structural system. Connection arrangements can be
highly standardised like the structures of which they are
part (pages 15 and 16) or unique such as the mast
connection for the Commonwealth Games Stadium
(page 3). Often in expressed steelwork, connections
become important architectural elements in their own
right.
This publication provides a simple overview of some of
the basic constructional and structural concepts on
which most buildings are founded, and also includes
selected aspects of associated technologies such as
cladding and fire protection.
The accompanying CD, aimed at architectural students,

Yorkon
contains a concise structures course that can further
inform the selection and development of structural Murray Grove (front elevation)
solutions.
Arup Associates

Renault Building Mast connection, Commonwealth Games Stadium, Manchester

STUDIO GUIDE 3
 1 PRODUCTS

Hot rolled steel sections

Section Product Corus size range (mm)* Typical Uses

Universal Beams 1016 x 305 457 x 191 254 x 146 Beams

(UB) 914 x 419 457 x 152 254 x 102
914 x 305 406 x 178 203 x 133
838 x 292 406 x 140 203 x 102
762 x 267 356 x 171 178 x 102
686 x 284 356 x 127 152 x 89
610 x 305 305 x 165 127 x 76
610 x 229 305 x 127
533 x 210 305 x 102

Universal Columns 356 x 406 305 x 305 203 x 203 Columns

(UC) 356 x 368 254 x 254 152 x 152

Parallel Flange Channels 430 x 100 260 x 75 180 x 90 Channels

(PFC) 380 x 100 230 x 90 180 x 75 Edge beams
300 x 100 230 x 75 150 x 90 Secondary steelwork
300 x 90 200 x 90 150 x 75
260 x 90 200 x 75 125 x 65
100 x 50

Equal angles 200 x 200 120 x 120 90 x 90 Truss members

150 x 150 100 x 100 Bracing ties
Secondary steelwork

Unequal angles 200 x 150 150 x 75 100 x 65 Truss members

200 x 100 125 x 75 Bracing ties
150 x 90 100 x 75 Secondary steelwork

Square Hollow Sections 400 x 400 160 x 160 80 x 80 Columns

350 x 350 150 x 150 70 x 70 Trusses
300 x 300 140 x 140 60 x 60
250 x 250 120 x 120 50 x 50 Members subject
200 x 200 100 x 100 40 x 40 to torsion
180 x 180 90 x 90

Rectangular Hollow Sections 500 x 300 200 x 150 100 x 60 Columns

(RHS) 450 x 250 200 x 120 100 x 50 Beams
400 x 200 200 x 100 90 x 50 Trusses
300 x 200 160 x 80 80 x 40
300 x 100 150 x 100 60 x 40 Members subject
250 x 150 120 x 80 50 x 30 to torsion
250 x 100 120 x 60

Circular Hollow Sections 508 193.7 42.4 Columns

(CHS) 457 168.3 26.9 Trusses
406.4 139.7
355.6 114.3 Members subject
323.9 88.9 to torsion
273 76.1
244.5 60.3
219.1 48.3

Most of these sections are available in a range of cross-sectional thicknesses (usually termed weights). Refer to Corus section tables.
Structural Hollow Sections are also formed by cold rolling. These sections are not interchangeable with hot rolled Structural Hollow Sections as the
section properties are different.

Asymmetric Beams 300 ASB (FE) 249 280 ASB (FE) 136 Slimdek® Floor Beams
ASB 300 ASB 196 280 ASB 124
300 ASB (FE) 185 280 ASB 105
300 ASB 155 280 ASB (FE) 100
300 ASB (FE) 153 280 ASB 74

Section designated (FE) can achieve 60 minutes fire resistance without fire protection. Slimdek® is a trade mark of Corus.

4 STUDIO GUIDE
 P RO D U C TS 1

Light steel sections (cold formed sections)

Section Product Common UK Size Range* Typical Uses

C Section 75 to 300 mm deep Lipped

Structural frames
Joists
Studs
Columns
Unlipped
Connecting members in panels

Sigma 130 to 265 mm deep Sheeting rails

Purlins
Studs
Joists

Zed 140 to 300 mm deep Purlins

Sheeting Rails

* Cold-formed sections are manufactured by many different companies and size ranges vary. For actual sizes refer to manufacturers’
information. Summary information on sizes of channel sections is contained in Building Design using Cold Formed Steel Sections:
An Architect’s Guide, published by The Steel Construction Institute. These sections are typically 1.2 to 3.2 mm thick and are galvanised.

Fabricated light steel lattice trusses

Section Product Type size range* Typical uses

Lattice Trusses 220 to 3000 mm deep Floor beams

Roof trusses
- curved
- pitched
- parallel chord

Fabricated beams
Section Product Type size range*

Cellular beam 457 to 915 mm deep

1.5 times the depth of the section from which the two
halves of the beam are cut.

Castellated beam 457 to 915 mm deep

1.5 times the depth of the section from which the two
halves of the beam are cut.

Plate girder Bridge construction, often more than 1m deep (usually

without openings)
Tapered sections and sections with openings can be used
in buildings 400 to 1000 mm deep

* Fabricated structural sections are manufactured by many different companies and size ranges vary.
For actual sizes refer to manufacturers’ information.

STUDIO GUIDE 5
1 P RO D U C TS

Light steel cladding

Profile Product Typical proportions*

Profiled Cladding Used in roofs and walls

Depth 30 to 60 mm
Width 900 to 1200 mm

Liner Sheets Used in built-up roofs with sheeting above

Depth 10 to 30 mm
Width 900 to 1200 mm

Composite Panels Double skin panels with flat, ribbed or

profiled external sheets. Various other materials
may be used to provide the required insulation
and strength characteristics
Typical thicknesses 35 to 100 mm

Standing Seam Roofing Permits relative movement of two roof panels

Depth 50 to 75 mm
Width 300 to 600 mm

Structural Liner Trays Used to span between rafters with roof sheeting over
Depth 80 mm
Width 500 mm

*Cladding profiles are manufactured by many different companies and size ranges vary. For actual sizes refer to manufacturers information.

Light steel decking (used for composite slabs)

Profile Product Typical proportions*

Re-entrant Depth 51 mm
Distance between dovetail centres 152 mm

Trapezoid Depth 46 to 80 mm
Distance between trough centres 225 to 300 mm

Deep Decking Depth 225 mm

Distance between trough centres 600 mm

*Decking profiles are manufactured by many different companies and size ranges vary. For actual sizes refer to manufacturers information.

6 STUDIO GUIDE
 F R A M I N G S C H E M AT I C S
2 FRAMING SCHEMATICS 2

Composite beam
Approximate structural sizing Columns
Primary and secondary beams in
PRIMARY BEAMS
composite steel frames are rigidly FLOORS UC RHS
Maximum span 15 m
connected to the floor slab using 1 152 x 152 150 x 150
shear studs. This allows the floor Floor beam depth Span/20
2-4 203 x 203 200 x 200
slab, and the beams beneath, to act Roof beam depth Span/25
5-8 254 x 254 250 x 250
compositely. Beam depths are 9-12 305 x 305 300 x 300
therefore less than in equivalent SECONDARY BEAMS
13-40 356 x 406 400 x 400
non-composite frames. Maximum span 12 m
Floor slabs generally comprise Floor beam depth Span/25
profiled steel floor deck with in-situ Roof beam depth Span/30
concrete cast over the deck. Composite slab spans up to 3.6 m
The deck acts as permanent
shuttering and spans in a direction
transverse to the secondary beams.

KEY
1 Composite slab
(a) concrete
(b) steel deck
(c) reinforcement
2 Primary beam
3 Secondary beam
4 Shear studs 1b
5 Column

1a 4 3

2
1c

1a 1a

1c 1c
4
4
1b 1b

2 2 or 3

View perpendicular to span of floor deck View parallel to span of floor deck

STUDIO GUIDE 7
2 F R A M I N G S C H E M AT I C S

Slimdek®
Slimdek® comprises an ASB steel Asymmetric beams (ASB) are hot Approximate structural sizing
section contained within the depth rolled sections where the bottom PRIMARY BEAMS
of the slab. It supports deep profiled flange is wider than the top flange. Maximum span 9m
floor decking. Ties run Spans of up to 9 m are possible. Beam depth Span/30
perpendicular to the beams. Some ASB sections have been
proportioned so that they can Composite slab spans up to 9 m
The major advantage of Slimdek® achieve up to 60 minutes fire
construction is that the beams are Columns
resistance without applied fire
contained within the floor depth. FLOORS UC SHS
protection.
This reduces the overall height of 1 152 x 152 150 x 150
the floor structure, and can improve 2-4 203 x 203 200 x 200
service integration. 5-8 254 x 254 250 x 250
9-12 305 x 305 300 x 300

KEY
1 Floor slab
(a) Concrete
(b) Deep deck
(c) Reinforcement
2 ASB
3 Tie between frames
4 Column

1a

1c

1b

Detail
2
3
1a

1b
2

Slimdek® is a trademark of Corus.

8 STUDIO GUIDE
 F R A M I N G S C H E M AT I C S 2

Portal frame
Steel portal frames are capable of Approximate structural sizing PURLINS
spanning large distances. They are ROOF BEAMS (RAFTERS) Maximum span 4.5 – 7.5 m
used in the construction of factories Typical span 20-50 m Purlin depth Span/35
and warehouses, and other low-rise Beam depth Span/60
buildings that require wide spans.
Light steel rafters span up to 18 m LINER SHEETS
Wall and roof bracing is normally
Typical maximum span 3m
provided in selected bays, often at
the end of buildings. Additional COLUMNS Liner depth 20 mm
vertical column or beam sections Column depth 1.25 x roof beam
may be introduced at the gables Width as UB sections PROFILED CLADDING
(wind posts) to support cladding on Typical maximum span 3 m
end walls. Profile depth 35 – 40 m
Roof beams (rafters) and columns
are usually fabricated from hot
rolled steel sections, while purlins
and cladding rails are usually in
light steel sections. Liner trays may
be used as an alternative to cladding
rails.
Cladding materials include built-up
cladding systems (as shown),
composite cladding panels, and
masonry.
1
Typical light steel cladding
details are provided in Section 4.
Small single storey industrial
buildings can also be constructed
using light steel sections for the
columns and rafters

2
1
3
4

2 3
5
7a
KEY
1 Profiled cladding
2 Insulation
3 Liner sheet
4 Spacer
6
5 Purlin
6 Side rail
7 Portal frame
(a) roof beam
7b (b) column

STUDIO GUIDE 9
2 F R A M I N G S C H E M AT I C S
Trusses
Steel trusses are highly efficient
structural forms, able to span
considerable distances. They are
visually light and services can pass
through them.
Trusses may be fabricated from a
variety of steel sections including:
circular, square and rectangular
hollow sections, angles, flats, rods
and cold-formed profiles. Circular
hollow sections are often used for
exposed architectural steelwork,
and specialist machinery has been
developed to cut the complex
tube-to-tube connections that arise
at nodes where multiple tubes
intersect. Columns are generally
Universal Column sections (UCs),
or Square or Circular Hollow
Sections (RHS or CHS).
Trusses may have flat
cross-sections (one chord normally
above the other), triangular
cross-sections, or occasionally may
have rectangular cross-sections to
accommodate walkways or
building services.
KEY
1 Chord 2 Lattice 3 Column
Flat Truss
1
2
1
3 3
Pitched Truss 1
2
1
3 3
10 STUDIO GUIDE
The components (members) are
usually fully welded, however long
members can be fabricated in
several sections. Trusses are
normally connected to columns
using bolts. Where trusses are
connected to RHS or CHS sections
and it is not possible to install
conventional nuts onto the end of
bolts inside the section,
conventional bolts may be used in
specially threaded holes.
Alternatively, proprietary bolts may
be used that incorporate an
expanding sleeve.
Approximate structural sizing
ROOF BEAMS
Depth Span/15
Typical maximum length 60 m
FLOOR BEAMS
Depth Span/12
Typical maximum length 10 – 25 m
Curved roof, Berlin
Space frames
Space frames are essentially three
dimensional trusses able to span in
two directions. They may be flat for
use as roofs, walls or inclined walls,
or may be curved to form
continuous barrel type roof
geometries. Flat frames used as
roofs sometimes have slight
cambers to direct water to
appropriate roof outlets.
Space frames allow for easy service
distribution within their depth and
can provide light elegant structural
solutions.
SPACE FRAMES
Depth Span/40
Clear span 100 m
Frank Gehry
 F R A M I N G S C H E M AT I C S 2

Long span structures

These systems incorporate facility for integration of large building services.

Type:
Cellular beams
Perforations lighten sections and provide routes for
building services.
Usual maximum span 15 m
Beam depth Span/22

Haunched beams
Rigid connections reduce overall beam depth.
Usual maximum span 18 m
Beam depth Span/30

Fabricated beams
Fabricated beams are usually used where long spans
are required. The section is fabricated from three
plates welded together to form an I-section. It is
possible to design these sections with web openings
to allow for service integration.
Usual maximum span 15 m
Beam depth Span/20

Composite trusses
Trusses connected to floor slab using welded shear
studs. Trusses may use tee, angle or hollow sections.
Usual maximum span 30 m
Beam depth Span/15

Stub girders
Short beam sections are welded to the top of beams
and support the floor slab. Services may pass
through voids.
Usual maximum span 20 m
Beam depth Span/15

Tapered beams
Tapered sections provide service zone adjacent to
columns.
Usual maximum span 25 m
Beam depth Span/20

Alternative tapered beam profiles: The merit of each of the above systems depends on
span, cost, degree of service integration, future
adaptability etc.

STUDIO GUIDE 11
2 F R A M I N G S C H E M AT I C S

Light steel frames

Light steel construction uses
cold-formed steel channel sections
(C-sections) that are much thinner
(typically 1.6 to 3.2 mm thick) than
hot rolled sections. Light steel
sections are produced from
galvanized steel. Sections normally
range between 75 and 300 mm deep,
and are available from various
manufacturers.
Light steel frames normally combine
many different section sizes and
incorporate steel floor joists, beams,
columns, stud walls (load bearing)
and partitions (non-load bearing).
Connections are made using
self-drilling, self-tapping screws,
welds or bolts.The frame is
assembled on site, usually from a
series of panels.
Acoustic and fire resistance criteria
are important in separating walls
and floors. Floor beams may be
used in conjunction with composite
slabs. Open roof structures may be
created using attic type trusses or
purlins spanning between flank
walls.

KEY
1 Floor joist 2
2 Stud
3 Bracing
4 Curved rafter

Approximate structural sizing

FLOOR JOISTS (SINGLE C) BEAMS (DOUBLE C) COLUMNS
Maximum span 5m Maximum span 6m (DOUBLE C, 3-STOREY BUILDING)
Spacing 450 or 600 mm Beam depth Span/18 Spacing 4–6m
Joist depth Span/25 Thickness 2.4 – 3.2 mm Depth 150 – 250 mm
Thickness 1.6 – 2.4 mm Thickness 2.4 – 3.2 mm
STUDS (SINGLE C, 2 STOREY BUILDING)
Spacing 450 or 600 mm
Depth 75 – 100 mm
Thickness 1.6 – 2.4 mm

12 STUDIO GUIDE

Modular construction
Modular construction, sometimes
called volumetric construction,
allows buildings or substantial
parts of buildings, to be constructed
in a factory environment. Wall, floor
and ceiling frames can be
manufactured efficiently using light
steel sections. Wall frames typically
comprise vertical steel studs with
top and bottom tracks, and either
bracing or sheathing boards to
prevent racking. Floor and wall
cassettes comprise horizontal joists
connected together at both of their
ends with a channel or similar
section. Alternatively they may be
constructed in-situ from individual
members.
Two types of module are commonly
used: modules with columns that
transfer forces as point loads, and
modules with load bearing walls
that transfer vertical forces along
their length in a similar fashion to
conventional load bearing
construction.
The size of modules is usually
determined by transport and lifting
criteria. Hotel rooms, student study-
bedrooms and bathrooms are
normally built as single modules,
whilst larger spaces, such as
payment areas, shops at filling
stations and fast food restaurants
are generally constructed from
several open sided modules
installed side by side.
Murray Grove under construction
Murray Grove (rear elevation)
F R A M I N G S C H E M AT I C S 2
Other important applications of
modular construction include
prefabricated plant rooms and
toilets.
Structural sizes are similar to those
given for light steel frames in the
previous section.
Hybrid modular construction
involves the use of modules with
panels or conventionally
constructed building elements.
Houses, for example, may be
constructed with modules for those
areas that require complex
fitting-out such as kitchens,
bathrooms and staircases, whilst the
remaining areas (sometimes termed
baggy space) are constructed using
panels or built in-situ.
Yorkon
Yorkon
STUDIO GUIDE 13
 3 CONNECTIONS

Fin plate beam-to-column connection

Fin plate connections are fabricated by welding a single
plate to the column. Beams are normally attached using
two or more bolts. Where necessary, adjustment can be 1
provided using slotted holes (for instance horizontally
slotted holes in the web of the section attached to the fin 1
plate).
1 2
2
3 4

2 3

KEY
4
1 Fin Plate welded to column
2 Bolts
3
3 Column
4 Beam

End plate beam-to-column connection

Endplate connections have a single plate welded to the
end of the beam, which is bolted to the column using
two or more bolts arranged in pairs. 1
Where necessary, adjustment can be provided by slotted
holes and shims between the endplate and the section to 4
which is attached. 3
1
When connections are made to hollow section columns, 2
it is not possible to install conventional nuts onto the 4
ends of bolts inside the section. Specially threaded holes
using the ‘Flowdrill’* method or proprietary bolts that 3
incorporate an expanding sleeve may be used. 2

*’Flowdrill’ is a trademark of Flowdrill BV. 4 KEY

1 End plate welded to beam
3 2 Bolts
3 Column
4 Beam

Haunched beam-to-column connection

5
Haunched connections are used where there is a need to
achieve high moment transfer. The haunch locally 1
increases the effective depth of the section. Beams are
attached using multiple pairs of bolts through an
endplate. Little adjustment is possible. Haunched
2
connections are common in portal frames.
3 4
1

5 KEY
1 Haunched beam end
4 2 Bolts
3 Endplate
4 Column
5 Beam

14 STUDIO GUIDE
 CONNECTIONS 3

End plate beam-to-beam connection

The end plate beam-to-beam connection is similar to the
beam-to-column endplate connection. However because 3
the top flanges of the beams support floors or roof 3
structure directly, the top flange at the end of the
incoming beam has to be notched. An alternative detail
is to provide a projecting welded bracket or fin-plate on
the supporting beam. Adjustment is similar to the 4
beam-to-column detail.
KEY
1 2
1 End plate welded to
supported beam
2 Bolts
4
3 Supported beam
4 Supporting beam

Pinned tube connection

The ends of tubes can be profiled and welded, or can be 3
bolted using simple fin-plates. Single fin-plates may be 2
3
welded to each of the members or, where eccentricities
need to be minimised, a single finplate on one member 1
may be designed to locate between a pair of fin-plates on 1
the other (as shown). Attachment is normally made
using either bolts or pins.
1
KEY
1 Fin-plate
2 Bolt or pin
3 3 Tubular section
3

Column base connection

There are a variety of ways of connecting column 3
baseplates to concrete ground structures. One common
method involves casting bolts, via bolt pockets, into the
concrete. Bolts are able to move slightly within the 3
pockets to provide horizontal adjustment of the
baseplate before grouting the gaps around the bolts. 2
Vertical adjustment is by shims or packs inserted
between the baseplate and the top surface of the
concrete.
1

KEY
1
1 Bolt pockets cast in concrete
2 Base-plate
3 Column
Arup Associates

Mast base and pin, Commonwealth Games Stadium, Manchester

STUDIO GUIDE 15
3 CONNECTIONS

Quicon™ connection
The Quicon™ connection uses a special connector Beam to Beam
component that eliminates the need for onsite bolting. It KEY
can be used for beam to column or beam to beam 1 Tee piece 4
connections. The supporting member, either a beam or 2 Connector bolts
column, is fitted with a fabricated tee piece using 3 Special connectors 5
ordinary structural bolts. The tee piece is fabricated with 4 Supporting beam
key-hole shaped slots. The special connector is bolted to 5 Supported beam
3
the supported beam prior to erection.
2
Using this type of connection improves the speed of 1
erection, which results in reduced construction costs.
Safety on-site is also improved, as site operatives spend
less time aloft and do not need to carry equipment with
them.

Fabricated Tee Piece Special Connector Beam to Column

1 Tee piece
2 Connector bolts KEY
1 Tee piece
2 2 Connector bolts
1 4
3 Special connectors
4 Column 5
5 Supported beam
1 Keyhole slot 3
1 2 Special connector
2
2 1

8
Steel-to-concrete connection
Many building and refurbishment projects require
structural connections between steelwork and concrete KEY
construction. For example, a multi-storey building with 4 3 1 Steel beam
a steel frame may rely on a concrete core for stability; 5 2 Concrete wall
this requires fixings to be made between the steelwork 3 Bracket welded to beam
1 4 Reinforcement bracket clamp*
and the concrete.
5 Connecting rod
For new construction, connections are usually made 6 Shims on grout bed
7
using a steel bracket, which can be cast into the concrete 7 Shear connector*
element prior to erection of the steelwork. Care should 8 Local additional reinforcement
be taken to ensure that the connection can be made 6 *Option, do not omit both 4&7
quickly and safely during erection and sufficient
adjustment is provided to meet erection tolerances.
In refurbishment work, connections to existing concrete
structures can present particular difficulties. Post-drilled 2
expanding anchors or resin anchors are commonly used,
but these must be positioned so that they do not clash
with reinforcing bars. This may mean that slotted holes 4
are required in the fixing bracket or the fixing bracket
must be fabricated after suitable locations for the post
drill anchors are determining on site.
5

3
1
7

16 STUDIO GUIDE
 4 CLADDING SCHEMATICS

Strongback system
Strongback cladding systems have a sub-frame that
supports thin cladding panels. Units are normally
storey height and up to 6 – 9 m wide. They are fixed
either to the edge of the floor slab or to the floor edge
beams or to columns. The supporting frame is usually
constructed from either hot rolled or light steel
sections. Cladding materials include stone, coated steel
and stainless steel.
Panels are normally fixed to the building at four points
(two points at the top of the panel and two at the KEY
bottom). They may be either hung from the top 1 Strongback 4
connections or may bear on the bottom connections. 2 Cladding
Connections carrying the self-weight of the panel are 3 Connection to building
termed structural. Other connections act as wind a) Structural connection
restraints and prevent swaying, or overturning of the b) Wind restraint
4 Floor slab
panel, depending upon whether the panel is top hung
5 Edge beam
or bottom supported. Provision is made at the fixings
for building movements and tolerances.
Since panels can be relatively large, it is possible to clad
buildings rapidly by using storey-high units.

Detail (bottom supported panel)

1 2
1 2

3a

3a

3b

3b

STUDIO GUIDE 17
4 C L A D D I N G S C H E M AT I C S

Integral panels
Integral cladding panels are generally made from
concrete, and are able to support their own weight and
resist wind loads without additional framing. As a result
they tend to be heavier than strongback panels (typically
around 300kg/m2). Panels are normally storey height
and between 3 and 9 m wide.
They may be clad in other materials such as stone or
ceramic tiling. Panels may be top hung or bottom 2b
supported and, like strongback panels, are normally
2a
fixed to the building at four points (two points at the top
of the panel and two at the bottom). Panels typically
bear on the slab edge using ‘boots’ (projecting concrete
nibs) or bolted-on brackets.
Two structural connections are normally made at the
3
points of bearing, with two wind restraint connections at
the opposite edge (refer to strongback description for
KEY
definitions). Bolted on brackets take up less, space
1 Panel
which is particularly advantageous in buildings without 2 Connection to building
raised floors where boots can be difficult to a) Structural connection
accommodate. b) Wind restraint
3 Floor slab
4 Edge beam

Detail (top hung panel) 4

2a
1

2a
2b

3
2b

18 STUDIO GUIDE
 C L A D D I N G S C H E M AT I C S 4

Stick system
Stick cladding systems comprise a series of vertical
members (mullions) and horizontal members (transoms)
that form a grid. This grid is used to restrain either solid
panels or glass using rubber gaskets, and is normally
fixed to the floor edges by specially designed brackets, KEY
which provide wind restraint (refer strongback 1 Glazed panel
description for definitions). The self-weight of the 2 Mullion
cladding is normally taken to the ground through the 3 Transom
mullions. 4 Fixing bracket
5 Floor slab
Stick systems are amongst the lightest forms of cladding
6 Edge beam
(typically 50 kg/m2). Mullion spacings are normally in
the range 1.2 – 2 m, although wider spacings are
possible. Transom spacings are normally determined by
panel requirements and the architectural treatment of the
façade. 5
Stick systems can be ‘unitised’ whereby horizontal and
vertical members are prefabricated into units, which are
craned onto the façade. Special edge members have 1
been developed for these systems.

Detail (Top hung panel)

4
6
2

2
Rautaruukki Oyj

Kone Building

STUDIO GUIDE 19
4 C L A D D I N G S C H E M AT I C S

Brick
Multi-storey frames may be clad in brickwork or stone
using a range of proprietary systems based on specially
designed brackets and restraint devices.
The most common method of attaching brickwork to
steel frames is by the use of shelf angles fitted either to
the slab edge, or to plates welded onto the edge beams.
The shelf angles are usually made from stainless steel.
The method of attachment of the shelf angle allows for
vertical adjustment to suit the brick coursing. Brickwork
is constructed on these shelf angles and attached to the
columns and to inner concrete block walls using brick
ties. Windposts are sometimes incorporated to give 5
improved stability, particularly in tall buildings subject
to high wind pressures, or where large size panels are
used. An expansion joint is used at the top of the panels
to take up relative movements between the building
frame and the brickwork.

KEY
1 External brickwork
2 Internal brickwork 3
3 Shelf angle
4 Windpost
5 Column
6 Edge beam
7 Floor slab
4

4
1

3
6

20 STUDIO GUIDE
 C L A D D I N G S C H E M AT I C S 4

Light steel cladding

Built-up system with liner sheet
These systems comprise two separate cladding sheets:
an external sheet, which is coloured and highly
profiled, and a more lightly profiled inner liner sheet.
The sheets are separated by spacer rails and insulation.
The liner sheet and spacers are fixed to cladding rails
that span between columns. The external sheet is fixed
to the spacer. The normal method of attachment is by
self-drilling, self-tapping screws.

Built-up system with liner trays

Liner trays span between columns and replace the liner
sheet, cladding rails and spacer rails. Insulation is set
within the liner trays and the external cladding sheet is
fixed directly onto the outer flanges of the tray.

Composite panel system

Composite panels have a sandwich construction
comprising two steel sheets bonded either side of an
insulating core of foam, mineral fibre or similar
material. The bonded panel produces good stiffness,
and both profiled and smooth surfaces are available.
Panels may be fixed using a variety of techniques
including self-drilling, self-tapping screws, and secret-
fixing brackets located within the panel joints.

STUDIO GUIDE 21
4 C L A D D I N G S C H E M AT I C S

Bolted glazing systems

The use of sophisticated bolted glazing systems, where
glass panels are attached directly to structural steelwork
without using any intermediate framing, has grown
significantly in recent years. Bolts attach the glass to
brackets on the steel through pre-drilled holes in the
glass panes. The bolts provide point support instead of
the continuous edge support given by conventional
frames.
Vertical glazing panels, up to 2 m x 2 m, can generally be
supported using four corner fixings, whilst larger panels,
up to 2 m x 4 m, typically require 6 fixings. Horizontal
and inclined glazing may require more frequent
supports.
Various types of bolted fixing have been developed.
These include simple bolts, where the head is proud of
the surface of the glass, and countersunk designs that are
recessed into the glass. Articulated fixings are often used
in conjunction with large panes on tall or long span, steel
structures. As the glass panels and the supporting
structure bend under the combined effects of self weight
and applied loads, articulated bolts allow some rotation
of the fixing.

Glazed entrance hall, NatWest Tower, London

Structural Engineer: M. Eekout/Octatube Space Structures.

Architect: E. Norten

Moda in Casa, Mexico City

Shims

Serrated
faces for
vertical
adjustment
Buro Happold

Adjustment
Adjustment

Spider fixing detail

22 STUDIO GUIDE
 5 FIRE PROTECTION
There are four common methods of
fire protecting structural steelwork;
intumescent coatings, board based
systems, sprayed materials and
concrete encasement or filling.
Intumescent Coatings
Intumescent coatings may be brushed
or sprayed onto steelwork rather like
paint. The materials expand when
subjected to fire and form an
insulating foam. Intumescent
coatings can achieve up to
120 minutes fire resistance, and are
used mostly on exposed steelwork.
Board Systems
Board based systems are used to form
rectangular encasements around steel
members, such as internal beams and
columns. Paint or other finishes can
be applied directly to the boards.
The level of fire resistance achieved
depends on the type and the
thicknesses of the boards used and on
the method of attachment.
Sprayed Materials
Sprayed fire protection systems are
usually based on cementitious
materials and are applied directly
onto the surface of steelwork. They
are generally low cost, but cannot
receive finishes owing to their coarse
uneven texture. Sprayed materials
tend to be used where steelwork is
concealed or where appearance is
unimportant. Fire resistance is
similar to that of board based
materials.
Concrete Filled Structural Hollow
Sections
Structural Hollow Sections (SHS) can
be fire protected by filling with
reinforced concrete. Concrete filled
structural hollow sections can achieve
120 minutes fire resistance.
Slimdek®
The Slimdek® system has inherent fire
resistance as the ASB section is
encased in concrete with only the
bottom flange exposed to fire.
Without fire protection Slimdek® can
achieve 60 minutes fire resistance.
Periods of fire resistance in excess of
120 minutes can be achieved if the Intumescent coatings
bottom flange is fire protected.
Multi-storey frames requiring 30-60
minutes can have 40% of the floor
beams unprotected by following the
recommendations of a special design
guide.
Protection thicknesses
The section factor of a particular steel
section is its surface area per unit
length divided by its volume per unit
length (A/V). This parameter defines
how quickly a steel section will heat
up when subjected to fire. The section
Board based system
factor for a member with box
protection is lower than that for a
member with profile protection, and
hence box protected steelwork heats
up more slowly and requires less
protection.
Typical spray or board thicknesses for
a column in a multi-storey building
are as set out in Table 1, below.
Table 1: Typical spray or board thicknesses
based on 254UC x 89 kg/m column in a
multi-storey building.
Fire Profile Box Sprayed materials
resistance protection protection
(minutes) (mm) (mm)
30 10 12
60 18 15
90 24 20
120 30 25
Concrete filling
STUDIO GUIDE 23
 6 FURTHER READING
Cladding
Colorcoat in buildings: A guide to architectural practice.
British Steel Strip Products, 1990
OGDEN R G Interfaces: Curtain wall connections to steel
frames. SCI P101, 1992
GORGOLEWSKI M T The design of twin-skin metal
cladding. How to meet the new requirements of Part L of the
Building Regulations. SCI P311, 2002
GORGOLEWSKI M T Metal cladding: U-value
calculations. Assessing thermal performance of built-up metal
roof and wall cladding systems using rail and bracket spacers.
SCI P312, 2002.
Composite Construction
LAWSON R M Design for openings in the webs of
composite beams. SCI P068, 1987
OWENS G W Design of fabricated composite beams in
buildings. SCI P059, 1989
COUCHMAN G H et al. Composite slabs and beams using
steel decking: Best practice for design and construction.
SCI P300, 2000
Light Steel
LAWSON R M et al. Building design using cold formed
steel sections: Structural design to BS 5950-5: 1998.
SCI P276, 2002
CLOUGH R H and OGDEN R G Building design using
cold formed steel sections: Acoustic insulation.
SCI P128, 1993
LAWSON R M Building design using cold formed steel
sections: Fire protection. SCI P129, 1993
The Steel Construction Institute Case studies on light steel
framing – First series. SCI P176A, 1997
The Steel Construction Institute Case studies on light steel
framing – Second series. SCI P176B, 2000
LAWSON R M et al. Modular construction using light steel
framing: An architect’s guide. SCI P272, 1999
GORGOLEWSKI M T et al. Building design using cold
formed steel sections: Light steel framing in residential
construction. SCI P301, 2001
24 STUDIO GUIDE
Long Span Structures
LAWSON R M and RACKHAM J W Design of haunched
composite beams in buildings. SCI P060, 1989
NEAL S and JOHNSON R Design of composite trusses.
SCI P083, 1992
BRETT P and RUSHTON J Parallel beam approach –
A design guide. SCI P074, 1991
MacDERMOTT-SMITH M Design in steel 1 – The parallel
beam approach. British Steel Sections
LAWSON R M and McCONNEL R Design of stub
girders. SCI P118, 1992
Slimflor
MULLETT D M and LAWSON R M Slim floor
construction using deep decking. SCI P127, 1993
MULLETT D M Slim floor design and construction.
SCI P110, 1992
Corus Construction Centre Slimdek manual.
Corus UK Ltd, 2001
McKENNA P D and LAWSON R M Service integration
in Slimdek. SCI P273, 2000
LAWSON R M et al. Design of asymetric Slimflor beams
using deep decking. SCI P175, 1997
Fire
Fire resistant design of structural steelwork: Information
sheets. Corus Group
Fire protection for structural steel in buildings. Association
for Specialist Fire Protection, Steel Construction Institute
and Fire Test Study Group, 3rd Edition – 2002
LAWSON R M and NEWMAN G M Fire resistant design
of steel structures – A handbook to BS 5950 Part 8.
SCI P080, 1990
HAM S J et al. Structural fire safety: A handbook for
architects and engineers. SCI P197, 1999
NEWMAN G M et al. Design of steel framed buildings
without applied fire protection. SCI P186, 1999
NEWMAN G M et al. Fire safe design: A new approach to
multi storey steel framed buildings. SCI P288, 2000
Design and production: www.greenandtempest.co.uk
6000-2/03
 ISBN 1 85942 138 5
Publication Number SCI P167
© The Steel Construction Institute 2003