BR – BRIDGE WORK

Salient Features

‰ Some important points to be noted during execution of road/bridge works.

‰ Specifications for new diversion roads.

‰ Sketch showing markout of skew bridge.

‰ Notes on anchoring well in rock.

‰ Typical sketch of abutment with riding return.

‰ Detailed section showing metal mat and inverted filter behind weep holes.

‰ Note on metal mat.

‰ Note on rubble filling behind abutments returns or wings.

‰ Note on bearing below superstructure, water spouts, wearing coat & sketches.

‰ Note on stressing of cables and grouting specifications.

‰ Cross sections of R.C.C. parapet and kerb.

‰ Detailed sketch of pipe railing.

‰ Sketch showing collapsible railing.

‰ Testing of bridge structure.

The notes attached herewith are for information only.

The Rates of the DSR have no bearing on the notes
enclosed herewith.
In case of any dispute regarding interpretation of
item it’s specifications etc. the reference to original
specifications shall be made.

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Some important points to be noted during the execution of road / bridge works
Road works :
1) In case of new earthwork ensure that the required earth could be available from the road
land else suggest additional borrow area.
2) In B.C. soil provide atleast 90 cm high formation to obviate drainage problem.
3) Provide drainage layer for the full width. Ensure that outward slope to the drainage layer is
provided.
4) In case of B.C. soil for shoulders provide murum /Non B.C. soil right from top of drainage
layer to the road top. Avoid use of B.C. soil as an intervening layer in between top of drainage
layer and bottom of murum shoulder.
5) In case of widening of road especially from 5.50 mt. to 7.0 mt. ensure that the earlier widening
done from 3.70 m to 5.50 m is proper. Take trial pits at every 50 mt. to ascertain the ground
realities.
6) In case of improvement / strengthening of road it is advisable to first identify the trouble
spots and treat them before undertaking the further improvement.
7) The camber to the road shall not be less than 2.50%, 3.5% will be preferable. The camber
to side shoulders shall be 5%.
8) Ensure that the speed, vibrations sensors are properly regulated in respect of modern
machinery.
Bridge works :
1) It is advisable to give mark out of the bridge by ranging from a longer length. Giving mark out
by ranging from short distance have potential of spoiling the road geometries.
2) In case of skew bridge work out the length of pier / abutment - properly so that the slab does
not encroach upon the portion of cut / ease water.
3) Work out the length of the return correctly.

4) Do not forget to provide weep holes and riding return to the abutment. Similarly provide
weep holes to the returns including box returns.
5) If the superstructure is not going to be provided before next monsoon it is not correct to
leave the substructure unsupported for a full height. While planning for the work ensure
completion of superstructure of related length else restrict the height of the substructure.

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NOTES :-
1) THESE GRAPHS SHOW THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ‘H’ (HEIGHT OF H.F.L. ABOVE DEEPEST SCOUR LEVEL) AND ‘V’ (MAX CURRENT
VELOCITY IN THE CENTRAL MAIN COMPARTMENT) TO PRODUCE NO TENSION IN PIER MASONRY, THAT IS, FOR A GIVEN ‘V’ AND PIER
WIDTH ‘B’ AT SCOUR LEVEL, THE WATER FORCE STRESS COMBINED WITH MASONRY SELF WEIGHT WILL PRODUCE A ZERO STRESS
AT CRITICAL POINT, WHEN FLOOD DEPTH IS ‘H’
2) THE WEIGHT OF HATCHED PORTION OF PIER ABOVE H.F.L. IS IGNORED NO OTHER FORCES OF FLOATING DEBRIS ETC. ARE
ASSUMED AND THESE COULD BE CATERED TO SAME EXTENT BY THE INHERENT TENSILE STRENGTH OF MASONRY. 15% BUOYANCY
HAS BEEN ACCOUNTED FOR PREPARING THESE GRAPHS.
3) FOR SUBMERSIBLE PIERS ALSO ‘H’ IS THE SAFE HEIGHT FOR NO TENSION CONDITION (BECAUSE MAX. VELOCITY UNDER H.F.L. HAS
BEEN CONSIDERED IN PREPARING THESE GRAPHS AND FOR ANY HIGHER FLOOD LEVEL MAGNITUDE OF VELOCITY CORRESPOND-
ING TO WEIGHT OF PIER LESS THAN FULL FLOOD WILL BE SMALLER).
4) FOR HEIGHTS EXCEEDING 10 METRE, THE COMPRESSIVE STRESSES ON MASONRY ARE LIKELY TO EXCEED AND NEED CHECKING
HENCE THE GRAPHS SHOULD NOT BE EXTRAPOLATED BEYOND THAT HEIGHT.
5) THESE GRAPHS ARE FOR GENERAL GUIDANCE ONLY INDIVIDUAL CASES OF TALL PIERS, HIGH CURRENT VELOCITY OR TURBULANCE,
SKEWNESS OF FLOW DEBRIES PRONE RIVERS, DIFFERENT PIER SIZES ETC. SHOULD BE SPECIALLY WORKED OUT.

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6) It is advisable to use theodolite and level frequently while casting the kerb and parapet walls.
Since prima-facie they are the only indication of the quality.

7) It is advisable not to provide full BT treatment to the approaches (if they are high) in one
season. Provide BBM near the junction of approaches and bridge and after passage of
traffic and or monsoon , make up the irregularities before giving final treatment.

8) The expansion joints over pier & abutment shall be continued through footpath, kerb &
railing/parapet as well.

9) The top of dirt wall shall be flush with the top of wearing surface, if metal mat is provided. If
the approach slab is provided, the top of dirt wall will be on lower level. The R.C.C. wearing
coat shall be provided only over the deck slab.

10) In case of raised causeways.

a) The U/S & D/S walls shall have batter on the outside.

b) The cushion over pipes shall be restricted to nearest minimum shall be preferably
make up with 15 cm. of M - 10 concrete & 7.5 cm. of M-20 wearing coat.

c) Only one way camber, than U/S towards downstream shall be provided to wearing
surface.

d) The outside edges of coping over face walls shall be rounded so as to ensure
smooth flow of water over the same.

e) The expansion joint should be kept in the c.c. coping for full thickness, over face wall
of C.D. works at centre or 3 m c/c. as the curve may be.

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 Specifications of Diversions
When a facility is being created on an existing road the traffic already plying on it need to be rerouted. The provisions
given In the following table may he followed.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR NEW DIVERSION ROADS
Category Present Width in metres of Pavement thickness (mm.) Height Period Season Remarks
of Diver- traffic Carriage- Shoulder Total Sub- Base Base Wear Total of em- of during
sion. P.C.U.S./ way. Road base (WBM) (BM) ing (M.M.) bank- constru- which
(CVD) way. (Gran- cour- ment ction. the div-
ular). se. with ersion
respect has to
to ground serve.
level in metre
1. Upto 1000/- a) 3.75 2x1.5 6.75 100 100 —- SD 200 Nil Upto 8 Non
(300) (earthen) months monsoon
b) 3.75 2x1.5 6.75 100 100 —- SD 200 0.6 More than Including
(earthen) 8 months monsoon

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2. 1001-5000/- a) 3.75 2x1.5 6.75 100 150 —- SD 250 0.6 Upto 8 Non
(Gravel/Murum) months monsoon.
(300-1500) b) 3.75 2x1.5 6.75 100 150 —- SD 250 0.6 More than Including
(Gravel/Murum) (above H.F.L.) 8 months monsoon
3. 5001/- a) 7.0 2x1.5 10.00 100 150 —- SD 250 0.6 Upto 8 All
10,000/- (earthen) months weather
(1500-3000) b) 7.0 2x1.5 10.00 150 150 —- PC 300 0.6 More than — do —
(earthen) (above H.F.L.) 8 months.
4. 10001/- a) 7.0 2x2.5 12.00 200 225 —- PC 425 0.6 Upto 8 All
20,000/- (earthen) months weather
(3000-6000) b) 7.0 -do- 12.00 200 225 —- PC 425 0.6 More than — do —
(above HFL) 8 months.
5. More than a) 7.0 2x2.5 12.00 200 225 —- PC 425 0.6 Upto 8 — do —
2000/- (Gravel/Murum) months
(6000) b) 7.0 — do — 12.00 200 225 50 PC 500 0.6 More than — do —
(above HFL) 8 months
 NOTES ON ANCHORING WELL IN ROCK

To increase the stability of the well against overturning and sliding and if tensile area at well base is
within permissible limits the well can be anchored down by tension anchors into foundation rock.
These tension anchors may be steel rods or high tensile prestressed cables.

The factors which determine the tensile resistance of the anchors are

(1) Strength of the anchor rod which depends on the tensile strength of the steel and the cross
sectional area of the rod or cable.

(2) Strength of the cement grout bonding the anchor into the hole.

(3) Bond strength between the rod and the grout and the side of the hole.

(4) Disposition of the anchor rods which determines the magnitude of the resisting force couple.

(5) Shear strength of the rock.

(6) The ability of the well steining and bottom plug to act together to transmit forces to the
anchor rods.

Anchor rods through the bottom plug - The most commonly used method is to install anchor
rods circumferentially through the bottom plug. For higher strength as well as increased bond
resistance deformed bars (could twisted or hot rolled - I.S. : 1786 or I.S. :1139) are used. Sometimes
plain round bars manually deformed and with lugs welded on are used. Any mechanical device
such as bolts and nuts. Welded helical coil which will increase the bond resistance can be used.

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From practical considerations of drilling holes the anchor rods are necessarily to be positioned
some distance inside from the staining. This severely limits the maximum resultant tensile resistance
of the group of anchor rods as the moment arm is considerably reduced.

Anchor rods through the steining - Installing anchors through the steining is statically more
advantageous. Vertical duct holes of at least 100 mm. diameter are left in the steining or steel pipes
are embedded in it. The duct holes are sources of weakness in the steining and adequate
reinforcement should be provided around them to prevent possible vertical cracking of the steining
along them particularly when explosives are detonated inside the well. Steel pipes increase the
cost. Another disadvantage is that holes in the rock below must be drilled through these narrow
holes in the steining which can prove to be a difficult and damaging operation when the depth is
great.

Prestressed Anchors - Prestressed anchors may also be used but they are expensive and call
for special quality control and protective measures against corrosion. Prestressed anchors are
positive in that, as such a permanent compressive bearing pressure develops at the base and can
be advantageously used to reduce the size of well which may balance the increased cost of the
prestressed anchors.

Anchor depth - The anchor depth depends both on the bond strength between the cement grout
and the rod and also that between the grout and the bore hole wall.
The bond resistance is given by
T = π d | π bd
Where T = Pull in the rod
d = diameter of the rod
I = length of the rod embedded
π bd = permissible bond stress between rod and grout or between grout and rock surface.

Field pull out tests on anchor rods fixed with cement slurry and cement mortar grout indicate
development of ultimate bond strengths of 15 to 20 kg/cm2. For design the permissible bond strength
when cement slurry with water- cement ratio of 0.4 to 0.6 is used may be taken as 6 kg/cm2. Higher
values may be used if established by tests.

Cement mixes for grouting - Cement mix for grouting may be cement slurry with water/cement
ratio of 0.4 to 0.6. To prevent shrinkage and to cause slight expansion 4 gm of alumina powder per
50 kg of cement may be added and thoroughly mixed.

Grouting - The bore hole must be first thoroughly cleaned of all loose material using air jets, under
water this is done by divers. The bore hole is then filled with the cement slurry and then anchor rod
is inserted. If a delay occurs between grouting and inserting the rod the cement slurry may start
setting, which must be guarded against. The anchor rod can be fitted to a long pipe for lowering into
the bore hole.

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The hole is grouted with cement slurry under a pressure of 5 kg/cm2 using a grout pump. The grout
is conveyed by means of a casing pipe which is progressively extracted as the grout rises in the
whole.

The diameter of the bore hole must he at least 40 mm larger than that of the anchor rod. The bore
hole is drilled through the bottom plug after it is cast and sufficiently hardened.

Dewatering the well for drilling the holes must be done with caution and should commence only
after ensuring that it will not affect the bottom plug or the well in any manner. If any sand is trapped
anywhere between the plug and the rock surface or if there is any gap or crack giving access to
sand from outside, sand or water will blow in through the bore holes forcing out the grout and
possibly the anchor rod also. If this goes undetected the anchor rod will remain ineffective. If this
occurs, it is an indication that sufficient care had not been taken in casting the bottom plug and the
same is not fully effective. The more serious consequence is that the well will be subject to uplift
pressures resulting in unstability of the well.

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 NOTE ON METAL MAT
For bridges with solid slab and for slab drains and pipe culverts, no approach slab may be provided,

Instead provide a total 0.90 m thick mat, consisting of rubble and metal crust of the following
specifications

45 cm. thick - 150 mm to 225 mm hand packed rubble

22.50 cm. thick - 100 mm to 150 mm oversize metal

11.20 cm. thick - 75 mm to 100 mm oversize metal

11.20 cm. thick - 40 mm size metal

After laying the above mat, traffic should be allowed over the same. The metal mat should then be
covered with 3/4" carpet, for full width of the road. The metal mat should extend upto a length of 3.5
meter or upto the end of the return walls, whichever is more.

In case of all other bridges, approach slabs should be laid on the metal mat described below not
earlier than the passage of one season, and not later than the passage of two seasons. The
following specifications should be adopted.

22.50 cm thick - 100 mm to 150mm oversize metal

11.20 cm thick - 75 mm to 100 mm oversize metal

11.20 cm thick - 40 mm size metal

This mat should be covered with minimum 75 mm of C.C. 1:3:6 levelling course and then the
approach slab should be laid covering the entire width of the roadway with a length of not less than
3.5 m. for the portion between return walls beyond this 3.5 m. length of approach slab, 0.90 m thick
mat should be provided as per above.

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 NOTE ON RUBBLE FILLING BEHIND ABUTMENTS, RETURNS OR WINGS

The rubble filling behind abutment, returns or wings could be done in the following manner.

Material :- The stones to be used shall be broken with regular shape & not weathered or
decayed stones. The size of stones shall be about 0.015 cum. or 15 litres.
(about 1/2 lit.) The stones to be used for wedging in the joints between stones
shall be chips of such a size as to snugly fill up interstices. All suitable rubble
obtained from foundation excavation shall be made use first.

Construction :- Dewatering if necessary shall be done. The bed on which rubble filling is to be
laid shall be cleaned of all loose materials levelled & consolidated & got approved
by the engineer before starting rubble filling. Rubble filling behind abutment,
returns, wings shall be laid in regular horizontal layers it not more than 30 cm
in thickness closely packed and compacted , is firmly set with their broadest
face downwards. The interstices between adjacent stones shall be wedged in
with spalls of proper size, well driven in with hammers or wooden make is to
ensure tightly packed layers. Such wedging shall be carried on simultaneously
with placing in position of the largest stones in each layer & shall in no case be
permitted to tall behind. Each layer shall be packed & completed before the
upper layer is started.

Backfilling required to be done if any, on the river side of abutments wings or

returns shall be done simultaneously with filling on land side. Special provisions
should also be taken to prevent wedging action against masonry. The masonry
shall have been fully cured before rubble filling.

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 NOTE

BEARINGS BELOW SUPERSTRUCTURE :-

Bearings under superstructure shall preferably be within the external line of pier and abutment. The
bearing shall be necessary provided below web of Superstructure.

Limitation on type of bearing are :-

i) Tar paper bearing - Effective span upto 10 mt.

ii) Restrained elastomeric - Effective Span upto 40 mt.
iii) Cast steel Rocker & Roller
bearings/ PTFE bearings with
Cast steel components - No limit

WATER SPOUTS :-

Water spouts as per M.O.S.T. Type design No. SD/303 shall be provided.

The water spout shall be extended by minimum 0.30 m. below soffit level of super structure and
same shall be adequately tied to the structure.

In case of saline and severe exposure, water spout shall be connected to runner pipe of suitable
diameter (Minimum 150 mm) on either side of road way and taken down by downtake pipes at
approved locations not more than 30 mt. C/C . These pipes shall be free from bends to avoid
chocking due to silt.

WEARING COAT :-

A wearing coat for level bridge of uniform thickness shall be provided for riding surface. It shall
consist of 50 mm. Bituminous macadam and covered by 25 mm. thick asphaltic concrete /
semidense concrete.

A bituminous mastic wearing course can also be provided over bridge decks/road pavement over
dense bituminous macadam base or concrete base.

For submersible bridges 75 mm thick M-20 R.C.C. wearing course shall be provided.

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 NOTES ON STRESSING OF CABLES AND GROUTING SPECIFICATIONS

(1) Normal variation allowed is + 5% for jack pressure for obtaining desired extensions. If desired
extension is obtained at lower pressure than the expected, the pressure should be increased
to minimum pressure indicated, subject to the condition that the actual extension is not
more than desired extension by 5%.

(2) The desired extensions are to be obtained half at each end by simultaneously stressing the
cable at both the ends unless otherwise specified. The difference in extensions obtained at
each end should not exceed 5 % of the total extension.

(3) The design pressure should be obtained progressively in the increments of 40 kg/ sq.cm.

(4) It is necessary to supply at least 40 kg. per sq. cm. pressure initially, prior to making the
reference marks for extensions. The extensions between 40 kg. per sq.cm. to 80 kg. per
sq.cm. should be taken as double the extension between 40 kg.per sq.cm. to 80 kg. per.
sq.cm.

(5) The slip permitted at each end is 6 mm. for freyssinet system, the extensions appearing in
the schedule are inclusive of this slip.

(6) Slow slip of the cables shall be observed for 48 hour after locking the cables. In case it is
excessive, matter should be reported to designs circle.

(7) Suitable provision of additional extensions due to draw-in-of wires (between female cone
and anchor) shall be made while measuring net extensions (recommended value 2 mm. at
each end) for freyssinet system.

(8) The reserved cable (if provided) is to be stressed only in case of failure of any other cable or
substantial deficiencies. The pressures and extensions to be obtained for this cable will
depend on the results of other cable in the stressing. If the stressing of the other cable is
satisfactory, this cable shall be withdrawn and the duct grouted. The stressing of reserve
cable shall be undertaken only after getting approval of the competent authority.

(9) The maximum gauge pressure should not exceed 366 kg.per sq.m. for freyssinet system
(12 wires of 7 mm. dia.). The jack efficiency is assumed as 96 per cent.

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(10) Cable ducts shall be grouted as early as possible as per grouting specifications. After 24
hour after grouting, the receded portions (due to shrinkage) at the ends of grout holes
should filled with grout (after sucking out the released water on account of shrinkage).

(11) The information of stressing of cables should be maintained. If the girder does not show
hogging on first stage stressing, the matter should be reported to designs circle / designer.
The actual hogging should be measured and recorded for comparison with estimated one.

(12) Any deficiency, important or unusual occurance during stressing and grouting operations
shall be reported to designs circle . It there is doubt about quality of concrete of any girder,
stressing shall not be undertaken without approval of the concerned S.E.

(13) Stressing shall be done under expert supervision and not earlier than the specified age and
strength of concrete (to be verified by testing of 3 cubes on specified day before-hand).

(14) For in situ casting of girders on bearings, reverse tilt has to be given to rollers of bearings,
depending on temperature of laying, shrinkage, creep and elastic shortening etc. Before
commencing stressing, the locking screws of roller shall be removed. In case of neoprene
bearings, it is desirable to seat the girder on such bearings after full stressing and also to
release all locked-up deformations (creep, shrinkage etc.) after the specified period by
jacking up the girder for which details should be obtained from the designer / design circle.

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 TESTING OF BRIDGE STRUCTURES
Purpose of Test

Concrete structures are being adopted for most of the civil engineering structures on account of
economy of concrete compared to masonry, steel and timber and its adaptability to various forms.
Elastic and Non-Elastic behaviour of concrete is known to a considerable extent. The effect of
loads on the structure can also be calculated to reasonable correctness. Yet there are certain
issues which are not fully known such as.

a) Non elastic and non linear behaviour of concrete.

b) Effect of creep and shrinkage.

c) Approximate methods of structural analysis. Various hypothesis adopted require verification

by tests.

d) Safe load on wells and piles is based on soil properties. Correctness of properties can be
verified by carrying of load test.

e) New experimental structural concepts are adopted. Their effectiveness can be verified also
be model tests.

f) In irrigation works exact effects of hydraulic forces can not be computed. Model tests are
required in such cases. These are also required to assess the effect of wind in long span
bridges and high towers (more than 100 M. length of height) for which a wind tunnel test is
adopted.

Types of tests

Three types of tests are generally adopted

a) Test on construction materials like steel, cement, aggregate, bricks, stone, timber etc. Test
for these materials are prescribed by the Indian Standards.

b) Test on the certain products used as components of a structure such as concrete cubes,
masonry, pipes, frames. Tests for these are also stipulated in IS Codes. Clause 16.3 of IS
456 stipulates core test of concrete. Cores of concrete are obtained from the structure by a
special tool and cores are tested as per IS 516-1959.

c) Load test on the entire structure.

d) Test on the components of the structure while in service such as non destructive tests on
concrete.

Load tests on entire structure are known since last several years. However, non-destructive test
are comparatively new.

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Load Tests

Certain load tests are codified by the Indian Standards and Indian Road Congress. These are

a) Load tests on building slabs and beams - IS 466

b) Load test on new bridges - not codified but in practice

c) Load test on old bridges - IRC SP 37

d) Load test on piles - IS 2911 Part IV.

In an elastic structure, strain varies as stress. When the stress is removed strain should be zero.
In actual practice, however, there is residual deflection since concrete is not fully elastic. Codes
have prescribed maximum values for residual deflection since concrete is not fully elastic. Codes
have prescribed maximum values for residual deflection as :-

Prestressed structures 15%, 85% of recovery

RCC Structures 25%, 75% of recovery

Loads are generally retained for 24 hours to ascertain effect of time bound creep deformation. In
respect of piles a limit of maximum settlement is prescribed. Besides a factor of safety is also
applied. Thus maximum permissible residual strain deflection or settlement) and maintaining load
for 24 hours are the two criteria adopted in all these load test. Some codes prescribe test load
equal to maximum design load, others prescribe 1.25 times while for piles and wells 1.5 times
design load is stipulated.

Load test on buildings structure - IS 456

In building works, load tests are not obligatory in every building structure. In case there are doubts
regarding grade of concrete used or due to poor workmanship, load test may be carried out. Loads
in buildings are neither very heavy loads, not these are dynamic loads (excluding factory building).
During construction, the RCC building structure is subjected to the load of materials, centering and
formwork and live load of workers. It is, therefore, believed that a building which can stand safely
during construction process can generally stand well except of course distresses caused due to
unanticipated foundation problem.

Clause 16.5 of IS 456 stipulates that

Load test should be carried out as soon as possible after expiring of 28 days from placing of
concrete. Structure should be subjected to load equal to full dead load + 1.25 imposed (live load)
load, for a period of 24 hours and then imposed load should be removed.

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Deflection due to imposed load, only is recorded, If within 24 hours of removal of the imposed load,
the structure does not recover at least 75% of deflection under superimposed load, the test may be
repeated after a lapse of 72 hours. If the recovery is less than 80%, the structure may be deemed
to be unacceptable.

If the maximum deflection is in mm shown during 24 hours under load is less than 40 L2/D where L
is effective span in M and D the overall depth of the section in mm it is not necessary for the
recovery to be measured.

Span - 10M. Depth - 800 mm 40 L2/D = (40x10x10)/800 = 5 mm

i.e. when deflection of a 10 M span is less than 5 mm. recovery clause will not apply. BS 5400 has
also a similar clause.

Load Test on New Bridges

Indian Roads Congress has not finalised stipulations for load test on new bridges. However, the
practice adopted since last 40 years for new bridges is as below :

These test are carried out before opening the bridge to traffic (IRC SP37 however gives procedure
for load test if load carrying capacity of existing bridges is to be ascertained.)

Test Load : The test load is equal to that load which can generate maximum design live load
moment. It is not possible to simulate exact load geometry as per IRC loads. Therefore a load is
placed at midspan but ecentric to centre line as catered for in design is the test load. Impact and
load distribution effects are taken into account.

Procedure

a) Deflectometers, which can measure 1/1000 of a centimeter reading, are available. These
are fixed to structure through pipes or wires at mid span or at critical locations. If it is a
girder system or box, the defloctometer is for each rib. If it is a slab, number of deflectometer
is equal to number of bearings at support say 3 or 4. At bed level of river firm (non yielding)
masonry or concrete bed blocks are made and deflectometers are placed on it. These are
connected to the structure by pipe of piano wire.

b) Readings of deflectometer are taken at every 2 hours for 24 hours. Simultaneously

temperature is recorded. when there is no load.

c) One fourth load is placed. Readings are taken at the end of loading and 2 hours afterwards.
In this manner full load is placed and readings are taken.

d) Load is retained for 24 hours. Readings are taken after 2 hours and simultaneously
temperature readings are also noted.

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e) Load is removed gradually 1/4th at a time and readings are taken similar to (c). Temperature
readings are also taken simultaneously.

f) On removal of entire load readings are taken for next 24 hours and readings of deflectometer
and temperature recorded after every 2 hours.

g) Graphs of unloaded structure and temperature and deflections are plotted. This shows
deflections without load due to temperature variations. The graphs of load verses deflections
are also plotted, temperatures are recorded. Effect of temperature is added or deducted
from this graph. This gives net deflection for load.

h) Residual deflection is assessed.

Acceptance criteria

If the residual defection is 75% twenty four hours on removal of load for RCC structures and 85%
for prestressed concrete structure the test is satisfactory. Besides total deflection should not exceed
theoretically calculated deflection.

Load Test on old bridges IRC - SP37, Clause 6

Design and structural data of many old bridges are not available in records. Certain distresses are
noticed and it becomes necessary to assess the load carrying capacity of the bridge so that
appropriate rehabilitation/ strengthening can be done. New heavy vehicles have been introduced
particularly for carrying heavy machines. Total load may be 100 to 120 T (70R). It is desired to know
whether an Arch bridge or RCC or PSC bridge which is designed for much lower load can carry the
heavy load. Test load for testing of old bridges is the next heavier load than the predominant heavier
vehicle presently plying over the bridge. Number of vehicles will be the number of vehicles likely to
come on one span by leaving minimum distance between vehicles. Before testing old bridges,
deflectometers are fixed similar to the procedure mentioned for new bridge.

Number of vehicles will be placed gradually and reading of deflectometer will be taken.

For arch bridges the measurement of vertical deflection will be made at crown along the arch
crown line at three locations upstream centre and downstream over the transverse width of arch.
Horizontal movement of spread of piers and abutments is measured at three similar locations over
the length of piers and abutment. Corrections if any are made for settlement of bearings and rotation
of pier.

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Acceptance criteria - Safe load on bridge

In case no crack develops in arch structure, the load on near axle which causes a deflection of 1.25
mm in case of single rear axles, when twin rear axles exist, the safe load is that which causes 2
mm deflection.

The recovery is 80% on removal of load. Spread of abutment or pier is within 0.4 mm.

For Girder slab bridge Safe load

That load which causes deflection of span /500 for simply supported spans for cantilever is a safe
load. Further more that crack in concrete structure is not more than 0.3 mm. Recovery of deflection
is not less than 80% for RCC structure and 90% for prestressed bridges.

Load Test on Piles and Wells

Pile test : The bearing capacity of a single pile may be determined from test loading a pile. The
load test on a concrete pile may not be carried out earlier than 28 days from the time of casting of
the pile. There shall be two categories of tests on piles, namely, initial tests and routine tests. Initial
tests should be carried out on test piles which are not to be incorporated in the work. Routine tests
shall be carried out as a check on working piles. The number of initial and routine tests on piles
shall be as determined by the Engineer depending upon the number of foundations, span length,
type of superstructure and uncertainties of founding strata. In any case, the initial load tests shall
not be less than 2 in number, while the routine load tests shall not be less than 2 percent of the total
number of piles in structure or less than 2 in number. The above stipulations hold good for both
vertical as well as lateral load tests on pile foundations. However, both initial and routine tests may
be suitably increased for important structures or cases with large variation in the subsurface strata.

This methodology of carrying of load tests and of arriving of safe load on piles shall conform to
IS:2911 (part IV). Safe load on pile is 2/3rd. The final load is at which the total settlement attains a
value of 12 mm or 50% of the final load at which total settlement equals 10% of the pile diameter.
The test load should be 1.5 times the design load for sandy strata or 2.0 times the design load for
clayey strata. In case of any doubt of workmanship or load carrying capacity of working piles not
subjected to routine tests, or when ordered by the Engineer, or when provided in the contract, load
tests on working piles may be supplemented by non-destructive testing. Such tests may include
“Integrity Testing” of concrete in the installed pile and utilisation of “Pile Driving Analyser” which
gives an indication of pile capacity in end bearing and side friction.

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Test of well foundation

Similar test on wells is not required to he done since well founding strata can be seen and the strata
can also be tested. However in the event of doubt, testing is done in the same manner by placing
total load likely to come on well multiplied by 1.5. It is a large load. Load is placed for 24 hours and
settlements are observed. Settlement should be less than span/500 x 1.5 = span/750 at safe load.
Some a when it’s take is as span/1000.

NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS

Non destructive tests are prescribed in BS 5400-1978 part 8, Appendix A2.

Rebound and penetration test : These tests that measure the hardness of concrete are used to
assess the compressive strength, uniformity and quality of concrete. Schmidt Hammer and Windsor
Probe are commonly used devices.

Ultrasonic pulse velocity measurement : Ultrasonic devices are used to measure the velocity of
pulses of longitudinal vibrations generated by a piezoelectric transducer through the concrete.
Transmission of the ultrasonic signal is influenced by the changes in the acoustic properties of
concrete caused by deterioration. Pulse velocity measurements may be used to asses the
homogeneity of concrete, presence of cracks, voids etc., quality of one element of concrete relative
to another and elastic modulus values of concrete. Ultrasonic pulse velocity measurements are
influenced by surface condition, moisture content and temperature of concrete, path length, shape
and size of specimen and presence of reinforcing bars. The method is, complex and requires skill
to obtain useable result which can often provide excellent information regarding condition of concrete.

Covermeters :

These are portable battery operated magnetic devices and are designed to detect the position of
reinforcement and measure depth of concrete cover. They operate on the principle of distortion of
magnetic field set up by steel in the vicinity and degree of distortion is a function of quantity of steel
and distance from the probe. Cover depth is related to carbonation and chloride penetration and
predicts development of corrosion.

Electrical corrosion detection methods :

(a) Resistivity test : The procedure involves measuring the resistance between the reinforcing
steel and concrete surface by four electrode method common in geophysical testing and provides
an indication of the rate of corrosion in, reinforcing steel. The method provides useful information to
supplement results of potential measurements.

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(b) Half cell potential measurement : When steel corrodes in carbonated or chloride
contaminated concrete, a potential difference exists between the anodic half cell areas and cathodic
half cell on the steel. This difference in electric potential in the corrosion cell can be measured in a
moist concrete by placing a copper/copper sulphate half cell on the concrete surface and measuring
the potential difference between the half cell and the steel reinforcement with the help of a standard
reference cell (ASTMC 876)

The method gives indication of corrosion of reinforcement at the time of measurement but gives no
information about rate of corrosion and the results are influenced by changes in environmental
conditions. The test is however, rapid, inexpensive and relatively easy and extremely useful in
assessing corrosion performance of a bridge when used in conjunction with data from other test
i.e. resistivity and chloride content tests. This is one of the most widely used methods of
electrochemical inspection of concrete structures.

Thermography : Infra-red thermography is used as a supplemental test for detecting areas of

voids, scaling and delaminations in concrete bridge decks, the method is reported to be a useful
rapid screening tool for both asphalt covered or exposed concrete deck slab.

Carbonation : Depth of carbonation in a concrete bridge component can be measured by spraying

freshly broken concrete surfaces or cores with a 2 percent solution of phenophtalein in ethanol.
The solution is a pH indicator with colour change occuring around pH 10. Megenta areas of the
exposed concrete surface after spraying represent uncarbonated concrete areas and the colourless
areas represent carbonated concrete. Relating carbonation depth to concrete cover is one of the
main indicators of corrosion.

Endoscopy : Endoscopy consists of inserting rigid or flexible viewing tube into holes drilled into
concrete bridge components or cable ducts and viewing them with light provided by optical glass
fibres from an external source. This is a most useful method for inspecting and detecting voids in
the grout and corrosion in steel in the cable ducts. It is also useful for detailed examination of other
parts of bridge structure, which could not otherwise be assessed. Endoscopes are available with
attachments for a camera of a T.V. monitor. It, however, needs an experienced engineer to make
assessment of most likely locations of voids in the grout and probable points of entry of chlorides
into the ducts.

Visual Inspection : With due regards to all the test, human eye is the most powerful instrument. If
an experienced engineer having dealt with structures design/construction sees the structure critically
before commissioning it, he can notice defects without much effort. A simple sounding test by
striking concrete surface by hammer tells one a lot about the integrity of concrete. It is always a
good practice to check the dimensions of the finished structure with the drawings and notice deviation.
Therefore a visual inspection and dimensional check of the structure must be carried out.

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