Human Reproduction

Lactation
LECTURE 12
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Human Reproduction
Lactation
LECTURE 12
Human Reproduction

Mammary Glands

➔ Each breast is a hemispheric projection of variable size

anterior to the pectoralis major muscles.
➔ Each breast has one pigmented projection, the nipple, that has
a series of closely spaced openings of ducts called lactiferous
ducts, where milk emerges.
Human Reproduction

Mammary Glands

➔ The circular pigmented area of skin surrounding the nipple is

called the areola; it appears rough because it contains
modified sebaceous (oil) glands.
Mammary Glands
Human Reproduction

Mammary Glands

➔ Strands of connective tissue called the suspensory ligaments of the breast

(Cooper’s ligaments) support the breast.
➔ These ligaments become looser with age or with the excessive strain that can
occur in long-term jogging or high-impact aerobics.
Human Reproduction

Mammary Glands

➔ Within each breast is a mammary gland, a modified sudoriferous

(sweat) gland that produces milk.
Human Reproduction

Mammary Glands

➔ A mammary gland consists of 15 to 20 lobes, or compartments,

separated by a variable amount of adipose tissue.
➔ In each lobe are several smaller compartments called lobules,
composed of grapelike clusters of milk-secreting glands termed
alveoli (small cavities) embedded in connective tissue.
Mammary Glands
Human Reproduction

Mammary Glands

➔ Contraction of myoepithelial cells surrounding the alveoli helps

propel milk toward the nipples.
Human Reproduction

Mammary Glands

➔ When milk is being produced, it passes from the alveoli into a series
of secondary tubules and then into the mammary ducts.
➔ Near the nipple, the mammary ducts expand to form sinuses called
lactiferous sinuses, where some milk may be stored before draining
into a lactiferous duct.
Human Reproduction

Mammary Glands

➔ Each lactiferous duct typically carries milk from one of the lobes to the exterior.
Human Reproduction

Mammary Glands

➔ The functions of the mammary glands are the synthesis, secretion, and ejection
of milk.
➔ These functions, called lactation, are associated with pregnancy and childbirth.
Human Reproduction

Mammary Glands

➔ Milk production is stimulated largely by the hormone prolactin from the

anterior pituitary, with contributions from progesterone and estrogens.
➔ The ejection of milk is stimulated by oxytocin, which is released from the
posterior pituitary in response to the sucking of an infant on the mother’s
nipple (suckling).
Human Reproduction

Lactation

➔ Lactation is the secretion and ejection of milk from the mammary glands.
➔ A principal hormone in promoting milk synthesis and secretion is prolactin (PRL),
which is secreted from the anterior pituitary gland.
➔ Even though prolactin levels increase as the pregnancy progresses, no milk secretion
occurs because progesterone inhibits the effects of prolactin.
Human Reproduction

Lactation

➔ After delivery, the levels of estrogens and progesterone in the

mother’s blood decrease, and the inhibition is removed.
➔ The principal stimulus in maintaining prolactin secretion during
lactation is the sucking action of the infant.
Human Reproduction

Lactation

➔ Suckling initiates nerve impulses from stretch receptors in the nipples to the
hypothalamus.
➔ The impulses decrease hypothalamic release of prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH)
and increase release of prolactin releasing hormone (PRH), so more prolactin is
released by the anterior pituitary.
Human Reproduction

Lactation

➔ Oxytocin causes release of milk into the mammary ducts via the milk
ejection reflex.
➔ Milk formed by the glandular cells of the breasts is stored until the baby
begins active suckling.
Human Reproduction

Lactation

➔ Stimulation of touch receptors in the nipple initiates sensory nerve

impulses that are relayed to the hypothalamus.
➔ In response, secretion of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary increases.
Human Reproduction

Lactation

➔ Carried by the bloodstream to the mammary glands, oxytocin stimulates

contraction of myoepithelial (smooth muscle-like) cells surrounding the
glandular cells and ducts.
➔ The resulting compression moves the milk from the alveoli of the mammary
glands into the mammary ducts, where it can be suckled.
➔ This process is termed milk ejection (let-down).
Human Reproduction

Lactation

➔ Even though the actual ejection of milk does not occur until 30–60 seconds after
nursing begins (the latent period), some milk stored in lactiferous sinuses near
the nipple is available during the latent period.
➔ Stimuli other than suckling, such as hearing a baby’s cry can also trigger
oxytocin release and milk ejection.
Human Reproduction

Lactation

➔ During late pregnancy and the first few days after birth, the mammary glands
secrete a cloudy fluid called colostrum.
➔ Although it is not as nutritious as milk—it contains less lactose and virtually
no fat—colostrum serves adequately until the appearance of true milk on
about the fourth day.
➔ Colostrum and maternal milk contain important antibodies that protect the
infant during the first few months of life.
Human Reproduction

Lactation

➔ Following birth of the infant, the prolactin level starts to return to the
nonpregnant level.
➔ However, each time the mother nurses the infant, nerve impulses from the
nipples to the hypothalamus increase the release of PRH (and decrease the
release of PIH), resulting in a tenfold increase in prolactin secretion by the
anterior pituitary that lasts about an hour.
Human Reproduction

Lactation

➔ If this surge of prolactin is blocked by injury or disease, or if nursing is

discontinued, mammary glands lose their ability to secrete milk in only a few days.
➔ Even though milk secretion normally decreases considerably within 7–9 months
after birth, it can continue for several years if nursing or breastfeeding continues.
Human Reproduction

Lactation

➔ Lactation often blocks ovarian cycles for the first few months following
delivery, if the frequency of sucking is about 8–10 times a day.
➔ This effect is inconsistent, however, and ovulation may precedes the first
menstrual period after delivery of a baby.
➔ As a result, the mother can never be certain she is not fertile.
Human Reproduction

Lactation

➔ Breastfeeding is therefore an unreliable birth control measure.

➔ The suppression of ovulation during lactation is believed to occur because
during breastfeeding, neural input from the nipple reaches the hypothalamus
and causes it to produce neurotransmitters that suppress the release of
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH).
➔ As a result, production of LH and FSH decreases, and ovulation is inhibited.
Human Reproduction

Benefits of Breastfeeding

➔ A primary benefit of breast-feeding is nutritional.

➔ Human milk is a sterile solution that contains amounts of fatty acids,
lactose, amino acids, minerals, vitamins, and water that are ideal for the
baby’s digestion, brain development, and growth.
Benefits of Breastfeeding

Beneficial Cells

➔ Several types of white blood cells are present in breast milk.

➔ Neutrophils and macrophages serve as phagocytes, ingesting microbes in the
baby’s gastrointestinal tract.
➔ Macrophages also produce lysozyme and other immune system components.
➔ Plasma cells, which develop from B lymphocytes, produce antibodies against
specific microbes, and T lymphocytes kill microbes directly or help mobilize
other defenses.
Benefits of Breastfeeding

Beneficial Molecules

➔ Breast milk also contains an abundance of beneficial molecules.

➔ Maternal IgA antibodies in breast milk bind to microbes in the baby’s
gastrointestinal tract and prevent their migration into other body tissues.
➔ Because a mother produces antibodies to whatever disease causing microbes
are present in her environment, her breast milk affords protection against the
specific infectious agents to which her baby is also exposed.
Benefits of Breastfeeding

Beneficial Molecules

➔ Additionally, two milk proteins bind to nutrients that many bacteria need to
grow and survive: B12-binding protein ties up vitamin B12, and lactoferrin
ties up iron.
➔ Some fatty acids can kill certain viruses by disrupting their membranes, and
lysozyme kills bacteria by disrupting their cell walls.
➔ Finally, interferons enhance the antimicrobial activity of immune cells.
Benefits of Breastfeeding

Decreased Incidence of Diseases Later in Life

➔ Breastfeeding provides children with a slight reduction in risk of

◆ Lymphoma
◆ Heart disease
◆ Allergies
◆ Respiratory and gastrointestinal infections
◆ Ear infections
◆ Diarrhea
◆ Diabetes mellitus
◆ Meningitis.
Benefits of Breastfeeding

Miscellaneous Benefits

➔ Breastfeeding supports optimal infant growth, enhances intellectual and

neurological development, and fosters mother–infant relations by establishing
early and prolonged contact between them.
Benefits of Breastfeeding

Miscellaneous Benefits

➔ Compared to cow’s milk, the

◆ Fats and iron in breast milk are more easily absorbed.
◆ Proteins in breast milk are more readily metabolized.
◆ Lower sodium content of breast milk is more suited to an infant’s needs.
Benefits of Breastfeeding

Miscellaneous Benefits

➔ Premature infants benefit even more from breastfeeding because the milk
produced by mothers of premature infants seems to be specially adapted to
the infant’s needs; it has a higher protein content than the milk of mothers of
full-term infants.
➔ Finally, a baby is less likely to have an allergic reaction to its mother’s milk
than to milk from another source.
Benefits of Breastfeeding

Benefits of Breastfeeding for Baby

➔ Optimal balance of nutrients

➔ Antibodies support immune system
➔ Reduce risk of asthma, allergies, colic, obesity, diarrhea,
and certain ear and lung infections
➔ Easily digested nutrients
➔ Reduces risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
Benefits of Breastfeeding

Benefits of Breastfeeding for Mother

➔ Convenient, inexpensive nourishment for baby

➔ Lose excess body weight
➔ Helps uterus contract after delivery
➔ Increases bond with baby
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