DAIRY CATTLE PRODUCTION (APT444)

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLGY OF MAMMARY GLAAND (UDDER)

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF COW’S UDDER

One of the major characteristics of the mammals is the possession of mammary gland. The mammary
gland is known as the UDDER in ruminants. The position and the number of mammary gland vary very
widely among the mammals, although the mechanism of milk production is similar and involves
endocrine system. Mammary gland or udder is a modified sebaceous or sweat gland having a suspensory
mass which gives physical support for udder mass.

The suspensory system is a strong suspensory system that is required to maintain proper attachment of the
mammary gland to the body. The supportive tissues helping in proper attachment are

A. The skin covering the gland or udder (minor)

B. The superficial fasciola
C. The coarse areolar
D. Subpelvic tendon
E. The superficial lateral ligaments
F. Deep lateral suspensory ligament
G. Median suspensory ligament

 Ducts and Cisterns: These are pathways for milk to travel from milk synthesis site to the
exit.
 Neural system: means of actively expelling milk from the system
 Teats: these are on and off valves for intermittent removal of milk
 Lobes/lobular/Alveoli: these are internal secretory tissues for manufacturing of milk
 Blood system: these are meant for continuous supply of substrates or milk precursors for
milk synthesis
 Mammary grooves: a separating line between the udder
 Lymph system: means of balancing the fluid dynamics in the tissues

The internal tissue is a collection of secretory tissues. The alveoli synthesize milk within themselves from
the blood system if necessary precursors or substrates are available. The interior of the udder is made up
of both secretory and connective tissues with an efficient supply of blood and nerve vessels. The secretory
tissues of the mammary glands are drained by a series of ducts which converge to form Lactiferous sinus
or gland cistern. A single duct (Galactophore) usually dilated to form the teat cistern. The teat cistern
provides access to the outside surface through the teat canal. The wall of the teat cistern contains
longitudinal or circular folds (teat sphincter muscles) that helps to regulate the flow of the milk, they also
help to control the opening of the teat canal thereby preventing the dripping out of milk for example when
the animal is not milked in time. The alveoli are the chief structure for actual milk production.
 MILK SYNTESIS AND SECRETION

An ideal milking cow must possess udder suspended outside of the abdominal wall where it is separated
into 4 quarters which are not internally connected. The udder with well defined width/depth
extending backward and forward must possess well developed veins. The size of the veins can be
used to assess the milking capacity of the animals. The raw materials or precursors such as amino
acids, proteins, glucose, acetate or other volatile fatty acids, minerals etc for milk synthesis are
usually transported to mammary gland by blood supply.

The bigger the arteries, the more raw materials are available for milk production. Inside the udder are
paired shaped structures called alveoli containing alveoli cells which secretes milk. Each alveolus
produces a drop of milk.

MILK SECRETION (LACTOGENESIS)

The concentration of oestrogen and progesterone maintain primarily by the ovaries and placenta during
pregnancy stimulates development of the udder particularly towards the end of pregnancy, while
at the same time lactogenesis. Following parturition, there is a fall in the level of circulating
progesterone, this is associated with an increase in the output of lactogenic hormone called
Prolactin. The combination of prolactin and Adreno-corticotrophic hormone (ACTH) has a
synergistic effects in the promotion of lactogenic responses in the mammary gland. Although,
there are some milk secretion during pregnancy, it is after parturition that these hormones cause
plenty or copious secretion of milk in the udder.

MAINTENANCE OF LACTATION (GALACTOPOIESIS)

The continous production of prolactin is essential through the lactation period and also some growth
hormones like Somato-trophin hormone (STH), Adreno-corticotrophic hormone(ACTH) and
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) are essential for maintenance of secretion or lactation. After
parturition, the milk production increases until it reaches the peak usually within 4-5 weeks in the
cow and it remain there before it gradually decline.

MILK LET DOWN OR MILK EJECTION

This is the release of milk from the mammary gland to the outside. In the process of milk let down or
ejection, both nervous and endocrine systems come into play. Most of the milk that is secreted in
the mammary tissues remains in the alveoli and in the numerous ducts of the mammary gland.
The process could be stimulated in nursing animals or humans by the following

a. Suckling by the infant

b. The sight of the milking machine
c. The noise made by the milking cups/utensils
d. Vagina tactile stimulation
e. Injection of oxytocin-peptide hormone

The bulk of the milk obtained in the milking process is forced from the alveoli and the ducts of
the mammary gland, principally by the milk let down hormones- Vasopressin and Oxytocin.
Oxytocin is a posterior or pituitary hormone that plays a major part in milk ejection via a neuro-
hormonal reflex.
A stimulation of the teat either by the suckling or milking process sends impulse to the spinal
cord for onward transmission to the posterior lobe of the pituitary. These nervous stimuli cause
the posterior pituitary to releasing oxytocin into the circulatory system. The hormone is therefore
carried into the mammary gland where it acts on the myo-epithelial cells enveloping the alveoli.
The oxytocin causes a contraction of those myo-epithelial cells squeezing out the milk into larger
ducts then into the cisterns from which the milk passes out into the collecting can.
In addition to the oxytocin, vasopressin is also released by the posterior pituitary into the
circulating systems, both hormones stimulate the contraction of myo-epithelial cells, then by
increasing the intra-mammary pressure which results in the forcing out of the milk from the
alveoli.

SELECTION OF IDEAL MILKING COW

In choosing the foundation stock, the farmer should consider the breed’s physical appearance as
well as the production records. It is important that the farmers select a breed that will adequately
fulfill its objectives. The physical appearance is the aptitude of the farmer that the farmer can use
in deciding whether or not to select.
Dairy farmers usually talk of ideal cow which means that cow possesses some of the physical
characteristics associated with high milk production. The cow should have the following features
 A good body size (excellent body conformation of average size of the breed e.g.
Friesian average size 450-500kg
 They should have bright and prominent eyes, these are indications of good health
 They should have docile temperament
 They should have an angular shape or wedge shape
 They should lean in the shoulder and widen to the hind quarter
 The feet should be strong so as to be able to graze very well
 They should have good rumen capacity so that they can consume large quantity of
roughages that will provide nutrients or precursors for milk production

The good udder characteristics are

 The mammary gland should possess prominent and branching veins
 It should be large so as to secrete and store large quantity of milk
 The texture of the udder should be soft and pliable for easy milking
 The four teats should be evenly placed on uniform and convenient sizes for
milking machines
 The udder must be firmly attached to the abdominal wall, not sagging or
pendulous
  The median lateral ligament must be well defined to give maximum support that
prevents sagging udder
 The teat must protrude down or plumb like for easy milking
 The udder must be in globular shape and disease free

PRODUCTION RECORD FOR SELECTION OF IDEAL DAIRY COW

The most criteria for the ideal selection is the production record. This shows the performance of
the individual cow, the record of dams and those of sire.
a. The capacity of the milk production and quality of milk. The capacity is indicated by 5the
total yield or lactation, while the quality is expressed on the basis of the fat content of the
milk, in recent times, the protein content is also considered for milk quality.
b. Early maturity and lifetime production: the earlier the sexual maturity, the better
c. Quick and free milking ability: the faster the milking process, the better because the earlier
the milker finishes, the earlier he goes for another routine operation, the lesser the wages paid
to the milker.
d. Regularity of calving: this is measured by the calving index which is the average time interval
between the birth of one calf and the next one. The most desirable index is 365 days, this is
the basis of the so- called 305 days record.

UDDER DEVELOPMENT
This is usually phased out into
a. Pre- natal to post natal development: the mammary glands arise as the elevation of the
ectoderm of the skin from the inguinal region and sometimes up to thoracic region
depending on the breed. These elevations later on form the milk line on the either side of
the ventral line. At birth, the mammary gland is located in a small around the gland
cistern
b. Pre- puberty stage: the glands are present in both sexes in rudimentary just after birth
and there is hardly any development of the mammary gland until the onset of puberty in
the female. At this point (puberty), there is considerable proliferation of gland tissues of
the mammary gland. It is usually followed by an excessive branching of the ducts. The
development of the udder at this stage is greatly influenced by the body weight gain, this
includes some slight depression of fat and increase in connective tissues. This stage is
only prominent in cows and the development is attributable to the female circulatory
hormones.

AGE AT PUBERTY
MAMMALS MALES FEMALES
Cattle (temperate) 9 months 10months
Cattle (Tropics) 15months 15-24months
Goats 5-6 ½ months 7-10months
Sheep 4- 5months 7- 10months
Pigs 7- 9months 7- 9 months
Horse 14- 16months 15- 25months
 c. Puberty- conception phase: at puberty, the animals undergo a normal estrus cycle, the
mammary gland also undergoes the cyclic changes that accompany the oestrus cycle.
d. Pregnancy : during pregnancy, there is a great proliferation of all mammary tissues
resulting in a great ramification of all duct system. This remarkable increase in the
mammary gland development is slight during the first three months of pregnancy but
becomes quite remarkable from the 3rd to 5th month of pregnancy. By the 6th month, there
is great increase in the size of lobules. By the last 3 months of pregnancy, there is
reduced rate of proliferation in the alveoli. This secretory activity becomes very active
during the last week of pregnancy. There can be visible milk let down in the last day of
pregnancy.

MILK

Milk is a white fluid secreted by female mammals for the purpose of feeding their offsprings

Fresh milk: this is the complete lacteal secretion from the udder of a healthy animal and this is free from
colostrum
WHOLE MILK: this is the milk with no addition or subtraction of any of its natural constituents

Colostrums: this is the first milk produced in the few days following parturition (within 36-48 hours)in
order to enhance its survival. It contains antibodies which are for passive immunity. It also acts as
laxative. It contains vitamins A and E, riboflavin and carotene

Milk fat : these are present in globular form called emulsion. The primary component of the milk fat is
Triglyceride which is 1 mole of glycerol + 3 moles of fatty acids. Milk fat contains at least 140 fatty
acids. The kind of fatty acids depending on whether saturated or unsaturated. Milk fats are physical and
chemically different from any other fat because it is designed by nature for the food and sustenance of
offsprings. It is more digestible by man than vegetable fats. Milk fat aids in calcium absorption and a
good source of energy producing about 2 ¼ of energy produced by an equal amount of carbohydrates.
Milk fat is also rich in fat soluble ADEK.

MILK PROTEIN: there are two main proteins in the milk- casein and lactalbumin. Traces of other
proteins like lactoglobulin, albumin, protease and numerous enzymes such as lipase, hydrolase, amylase,
phosphotase. Caseine comprise about 82% of the total amount milk protein. By virtue of amino acids
composition, milk provides man with high quality protein. There is relative surplus of amino acids, lysine
in milk protein which makes milk valuable in supplementing vegetable protein. Milk protein helps in
growth, repair of worn- out tissues, enzymatic reactions and mental development.

MILK SUGAR: lactise is the main carbohydrate in milk. Lactose is very important for brain
development. It has been reported that students who are breastfed as infants make significant higher
scores in examination than their bottle- fed contemporaries. This is because human milk has higher milk
lactosecontent (7%) than milk of most other mammalian species. Another function of lactose in milk is to
supply energy for muscular activity and maintenance of body temperature. Lactose has certain therapeutic
properties and is known to enhance intestinal absorption of calcium and phosphorus thus helping to
prevent diseases like rickets or osteomalacia. Its presence in the intestine favours acid type fermentation
which may prevent intestinal disorder. Lactose is not as sweet as sucrose (only 20% as sweet) and is less
soluble in water. The low solubility of lactose makes it less irritating to stomach and intestinal mucosa
than highly soluble sugars. This makes milk valuable in diets used in treatment of ulcers of the stomach
and duodenum.

MILK MINERALS: milk is noted for its abundant supply of minerals which occurs in the right
proportionof ratio for optimum absorption from the intestine into the blood. The high levels of calcium
and phosphorus in milk are important in bone and teeth formation in young children, both these elements
play a significant role in preventing osteoporosis in elderly people. Milk contains high levels of
magnescium, zinc and iodine. However, milk is a poor source of iron and neither human nor cow milk
supply enough iron for infants. Fortunately, infants have a store of iron in the liver which is sufficient to
meet the needs of the body during the first six months.

MILK VITAMINS AND OTHER CONSTITUENTS

Milk is an excellent source of vitamins. Vitamins A, D, E and K occur in the fat phase and the others in
aqeous phase of milk. Milk is a major source of some the vitamins needed by infants. It is relatively rich
in vitamins A and E, thiamin, Riboflavin, folic acid and vitamin B 12. In many countries, milk is fortified
with vitamins A and D.

WATER

This is about 83-87% in the milk of cow. It is the major component in which other nutrients are dissolved
or suspended.

MILK COMPOSITIONS OF DIFFERENT MAMMALS

Species Protein Lactose Milk fat Ash Total solids

Cow 3.50 4.90 4.00 0.70 13.10

Goat 3.71 4.20 4.09 0.78 12.86

Sow 5.15 4.17 6.18 0.93 16.43

Sheep 2.69 6.14 1.59 0.51 10.96

Woman 1.63 6.98 3.70 0.21 12.57

Dog 7.10 3.70 8.30 1.30 20.40

Mare 2.10 6.40 1.50 0.30 10.30

FACTORS AFFECTING MILK PRODUCTION

1. Breed and individuality of the cow: Both milk yield and composition vary considerably among
breeds of dairy cattle. Jersey and Guernsey breeds give milk with about 5% fat while the milk of
shorthorns and Friesians contain about 3.5% fat. Zebu cows can give milk containing up to 7%
fat. Milk of individual cows within a breed varies over a wide range both in yield and in the
content of the various constituents. The potential fat content of milk form an individual cow is
determined genetically.
2. Interval between milking: the fat content of milk varies considerably between the morning and
evening milking because there is usually a much shorter interval between morning and evening
milking than between evening and morning milking. If cows were milked at 12-hour interval, the
variation in fat content between milking would be negligible. Normally, solid non-fat content
does not vary with the length of time between milking
3. Stage of lactation: the fat, lactose and protein contents of milk vary according to stage of
lactation. Solid-non-fat content is usually highest during the first two to three weeks, after which
it decreases slightly. Fat content is high immediately after calving but soon begins to fall. The
high protein content of early lactation is due mainly to the high globulin content.
4. Age and health of the dairy animals : As cows grow older, the fat content of their milk decreases
by about 0.02 percentage units per lactation while the fall in solid-non-fat is about 0.04% per
units. Both fat and SNF contents can be reduced by disease particularly mastitis. The salty taste
of milk collected from cow affected by mastitis is due to the high level of chlorides in the milk.
5. Feeding regimes: Underfeeding reduces both the fat and SNF content of milk, although SNF
content is the more sensitive to feeding level. Fat content and fat composition are influenced
more by roughage (fibre) intake. The SNF content may fall if the cow is fed a low-energy diet but
is not greatly influenced by protein deficiency, unless the deficiency is acute
6. Completeness of milking: the first milk drawn from the udder contains about 1.4% fat while the
last milk or stripping contains about 8.7% fat. Thus, it is essential to milk the cow completely and
thoroughly mix all the milk removed before taking a sample for analysis. The fat left in the udder
at the end of a milking is usually picked up during subsequent milking, so there is no net loss of
fat.

MILK PROPERTIES
1. Colour: the most obvious physical property of fresh cow’s milk is that it is white and liquid. .
Milk colour other than white is indicative of processing, spoilage or presence of contaminants
2. Density : the average density of milk at 20Oc is 1030 kg/m3, however the normal range varies
from 1027 to 1033kg/m3. Density of milk decreases as fat or water content of milk increases
while density increases with increase in protein or ash content of milk. Milk density can be
measured using a lactometer.
3. Boiling point: average boiling point of quality milk ranges from 101.1oC to 101.5oC
4. Freezing point : the freezing points ranges from -0.535oC to 0.55oC
5. Flavor/odour : mild aroma
6. pH- Ranges from 6.6 to 6.8
7. viscosity- 0.54 centipoises
8. taste – slightly sweet

LABORATORY TEST FOR MILK QUALITY & MILK COMPOSITIONS

a. density measurement using lactometer: a good way of detecting milk that has been
diluted with water is to measure the density. Milk density can be calculated from the
weight and volume of the milk. Lactometer is a form of hydrometer adapted to the
normal range of density for milk products. Normal range @ 20oc is 1027-1033kg/m3.
b. Dry matter determination: this is referred to as milk solids. It can be measured as weight
loss in milk during heating. To measure dry matter content of milk, weigh a known
quantity of sand into a container, put in an oven until constant weight is attained, mix a
known quantity of milk with dry sand and put in the oven until constant weight is
reached. Calculate the water loss and dry matter content. Average dry matter content of
cow milk is 13%.
c. Organoleptic test: colour, smell and taste- fresh milk is white and liquid. Other colour is
an indicative of contamination or adulteration. Smell is mild aroma and slightly sweet
taste.
d. Acidty test: fresh milk is slightly acidic pH (6.6-6.8). Lactic acid in milk is caused by
bacteria and its presence in fresh milk is indicative of either processing or deterioration.
Titratable acidity is obtained by titration of the milk with NaOH in the presence of
phenolphthalein as indicator.
e. Reduction test this involves using methlylene blue or Resazurin test: these tests have to
do with the length of time. It takes for bacteria to reduce oxygen present in the milk. Bad
milk (high bacterial counts) decolourises faster while good milk takes a long time to
decolourise.
f. Butyrometer: used to measure the butterfat
g. The level of enzyme phosphotase: it shows the level of bacterial activity, the enzyme
phosphotase break down the milk protein and level of this enzymes will determine the
fitness of human consumption. The chemical Alkaline phosphotase is used.
h. Lactic acid and ammonia levels: nitrogen concentration would also be determined

MILK PROCESSING
This involves the following:
1. Milk separation
2. Milk Homogenization
3. Milk Pasteurization
4. Milk Sterilization
5. Milk standardization

MILK SEPERATION
When milk is allowed to stand for at least 30- 40 minutes, the fat fractions seperate
from the skim milk. This is known as CREAMING. The creaming process can be
used to remove fat from milk in a more concentrated form. A number of methods can
be used to separate cream from milk
a. Gravity separation
b. Centrifugal separation

GRAVITY SEPERATION

Fat globules in milk are lighter than the plasma phase and hence rise to form a
cream layer. Cream can be separated from milk by allowing the milk to stand in a
setting pan in a cool place. This can be done either in two ways
1. Shallow pan : milk preferably fresh from the cow is poured into shallow pan
40- 60cm in diameter and about 10cm deep. The pan should be in cool place.
After 36hours practically all of the fat capable of rising by this method to
come to the surface and the cream is skimmed off with spoon or ladle. The
skimmed milk left usually contain about 0.5- 0.6% butterfat
2. Deep setting: fresh milk is poured into a deep can of small diameter. The can
is placed in cold water and kept as cool as possible. After 24 hours, the
separation is usually as complete as it is possible to secure. The skim milk is
removed through a tapat the bottom of the can. The fat content of the skim
milk under thid method is about 0.2 or 0.3%.

CENTRIFUGAL SEPERATION
Gravity separation is slow and inefficient. Centrifugal separation is quicker
and more efficient leaving less than 0.1% fat in the seperated milk compared
with 0.5%-0.6% after gravity separation. It also allows the removal of cream
and recovery of skim milk in a fresh state.
The separation of cream from milk in the centrifugal separator is based on
the fact that when liquids of different specific gravities revolve around the
same centre at the same distance with the same angular velocity. A greater
centrifugal force is exerted on the heavier liquid than on the lighter one. Milk
can be regarded as two liquids ( the serum and the fat) of different specific
gravities. Milk enters the rapidly revolving bowl at the top, the middle or
bottom of the centrifugal machine when the bowl is revolving rapidly, the
force of gravity is overcome by the centrifugal force which is 5000 to 10000
times greater the gravitational force. When the milk is introduced into
separation channels, solid impurities are separated from the milk and thrown
back along the undersides of the discs to the periphery of the separator bowl.
The cream i.e. fat globules are less dense than the skim milk settles inwards
in the channels towards the axis of rotation before skimmed milk.

Factors affecting creaming

1. Fat content of milk: cream – layer volume is greatest in milk that has
high fat content and relatively large fat globules because such milk
contains more large clusters
2. Temperature: milk temperature affects creaming irrespective of the fat
content of the milk. Heating to above 60oc reduces creaming and milk
that is heated to above 100oC retains very little creaming ability.
3. Agitation: excessive agitation disrupts normal cluster formation but
creaming in cold milk may be increased by mild agitation since such
treatment favours larger, loosely packed clusters
 MILK HOMOGENIZATION
Homogenized milk is milk that is thoroughly mixed. The purpose is to
break fat globules into smaller units that are uniformly distributed in the
milk. Since whole milk (full cream) has the tendency to separate.
Homogenization helps to prevent or delay the formation of a cream layer
in milk.
PURPOSES OF MILK HOMOGENUZATION
1. To break fat globules into smaller droplets and distribute uniformly
2. To stabilize the milk emulsion
3. To obtain milk of uniform fat content
4. To improve flavor and texture of milk
5. To increase surface area of fat globules for action of micro-
organisms in fermented milk products and cheese manufacture
PRINCIPLES OF HOMOGENIZATION
A. Milk is forced at high pressures through a narrow slit which is
only slightly larger than the diameter of the fat globules
B. Velocity in the narrow slit is very high, up to 100-250m/s
C. The high pressure and velocity cause a high shearing stress,
cavitations and micro-turbulence in the milk
D. Fat globules become deformed, wavy and then break up into
smaller droplets

MILK PASTEURIZATION
This is a form of heat treatment of milk used to destroy bacteria in milk and other pathogenic
organisms while retaining the nutritional qualities of the milk.

TIME/ TEMPERATURE COMBINATION USED IN MILK PASTEURIZATION

1. Long time, low temperature pasteurization: milk is heated to 62- 65 oC and held at this
temperature range for 30minutes and then cooled immediately to less than 4 oC. It has 98-
99% germ (pathogenic organisms) killing effect. It is mostly used in developing countries
2. High temperature, short time pasteurization: this is heating milk to 72- 76 oC for 15- 40
seconds (using continouos plate heat exchangers) and the cooling to less than 4oC. It has
99.5% killing effect.
3. Flash pasteurization: this is a high temperature heating. Milk is heated to 85-90 oC for 1- 4
seconds. And rapidly cooled to less than 4oc in a continouos heat exchanger. It has 99.9%
germ killing effect. It is used for cream an d yoghurt mik. Peroxidase enzyme is inactivated..
4. Ultra High Temperature treatment (UHT): this may involve two stages of heating. Milk is
first heated to 75oc and later under pressure to 135-150oc for 2-6 seconds and rapidly cooled
to less than 4oc. Almost all micro-organisms and bacterial spores are destroyed by this
method. The two methods employed here are
a. Direct UHT: This involves steam injection followed by vacuum cooling
b. Indirect UHT: Use of heat exchangers causes more nutritional and organoleptic defects

EFFECTS OF PASTEURIZATION ON MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS

A. It destroys all pathogenic micro-organisms ( such as coliform bacteria) in milk.
B. It reduces considerably the population of spoilage organisms
C. It improves the flavor of milk through the diacetyl flavor, peptides, peptones, amino
acids and aldehydes
D. It activates milk enzymes especially phosphotases, peroxidases and other enzymes
E. It eliminate some feed and weed odour by volatization
F. It produces milk products of uniform quality
G. It increases the storage or shelf life of milk and milk products
H. It destroys organisms that interfere with the activities of desirable micro-organisms
such as starter cultures ( bacteria) like streptococcus lactis, Lactobacillus bulgaris
I. Pasteurization is done so as to make milk protein more elastic
J. Pasteurization significantly slows down rennet coagulation

MILK STERILIZATION
Milk is subjected to severe heat treatment that ensures almost complete destruction of
the microbial population. The products is then said to be commercially sterile. It
invoves the production of sterile milk ( i.e no micro-organism). Milk is heated to
109-115oc for 20-40 minutes, cooled and filled aseptically into sterile containers. All
micro-organisms and spores in the milk are destroyed ( except heat resistant spores)
e.g. Bacillus stearothermophillus). All enzymes are in activated (except heat resistant
lipases and proteases derived from pseudomonas strains)
 Side effects of milk sterilization include non- enzymatic browning (Mailalard
reaction), cooked or caramelized flavor due to decomposition of lactose and
destruction of vitamins

Milk Standardization
Standardization of milk and cream. Fat cintent of fresh milk varies aming breeds of
cattle and aming individual cattle within the breed. Composition of diet, season and
stage of lactation also affect fat composition of milk. In order to obtain a uniform fat
content in fresh milk sold for consumption, some forms of standardization are
necessary.
Standardization of milk involves the production of desired fat content in cream or
whole milk. For example, if the fat content of whole milk must be reduced to a given
level, skimmed milk must be added. The usual method of making standardization
calculation is the Pearson’s square technique.
Example : how much skimmed milk containing 0.1% fat is needed to reduce the
percentage fat in 200kg of cream from 34% to 30%

29.9 parts of cream require 4 parts of skim milk

200part of cream require x parts of skim milk.

Therefore, weight of skimmed milk needed =

Adjustable skim milk x quantity of milk

Adjustable cream

MILK OFF FLAVOUR

Certain Nutritional programmes or some management practices on the dairy farm can cause off flavor
problem in milk. This can have long –term ramifications with the consumers because of a poor tasting
products. It can equally undermine consumer confidence in dairy products. Off flavor commonly found in
milk can be classified into three basic categories- the ABC s of off flavor development

a. Absorbed: Absorbed flavor defects can develop before and after milking. It can occur when milk
is uncovered in the consumer; s refrigerator or kept in cold rooms and dairy products absorb other
odour producing foods. Absorbed off flavor include feed odours, barny, unclean, weedy and
musty odours.
 b. Bacterial degradation results from bacteria that get into milk upon contact with improperly
washed or sanitized equipment from external contamination. Infection of dairy cows, off flavor
include acid, malty, fruity and putrid flavours
c. Chemical: chemical defects can occur both before and after milking. The cowy or ketone flavor is
the result of the animal suffering from ketosis. A foreign flavor can be caused by medication, a
reaction to pesticides, disinfectants or nay number of contaminants. Rancidity and oxidation
result from degradation of milk fat.

Barny flavor: absorbed flavor from the milking environment

Rancid flavor: flavor that occurs as a result of degradation of milk fat into fatty acids.

Ketone flavor: off flavor as a result of animal suffering from ketosis.

Some farm related causes of milk off flavor are

1. Lack of adequate protein in the diet of dairy cow

2. Not feeding enough total energy for the level of milk produced
3. Milking cows longer than 305 days
4. Added stress when miling cows more than two times per day
5. Air leaks in the pipeline milkers
6. Flooding of pipelines and receivers jars
7. Partial or less than every other day collection of milk from farms
8. Freezing in bulk tank
9. Over agitation in the bulk tank

Other non- farm related causes of off flavor include

1. Holding raw milk in processing plants more than 48 hours after collection
2. Failure to empty and wash raw milk storage tanks every processing day
3. Air leaks in pipe
4. Running pumps in starved condition