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    H Hearder Europe in The Nineteenth Century

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    Hernán Scholten

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    EUROPE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 1830-1880 H. HEARDER LONGMAN ‘tendon Avovaed campo, branches and representa: ope he sors © H, Header 1966 All sights reserved No part of this publication may bbe reprodecl, stored in 4 revival stem oF ‘eatin ay Tym o by an means ce tronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording o¢ ‘thers without the pine permision the ‘Copyright ownet, Fit public 1966 Second impression and fst paperback ition 1970 ISBN 0 82 48212 7 cased ISBN 0 $82 48344 1 paper For Anna Contents ‘Vases ofthe nineteenth-centry source, p. 1 the dip- lomati sources, p. 2 ~seret negotiations p.3~ pated pri ‘mary sources, p.4~ the British Blue Books, p. 5 ~collesons of Prussian, Freach and Tealian printed documents, p. 6 — vate papers and memoirs, p. 7— more extensive sources for patlamentary than for despotic states, p. 8 ~ censuses, p. 9 ~ social and economic history: the iterary sources, p. 20 — the statistical sources, p. 10 ~the press, p. 12~news agencies, P13 photography, p17. 11, EUROPE IN 1830 Significance ofthe growth in population, p. 19 ~ situation ‘inherited from the Napoleone petiod and peace af 815, p. 20 =the restored Bourbons in France, p23 ~the politeal scene in ‘Briain before the grat Reform Act . 25 ~ Spain ant Ports al, p. 28 ~ Italy aftr 1815, p. 29 ~ the Carbonar p.30~the ‘United Netherlands, p. 30" the German Confederation, p31 ‘the sradeat societies p. 32 ~ absolutism in Prussia, p.33~and im Austris, p. 33 ~ the nationalities under the Habsburg ‘Monarchy, p. 33 ~ the Scandinavian countzes,p. 34 ~ Raza and Poland, 1815-30, p. 35 ~ the Onoman Empire under ‘Mahmud I, p. 35 ~ Greek independence, p. 36 ~ Metternich land the Congress, p. 37 - optimism ofthe revolutionaries, Pe ‘The place of the pla thinkers in the history of dhe Pid, p40 ~ iis of intenth-entry nationalism, p 4 = Heel, p.44~ Mastin. 4 Trees, p48 ~relion- ‘hip berneennaonli ed itera, 50 Cosi, p. 50 ~ Bentham and his floner,p.5t~ camervatve empl thought, p53 ~ De Tocqueville, p. 54 ~ John Sere Mil, Page 9 P. 55—T. H, Green, p. 56 ~Cattaneo, p. $6-origns of ineteenthentury socialism, p. 57~the ‘Utopian’ p. 38— Saint Simon's influence. $8 - Owes, p. 58~ Fourie, p 59 ~ CConsdérant,p. 59 - Proudhon, p. 60~ Blane, p.6t ~ Marx, p. 61 ~ Engel, p. 61 ~ Mare and Bakanin,p. 63 ~ the Inter- ational, p. 64 Industilzation and population growth, p. 66 ~ Europe's technological ead, p. 68 ~ new industrial methods spread fom Briain to Belgium, France and Germany, p.69~ belated industrialization in Rusia, p. 7 ~ che frst always, P73 — the Stephenson, p.75~ steamships. 79 cheap stl .80— Bessemer, p. 80 ~ the Siemens and Gilcrist-Thomas ro- cesses, p 1 the machin industy, p82 ~thetereinduray, Pp. $2~ coal-mining, p. 82 — join stock companies and limited liability, p. 83 ~ provision of capital for industry bythe state in France and Germany, p. 84 = the growth of new cites, Pas. Changes, improvements and dificlies of agriculture before 1830, p. 87 ~ octuatng fortunes of agricultare in Briain, ‘88 ~ the land problem in Ireland before and after the Great Famine, p. 89 ~ comparative prosperity ofthe French pean, _.go~ poverty on the land in Germany, p91 emancipation of ‘the serfs in the Habsburg empire p. 9t ~ great varity of agrcutarl systems in the Balkans, p. 92 - the place of the serf on the land and in the mi in Rusia, p. 92 ~ emancipation ofthe Russian serfs in 186, p. 93 ~ agriculture in Scandinavia and the Mediterranean counties, p. 93 ~ the heyday of free trade, p. 94 ~ the work of Cobden and the Ant-Cora Law ‘movement p. 96 ~ reduction of tarifs elsewhere in Europe, P. 97 ~ the Zalloerin,p. 97 ~ Guiao’s commercial policy, . 100 ~ commercial teste, p. ror ~ the Anglo-French ‘Treaty of 1869, p10 tart sing again after 1870, p. 103 — ‘business crises and the increasing competition from the US.A., 104 ~ British supremacy asa wading nation, athe wold’ Danke and main source of capital, p. 105. Page Great variety of socnl conditions, p. 106 ~ the Russian ‘ary withthe trade ope, p. 143 ~ 1842 in Lancashire p. 214 illness and disease epidemics, . 114~ opium taking, p.114— improved conditions in Britain oly after 185, p. 115 ~indus- ‘wil Germany: drunkenness and lack of food and clothing, 'B.116 ~ improvement after 1860, p. 117 ~ workers sings in France, p. 118 ~ conditions in Belgium, p.119~ the slums in Briain, Germany and France, p. 120 lack of public health _measuresp.122-Edwin Chadwick. 122 working conditions in Briain, France and Germany, p. 123 ~ employment of ‘women and children. 124 ~ Shaftesbury, p. 125 ~ Germany's record in facory legislation beter than France's, p. 126 ~ ‘wade unions, p. 127~ poor reli, p.130~the food and dothes ofthe middle clasp. 131 ~ domestic servants, p. 13. The instraments of diplomary, p. 133 ~ the sineteenth czatuy a comparatively peaceful one for Europe, p. 134 =the regulation of diplomatic practice bythe Treaty of Viena, p. 135 ~ the 1856 Protocol of Pais, p. 136 ~ diplomatic services becoming more profesional, p. 137 ~ use of the telegraph, (140 The fires of diplomacy, p.x4t~non-interventon in 1830, p.142~ diplomacy and the revolutions of 1848, p. 142 ~ ‘rgin ofthe Crimean War, p. 143 ~ ofthe Franco-Austian War of 1859, p. 145 ~ ofthe Austro-Prusian War of 1856, .148 — of the Franco-Prasian War of 1870, p. 150 - The scenes of diplomacy, p. 153 ~ the Coacert of Europe, p. 153, = the Belgian Question, p. 154 ~ the Mehemet Ali rises of 1833 and 1839-41 p. 155 ~the limitation of warfare in 3854 1856, p. 157 ~in 1859, p.158-—in 1866, p. 158 and in 1870, 158 the predominance of Germany afer 187%, p. 150 ~ the Eastern Question, 1875-78, p. 160 ~ the Congress of Beli, . 162 ~ the Dual Austo-German Alliance of 1875, p. 163, vi Page 106 Pottal developments: France. p. 167 ~ the July Revolur tion, 1830, p 168 ~ instability ofthe July Monarchy p. 169 — Guizo, p. 169 ~ reasons for the fill of Louis-Philippe, . 169 ~ revolutions of 1848, p. 171 Lous-Napoleon,p. 173 ~ establishment of the Second Empire, p.174~foreign policy, 38s2-s9, p. 175 ~ the Liberal Empire, p. 176 ~ foreign policy, 1859-70, p. 377 ~ the Wat and the Commune, 1870, 177 ~the Third Republic, p. 179 ~ Poca! deeelopments: ‘Brit, p.180~ the Reform Act of 1832, p. 181 ~ Evangelical and Benthamite reforms, p. 183 ~ Queen Vitoria, p. 183 — (Chartsm, p. 183 ~ the Anti-Corn Law movement, p. 184 ~ the Conservative spit p 185 ~ the Crimean War, p. 186 ~ Palmerston, p. 186 ~ the Reform Act of 1867, p. 188 ~ Glad stone and Disraeli, 1867-80, p. 189 ~ the North and the ‘Midlands, p. 190 ~ Sealand, p. 190 ~ Ireland, p 91 ~ British foreign policy, p. 192 ~ Anglo-French relations, . 194 Spain, 1.195 ~Polita aston, p. 297 Briain afc the 1832 Act, . 198 the July Monarchy, p. 199 ~ the Second Republic, . 200 ~ the Second Empire, p. 200 - Britain after the 1867 ‘Act p. 201 ~ the Third Republic, p. 202 ~ administration in France and Britain, p. 203 ~ the armed fores, . 205. Paltical developments: Germany, p. 209 ~ revolutionary ‘movements ofthe 1830, p. 209 = Metternich and Frederick ‘Willam I1,p. 212 ~ revolutions of 1848, p. 213 ~ Frederick ‘William IV's refusal ofthe imperil crown, p. 2r5 ~ Prusi's ‘eclipse, 1850, p. 216 ~ the Prssan Liberals, p, 216 ~ the cis ‘over army ree, p 215 ~ Bismarck, . 217 ~ Poland, 1863, . 218 ~ Scheswig-Holstin, 1864-66. 219 ~ the Seven Weeks ‘War, p. 220 ~ the North German Confederation, p. 220~ the creation of the German Empire, p. 222 ~ the Kuluhompf, 1p. 223 ~ the socalt,p. 224 ~ Political developments Italy, ‘p25 ~ revolutions of 1831, p. 225 ~ Mazi, p. 227 ~ Gio- ‘bert, p. 238 ~ Pius IX, p. 229 ~revoludons of 1848, p. 229 = Chale Albert's was with Austria, p.230~ the Roman and ‘Venetian Republi, p. 231 ~ Cavou, . 233 ~ Piedmont and Pye 165 207 ‘the Crimean War, p. 234 ~ Plombites, p. 235 ~ che war of 1859, p. 235 ~ Villaanca,p. 235 ~ Garibaldi and the Thou- sand, p. 236 ~ the creation of the Kingdom of Ialy, p. 238 ~ the war of 1866, p. 239~the Roman Question, p. 239 ~ De- rei p. 240 ~ Political incon, p. 242 ~ abeolutism in Germany and Tely before 1848, p. 241 ~the constitutions of 188 p.242~ Dismarcl’s ue of universal sulfa, p. 248 ~ the ‘constitutions of united. Germany and Tey, p. 247 ~ the ad- ‘ministrative systems, p. 248 ~ the armed forces, p. 250, Polsal development: Belgium, p. 254 ~ revolution af 1830, 1. 254 ~ reign of Leopold I, p. 255 ~ Palical developments Holland, p. 256 ~ Wiliam ¥ andthe loss of Belgium, p. 256 — ‘Thorbecke and the Dutch parliament, p. 257 ~ Polical developments: Switzerland, p, 258 ~ the strugle between Catholics and democrats, 1830-45, p. 258 ~ the Sondobud, 1.238 ~ tangully and stability of Swiss pola fe since 1848 p. 259 ~ Paialinsiions, 259 ~ Belgian constiution of 1831, p. 259 ~ the Dutch constitution under William 1, 1. 260~constirutions of 1848: in Holland, p. 261 ~in Switzer- land, p. 261 ~ guarantees of neutrality for Switzerland and Belgium, p. 263. [EMPIRE AND THE BALKAN STATES Political dvolopments” Autro-Hungary, p. 267 ~ the Met= teach ee p 267 ~ the revolutions af 16, p. 268 ~ Kosruth and Hungarian independence, p. 269 ~ the Schwarzenberg, tid, p. 270 ~ the Bach system, p. 27 ~ constitutional x Periments, 1860-61, p. 271 ~ the Aueleich,p. 372 - Paieal deceopments: Rusia, p. 273 ~ the reign of Nicholas I, p. 274 ~ ‘the Polish revolution of 839, p. 275 =the Crimean Wa, 9.276 ~ Alexander IT, p. 276-2 politi thaw, p. 276 ~ the emsnci pation of the Seri, p. 277 ~ the Polish revolution of 1863, .278—the evolutionary societies, p. 279 ~ Westerizers and 233 265 Slavopilsp. 280 - the Populist, p. 281 ~ Paiical develop ‘ments: the Ostoman Empire, p. 283 ~ Mahmud's flare {efoem the empire, p. 282 ~ Greece, p. 282 ~ the Danubian Principals become Rumania, p. 263 ~ Serbia, p. 233 — ‘Montenegro, p. 284 ~ Bulgaria, p. 284 ~ attempts a reform Mier 1839, p. 285 ~ the Eastern crisis of 1875-78, p. 286 ~ ‘Pliial eateon,p. 267 ~ comparisons and contrasts in the thee Eastern empires, p. 287 ~ the March laws in Hungary, 1847, p. 289 — the Kremsier consttion in Austria, p. 289 ~ Francis Joep, p. 290 ~the February Patent of 1864, p.290— ‘Alexander U's legal reforms, p. 291 ~ the somos, p 29% —the ‘Turkish reform movement: the Tataima,p.293~ Balkan con- sation a4 —bremnces,p35 =e ame fs, P. Aap, 30t~ Russian expansion nto Cental Asi, p. 301 ~ and in the Fat Est, p. 303 ~ Brtsh India, p. 303 ~ che Indian Mutiny, p. 30§~ The Far Bast, p. 305 ~ the Western impact on China p. 306~the Opium War andthe wa of 857, 1. 306~ the opening up of Japan, p. 307 ~ Aural. 308 — the Dutch in the East Indies, p. 08 - Australia and New Zealand p. 308 ~ Africa. 309 ~ European ignorance of Aca, . 309~the Freach conquest of Algeria, p. 310 Eeypt, p31 the Suer Cana. 311 ~ missionaries inthe Aiea interior, 312 exphitaton ofthe Congo, p- 313 ~ West Ate, p 313, Bish and Boers in South fice p. 314 ~ Southend Geral “America, p. 35 Bra. 315~ Chil, p.315~ Anglo-French interention agaist Ross of Buenos Aires, 316~ the Argen- tine Confederation, p.316~ the war ofexermination aginst Paraguay, p. 317 ~ Nepoleon TIP iaerestion in Mexico, .317~ Maximilian p. 318 ~ significance of the Monroe Doc tin, p 319 ~ Anglo-American relations in Cental America, 1.319 Noh meric. 320 ~ Bris nd French reactions to the American cl wasp 320 =the Tren incident. 321 — ‘emigration from Europe 9 North Americ, p. 322~ Canada, 333 Page conrenrs, XIIL, EDUCATION, SCHOLARSHIP AND RELIGION ‘The need to educite the electors p. 326 ~ Pesala’ infuence, p. 327 ~ state education in France, p. 328 ~ in rasta . 329~elsewhere in Germany, p. 530~ia Austria, 331 inTtaly,p.33t—in Swiverlnd, Holland and Belgium, 333 ~ backwardness of educational system in Britain. 334 = education in Russa p.336-the universitie of Euope,p.337 ~ growing prestige of the natural siences,p. 339 - Comte, 1.339 ~achierements of experimental science p.340~Darwin, .341—Huley,p. 343 ~ the sclenic schol of history: Renke, .344 ~ Burckhards, p. 345 = Macaulay, p. 345 ~ Calpe, .345~Acton, p. 346~the Catholic Chureh before 1846p. 347 ~ Lamennas, p. 347 ~the Church of England andthe Oxford ‘Movement, p. 349 ~ Newman's coavenion to Catholicism, 'P- 349~Plus IX and the Temporal Power, p.350~Dllinge, . 350 ~ the Syllabus of Eros, p. 3st ~ the Vatican Counc, . 351 ~ Papal Inflibilty, p. 352 ~ the Old Catholics and the Kidnrkamp, p. 352 ~ the role ofthe Orthodox Church Ester political developments, p. 353. ‘The novel, p. 355 ~ Manzoni, p. 355 ~ other Talan and German novelists, p. 355 ~ Dumas, p. 356 ~ Hage, p. 356 — Stendhal, p.356~ Balzac, p. 358 ~ uber, p. 359 ~ Russian novels p. 359 ~ Toit, p. 339 = Desterski, p. 360 ~ novels of socal observation: Mrs Gaskell, p. 360 ~ Zola, B. 361 ~ Dickens, p. 361 ~ George Eliot, p. 362 ~ Emly ‘Bron p. 362 ~ Hard, p.362~ humour, p. 362 ~ Goncharov, . 362 ~ nonsense verse, p. 362 ~the short story, p. 362~ the ‘theatre, p. 363~ the Romantic dramatts,p 363 the poetry of ‘ntrovesion, p. 363 ~ Leopardi, p. 364 - Lamartine and ‘Masset, p. 364 - Heine, p. 364 ~ Clare, p. 365 ~ the later Romantics and the idecogical debate, p. 365 ~ Tennyson, . 365 ~ Browning, p. 366 ~ Swinbume,p. 366 Cardacc and ‘anew classicism, p. 366 ~ Matthew Arnold p. 367 narrative vere p. 3677 the impact of Baudelaizs p. 367 the music of ‘the later Romantics, . 368 ~ Bera, p. 368 ~ Mendelsohn, '. 369~ Schumann, p. 369 ~ Wagner, p. 369 ~ Verdi, p. 370 Brahms, p. 379 ~ Chopin, p, 370 ~ Russian composes, p. 370 Page 76 356 Page = Tebikowhy,p. 371 ~ painting, p. 372 ~ Feeih p37 = Conse, pe 370 = Turme,p 378 ~ ges, p 371 Dea- cron, ps 372 the Impressions, . 372 —seuleur,p. 373 trclectrep 374 the Gabi evi p374~the bul ing of Pris. 376 xv, EUROPE IN 1880 a Central figures of the period under the influence of an earlier age, p. 378 ~ the Third French Republic a synthesis of catler regimes, p. 378 ~ democratic elements emerging in Brit, p. 380 ~ dominant postion of German Empire, 1. 381~ corruption and disillsionmentinaly,p.381~Austi- Hungary recovering, but with the naonality problems un- solved, p. 38x ~ growing unrest in Rusia, p.382~ some nin feentnceatury origins of democrauc, fascist and socialist ‘movements ofthe twentieth century, p. 382 ~ opinism ofthe ‘etid giving way to doubt and apprehension by 1886, p. 383. roGRAPHTCAL NOTE 35 INDE 387 Maps - Europe in 1830 The vaikaays of Europe in 1848 and 1877 - The wification of Germany The unification of Italy 5. Russian expansion into Asia before 1880 5. Europe in 1880 and 210211 S28 Acknowledgments ‘We are indebted to the copyright owners for permission to reproduce copyright material from the following Germany 1815-1890 by G.3, Smith Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ld); Everyman's Atlas of Asa John Bartholomew & Son Lid); Hondlook (on Taly Part 2 (HLMS.O.); The Age of Revolution in Europe by E. J. Hobsbawn (Weidenfeld & Nicolson Lid); and Economie Geography of Europe by Blnshard and Visher (McGraw-Hill Book Company). Preface Tam glad to beable ro use this opportunity to thank Profesor W. N, ‘Medico for having introduced me, a good many years ago now, tthe history of nineteenth-centory Europe, and forall the Kindness and ‘encouragement which he has given me ever since, I would like, £00, 2 recall my debt tothe late Dame Lilian Penson, who fist guided my acemps in original historical writing, and whote formidable person ality never completely concealed great warmth and generosiy of pit Inthe writing ofthis volume itself Ihave depended a good deal on the advice and suggestions of Profesor Denys Hay, who read the typesipt, [My clleggue, Mr W. M, Sten, was kind enough to read chapter 1° and tomake meticulous and invaluable comments. My colleagues in the department of International History at the Landon School of Boo romics have often helped me in conversation, often without rediing that they were doing so, and Dr M.S. Andemon deserves aspeial word of thanks both forthe expe which he has provided for me in writing his own volume in the series, and for discussing the common problems presented in the writing of such studies, For speci euggzstions of ‘useful books or articles T would like to thank Me R. C. Peskins, Dr ‘WB. Stephens of The Victoria County Hisory and Professor Michast Wolof Victorian Studs, My wie typed a draft of the greater par of ‘the volume, and her comments did much to improre the syle, But, ‘obviously, for any remaining imperfections of style eros of fact, ot inadequacies of interpretation, Tam sloneresponsibe. have tried to fllow the pattern sugested by Profesor Denys Hay for the series, in the sense that T have attempted to present the Europe ‘of these years inthe round T have mentioned not only the monarchs, politicians and diplomats, but aso the writers and engineers, the artiste and farmers the workers and bankers, Tmake no apology forthe longish sections on social conditions and education, since I believe that those ‘wo considerable sections ofthe community-—the poor andthe ehldren have to often been fergocten in histories of Europe. On the other hand I have not wanted to play down the more traditional themes of constittional or diplomatic history, since I believe that che struggle for power between politcal groups or nitions, the preservation of peace and {he causes of wars must remain central themes ofthe historian. With regard tthe sections devoted to the histaris ofthe various European ‘countries « word of explanation may be offered onthe grouping within chapters, A natural grouping might have been of Germaay and Austra together, rather than of Germany and Ia in one chapter and Austria, ‘Russia and Turkey in nother. The civilization of Germany and Austria ‘were certainly close in evry sense than were those of Rusit and Aus> aria. I decided, however, to group togeter Germany and Tay, since ‘this enabled me to compare and contrast two emerging nation Sate. Tn grouping Austria with Czaist Rusia and the Oxtoman Empire T sid ntintend alight on that mach maligned institaton, the Hasburg Monarchy. The Sources ‘The historian of nineteenth-century Europe it ficed with so vast a _quantiy of source materi, most oft relatvely accessible, that he must either restrict his research to a very small field of study, or else be cexremely selective, not merely inthe souroes which he employ, but in "hose which he consuls. Thus the historian seudying amere six months ofthe foreign pliy of one Great Power i the seond half ofthe cen- tury would find relevant material in the archives of many countries— ‘material contained in a great many bound volumes, files or botes of despatches. fhe then decided tha it was necessary to consider public ‘opinion with regard to his theme, he might fel cbliged to consult the ‘Earopean press forthe period, and could thus give himself an skmost cndles task. Hstosians of erie centuries may find that their sources aintiosnarory, Some of he lage Buropean acves publish ists o intro ‘ocions othe materi ut thee no single pion oe sma fa suc pableatens or siceethcentary sous. One shot gle the ut ‘sf siplomaie itary in wetem Europes anne haw been Prepored or ‘American scolar and is ella ey bei itrodacion:D.H. Thoma and LLIN Cav, etn, Cue the Diplomats Acie of Ween Bape (de ‘kip 295) A aable work of refrence forthe dla itera ‘Tempeey and LM. Penson, Coney of Dilan Be Bask 1824-94 (Caress, 1938), wins ee toe Brian Patamenay Papers wih ane ‘Stel tom the Foreign Of, and hs shor tae oth pies of the aos feria crear ofthe period wih seer tothe putea of Bae Backs, ‘There inno simile peta forthe norma number of Beli Pa senary Papers which cal with dementia of tc ‘Silom Bie Book ae dacuoed in anal by Vatrie Cromwell" ‘Adminstraive Background to the Presentation t Parlamens of Parise) ‘apes en Foreign Aisin the Nig Ninwent Ceylon ef the ‘Sox of Ary, volt, No.7 (Ape 1963) ret deat in bo wen oo ie history of be Bre, toa nc St, ot Srpeagy of = our ature. Two shai works on he eth pete deere meon’ A. Arial ‘Potts end he Pay 1780-150 (London 1949 and the ol an roa toa irs of he Ti The Thee te Mating, 785-1890 The ue sources a too few: the medievalit, with a Limited number of relevant doct= rents, will spend much time and energy in considering the precise ‘aidigy and significance of each precious piece of evidence. The nine teenh-centery historian mus, obviously, also be sure ofthe authen- ticy and importance of the emalest document, but, because of his, searnes in ime t his sources, chis wil usually prove a comparatively ‘isy tsk, His more dificult tak will certainly be that of slecon—of ‘eciding which piece af evidence to use, and which ro discard, which ‘tors to consider and which t omit. "The diplomatic history of the nineteenth cenuy has now been studied with considerable thoroughness, though there will lvays be new questions t answer and uneramined sources to explore. More, pethaps than any ocer aspect of inetcenthzcrury history the dipl~ Tate one hs a numberof well ondered archives at its disposi archives containing a wealth of public and private despatches, nots, telegrams tnd memoranda. Some European governments have maintained a fifty yest rule, by which they have refrained from making dplomatie docs ‘ments avaible tothe public forthe fest ity year after they have been ‘wren, but the rule hasnt, ofcourse, applied othe period 1830-80 for some years In nearly every country of western and cetral Europe the ‘iplomatic archives are now readily open to the interested and qualifed publicwin other words, to histrians—mho can search at lure ‘through the papers ofthe varius foreign ministre, In one sens, then, the diplomatic historian has a srightforward tsk, But he has other, less straightforward, ones. Inthe papers of the foreign ministries be wil ind only very siely general statements ofthe principles on which governments based their polices, or even what the ultimate aims and objecives of policy were. More often he wil ind only day-to-day accounts of negotiations in which there are few, if any, general state~ Tratin Babe, 2842-884. B soy of the French pes inthe pei enter of history of centri nd goverment cont sree Clin, The Goer andthe Newipaper Pret Prone 1814-1882 (Oxlt 1989) A ceteris of ite tol, ele Cleon Kivu sd pulsed by Arnd (Cala det withthe pres ina popular but wel documented sho, Several of ‘hem cover pride othe nineteen cntary, and on ny pra ots ‘tt mane: Chas Ledr La Prese 4 At dele Monee 18151848 (Pars, it). Ren de Lives iar de la Pre Praga wl, Laue, 196s) infrmaiv and stacey sated. Ap ecelleat quick save of the Buropean pres forthe eenter part of the period contained in: John ‘och Baueato nd the ren Te Nes Cambre Modem sary, 0.x, ‘ited by JP Bay (Came, 1980). ent esis forthe istrin o roduc sch reads of seo ‘dos ta cee summa) and 0 poie as nerpemion sia Wil be vid fir his eae. Diplasatis anes do, hovere, oa. Sony coin geeralaedwatmens fires fhe nae In the archives ofthe Qual @ ry fhe per ef te Scan Bape tere ae, fr emp scsi emarnd, dei up bya rece ny ial forthe information of hs emperor ins snd akg statement onthe ener sunon.naande mane pray undersecery inthe BeshFteign Ole wuld someting og 4 memandu onthe dpb seein Enope fr the esto Seay of ste who ha juste apne the Foeign Of, ‘And ccasial of cnn, even tfrgn minis hanes ae rit of nepottiony, wil make «gee Sates of i pls, aid Tepe and Dane Ltn Foon cd unter such earaled comment on the pnp of Bh eres ring the period 1815 to 1914 fom te Foreign fies pups tie Pe Read Ofc, and pulsed these wits tf cel ne eng Theda of rsh Fe aa, 3 ‘Another ica fe by he plat istorii the abt soe alikal Kader bad ef cooing negtons though unsicd anol o that «zed ofthe ngotatons did aor pes ie ficgn minty papers, Neplen I peered sxe prea il sacha fe this fog mini and eur plants te ask reaiig his inteton, Often be aid wt een im thea ot Begins which he bad already conducted, Th he ces ps of Plone! which Nopoeba dew up, vertal, with Cavern 18, Jeena traces inthe Frac orig ity sed Count Wale ficgn miner, was not even tl oft eines Te al echt ‘eto Poteet eters which Gaour wre bak TI Aid ot, however, follow that brs a goverment was etc Author t wold nearly condo feces, peso diplomas. ‘Ato afer 170 Himarces diplomacy nears ices nt {wot and although ws Chaco be war spn ono one cap the epetr he neveelos worked trough te regu iploe ‘Sanne His anbesndrs wee crf trned we aces ood could be ted as wellperhape beter any ual ape. Cor and Plneso, onthe oer had nap fly espe consis ministers, preteen oes to yuh a "Serbo pt a diplomatic routes. Cavour kept an unofcil agent, Costantino Nigra, ‘aia fom the summer of 1858 until the war of 1859, and i was theough Nigra, not the aceredied minister, that negotions with [Napolton were conducted. Palmerston developed the bait of writing pevatelesers t hit two of three most important ambassadors, in ‘dition tothe official despatches. Sach private eters dd not have tobe ‘pumbered o fled among the oficial despatches in the Foreign Ofices they would never be published as parlamentary blue books, and 50 ould ‘be less inhibited and more personal in their approach. Afer ‘Palmerston’ resignation fom the Foreign Ofice in r851 the practice of keeping up a private correspondence, parallel to the offal on, be- ‘oreen foreign secretary and principal ambassadors, was continued. In the exes of Cavour and Palmerston, however, the historian nts been fortunate: both Cavourscorespondence with Nigra, and Palmerston’s correspondence with his ambeseadors have survived as invaluable Sources, But Napoleon's habit of conducting diplomacy ina very per~ Sonal and secretive manner as been more serous forthe historian all ‘the more so at Paris was without doubt the centre of European diplo= ‘macy for by far the grater part of the le of the Second Empire. For the tho years 1858 and 1855, for example, the correspondence of the Bridsh Foreign Ofice with Pari filled rvelve bound volumes; with (Constantinople forthe sme period it filed ten volumes, with Vienna seven volumes, and with Berlin only five. ‘As regards primary printed sources there are now many series of published documents available to the diplomatic historian for the Period, But however massive in bulk, and however impartial and ‘Scholarly the eng, such printed series are inevitably only selections, and can never be completely a substitute for research inthe archives. ‘Nevertheless they can be of immense use for reference, Among the many collections of testies which have been published, one, in par= ‘cular, is of use to British historians: even before the end of the period ‘Sir Edward Hers, the librarian ofthe Foreign Ofc, had started publishing his collection of teats and accompanying maps—Map of Europe by Treaty (London, 4 vols. 1875-91). But the fist large col= lection of printed derpatches vere produced not for historians at all, ‘bt forthe Brits Parliament. By 1830 it was already established that, to government could refuse to print and crolate a selection of des= patches ona given question if motion tothe effect had been pased in perlament. Any individual MLP. or per could bring forward a motion ‘that papers be lid on the able of che House’, and since Castlereagh’ 4 PRINTED DocumaNTs ‘me no such motion has ever been refed. Once the motion was passed, the permanent underseretary at the Foreign Ofice would select the yl 187) ‘hich ain anyway compare inne fo the of isnarcke OF the men who rod Rein nly Prince Neselode hs ada colecon oflerers published and these ofcourse in arg prt totes Period There nahing om his cor as chanel, Goch, to is in a sense the cel Sure of Rasa hry fom 136 ul Ws death in 8. The sours fr Ruslan hry aval to western schlaraeaf our conparely thin ‘While the ween sores for pl ita mulled inthe nee cary, the sti srr n which ernom horas fc pricy irs, als beast eee inte mumeots te Imre reliable. The it ees conduc ia Europe, completed in the Cihcenth crated ina ves vl oft itr! Tn ‘Worth Fence a risin ad thi fist conus though they con Sted merely ofan eouteraton fhe poplin, without th cals same, Tey wee probably ey insosiat, bare, of cease, ete than nothing. Since ars cesus has been din Bain every fen Ye nd sibs 14a themes finan hve Sen tc Ta "stan exept thorough ens wa mad ih the ecupaions tnd pte rel of eeyone big recoded Onl th sta ‘oul were pubhe, bute orga! manana of this emalale invesigton nto the roi sacs of Briain ar penal in "MS Ann, iit hth Gey 778 ann 16) ° the Public Record Office, and the social historian oould sill extract ‘much from them. By the mid-nineteenth century many more statistics ‘rere being accumulited than eve before and many ofthese havea yet ‘ben imperfectly used by historians. The rsh consular repos, for ‘example, contain a great deal of stati and economic information ‘which has rarely been ased. Already in the 1820s George Canning the Foreign Ofice and Wiliam Husksson atthe Board of Trade had ‘decided that the contls should be asked to supply economic informa tion, and throughout the period the consuls sent back many statistics the Foreign Office on the popalatin, finance, industry, agriculture, and, above all trade ofthe countries in which they were residing. "For social as oppor ro stricly economic, history, the kind of source ‘which cn be most profitably used as been the subject of pied and ‘important plemice in recent years. To obtain knowledge ofthe social, ‘conditions prevaling in mid-ninetenth-cenury Europe is surpisingly

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