quarks can be handled by RQM.

A fragmentation of quarks to hadrons

is taking place on a different, much slower time scale and therefore can
be separated from the fundamental process of the e+ + e− annihilation.
Is there any limit on p? How well can one measure momentum? In
the non-relativistic quantum mechanics, momentum can be measured
with any precision but due to the limit speed < c,
h̄
pt ∼ ,
c
see the Introduction chapter in (5). Infinite precision p → 0 requires
infinite measurement time t → ∞.

1.4 The Dirac equation

This is the main section of the book on RQM. First, we will consider
different representations of the Dirac eqn, a probability current and bi-
linear covariants. Then, we will find wave functions describing free spin
1/2 particles like electrons, discuss chirality and helicity operators before
applying them to describe the Standard Model (SM) interactions at the
limit when masses can be neglected. Electromagnetic interactions will
be introduced via, so called, minimal coupling and the non-relativistic
limit will be obtained.  
α ξ
Combining ξ and ηβ̇ into one Dirac spinor Ψ, Ψ = , the Dirac
η
eqn 1.12 can be written as
 
0 p0 + pσ
Ψ = mΨ. (1.30)
p0 − pσ 0
Instead of Ψ, we could use Ψ = U Ψ, where U is a unitary operator.
In the new basis, eqn 1.30 would look different. So, in general, the Dirac
 1.4 The Dirac equation 15

eqn can be written as

(γp − m)Ψ = 0 (1.31)
where
∂
γp ≡ γ µ pµ = p0 γ 0 − pγ = iγ 0
+ iγ∇. (1.32)
∂t
Comparing eqns 1.31 and 1.30 one can see that in the basis or repre-
sentation which was used to get eqn 1.30,
   
0 0 1 0 −σ
γ = , γ= . (1.33)
1 0 σ 0

This representation in known as the Weyl or symmetric or chiral

representation26 . Multiplying eqn 1.31 by γp from the left, one gets 26
In some books, ξ α and ηβ̇ swap
representation independent constraint on γ matrices: places leading to different space-like γ
matrices; multiplied by -1.
γ µ γ ν + γ ν γ µ = 2g µν . (1.34)

The matrix γ 0 is Hermitian and the matrices γ are anti-Hermitian27 :

(γ 0 )2 = 1
γ 0† 0
=γ , γ † = −γ (1.35) (γ ) = (γ 2 )2 = (γ 3 )2 = −1
1 2

γ  = U γU † = U γU −1
Applying the Hermitian conjugation to eqn 1.31, using properties of
27
the γ matrices given by eqn 1.35 and after some algebra28 one gets the in any representation.
adjoint Dirac equation 28
Eqn 1.31 is
Ψ̄(γp + m) = 0 (1.36)
∂Ψ ∂Ψ
iγ 0
+ iγ k k − mΨ = 0.
where the adjoint spinor ∂t ∂x
Ψ̄ ≡ Ψ† γ 0 (1.37) Applying † one gets
∂Ψ† 0 ∂Ψ†
and p acts on the left. i γ + i k (−γ k ) + mΨ† = 0
∂t ∂x
Multiplying eqn 1.31 by Ψ̄ from the left and eqn 1.36 by Ψ from the
and multiplying by γ 0 from the right,
right and adding resulting equations, one gets
using eqn 1.34, gives

Ψ̄γ µ ∂µ Ψ + (∂µ Ψ̄)γ µ Ψ = ∂µ (Ψ̄γ µ Ψ) = 0, i

∂ Ψ̄ 0 ∂ Ψ̄
γ + i k γ k + mΨ̄ = 0.
∂t ∂x
which is a continuity equation, ∂µ j µ = 0, for the probability current
4-vector
j µ = Ψ̄γ µ Ψ. (1.38)
The probability density
4
 2
ρ ≡ j 0 = Ψ̄γ 0 Ψ = |Ψi | (1.39)
i=1

is a time-like component of the probability current, it is positive definite

and it has similar form to the non-relativistic expression. (ξ α )∗ transforms like a dotted spinor
One should note that Ψ̄ is a natural partner to Ψ to form objects of and (ηβ̇ )∗ transforms like an undotted
spinor
well defined transformation properties like a scalar Ψ̄Ψ or the probability
current 4-vector or so called bilinear covariants. The matrix γ 0 which is
sitting inside Ψ̄ is swapping spinors inside the bi-spinor such a way that
the dotted spinor is meeting the dotted one and the undotted is meeting
16 Relativistic Quantum Mechanics

undotted one; as it should be, the dotted index is contracted with the
dotted one and the undotted index is contracted with the undotted one.
The Hamiltonian H of the Dirac eqn one gets multiplying eqn 1.31 by
γ 0 from the left and separating the time derivative:
∂Ψ
HΨ = i , (1.40)
∂t
where
H = α · p + βm (1.41)

and α = γ 0 γ, β = γ0. (1.42)

αi αj + αj αi = 2δij
βα + αβ = 0 Matrices α and β are Hermitian and in the Weyl representation are
2
β =1    
σ 0 0 1
given by α= , β= . (1.43)
0 −σ 1 0

The Weyl representation is very well suited at the ultra-relativistic

limit, when the mass can be neglected because the Dirac bispinor effec-
tively is reduced to the Weyl spinor; one spinorial component vanishes.
At the non-relativistic limit, however, both spinor components of the
Dirac bispinor contribute equally in the Weyl representation and there-
fore in the non-relativistic limit another representation, called the stan-
dard or the Dirac representation, is more suitable (this representation is
the most common in textbooks).
A transformation from the Weyl representation to the Dirac represen-
tation is a Unitary transformation
 
1 1 1
U=√ ,
2 1 −1
which gives
     
ϕ ξ 1 ξ+η
Ψ(Dirac) = = U Ψ(W eyl) = U =√ .
χ η 2 ξ−η
The transformation of γ matrices; γ(Dirac) = U γ(W eyl)U −1 gives
     
1 0 0 σ 0 σ
γ0 = β = , γ= , α= . The
0 −1 −σ 0 σ 0

Dirac eqn in the Dirac (standard) representation is then given by

Eϕ − p · σχ = mϕ
−Eχ + p · σϕ = mχ. (1.44)
In the non-relativistic limit, χ → 0 and the Dirac spinor becomes effec-
tively a two component Pauli spinor.
Foldy and Wouthuysen transformetin and the representation should
be briefly described here, showing two decoupled eqns for two compo-
nent spinors; the non-relativistic limit and problems with the Lorentz
transformation and introduction of interactions.
 1.5 Gauge symmetry 17

From here there is a smooth transition to (7) which should become

the main textbook. For further reading, RQM part of (8) volume I is
recommended.

1.4.1 Free particle solutions

1.4.2 Chiriality = helicity
1.4.3 Helicity conservation and interactions via
currents
1.4.4 C, P, T

References
1.4.5 Electromagnetic interactions and the
non-relativistic limit

1.5 Gauge symmetry

Steane A.M., Relativity made relatively easy, to be published.

Schutz B.F., A First Course in General Relativity, Cambridge Univer-
sity Press (1985).
Misner C.W., Thorne K.S. and Wheeler J.A., Gravitation, W.H. Free-
man and Company (1995).
, neutron interference experiment.
Landau course, Bierestecki W.B., Lifshitz E.M. and Pitajewski L.P.,
Relativistic Quantum Theory part I.
Maggiore M., A Modern Introduction to Quantum Field Theory, Ox-
ford University Press (2005).

7 Halzen F. and Martin A.D., Quarks & Leptons: An Introductory

Course in Modern Particle Physics, Wiley (1984).

8 Aitchison I.J.R. and Hey A.J.G., Gauge Theories in Particle Physics,

3rd edition, Institute of Physics Publishing (2003).
Perkins D.H., Introduction to High Energy Physics, 3rd edition,
Addison–Wesley (1987).
Perkins D.H., Introduction to High Energy Physics, 4th edition, Cam-
bridge University Press (2000).