Gravitational Waves

Theory

Kostas Kokkotas
February 10, 2019
Eberhard Karls Univerity of Tübingen

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Suggested Reading

Books
• Gravitational Waves: Volume I: Theory and Experiments by Michele Maggiore, Oxford University Press (2007)

• Gravitational Waves: Volume II: Astrophysical Sources by Michele Maggiore, Oxford University Press (2018)

• Gravitational-Wave Physics and Astronomy by Jolien D.E. Greighton & Warren G. Andreson, Wiley (2011)

• Gravitation and Spacetime by Hans C. Ohanian & Remo Ruffini, Cambridge University Press (2013)

• Gravitation by Charles W. Misner, Kip S. Thorne and John Archibald Wheeler (Sep 15, 1973) W.H. Freeman

Review articles
• Gravitational wave astronomy: in anticipation of first sources to be detected L P Grishchuk, V M Lipunov, K A Postnov, M E
Prokhorov, B S Sathyaprakash, Physics- Uspekhi 44 (1) 1 -51 (2001)

• The basics of gravitational wave theory E.E. Flanagan and S.A. Hughes, New Journal of Physics 7 (2005) 204

• Gravitational Wave Astronomy K.D. Kokkotas Rev. in Mod. Astroph., Vol 20, ”Cosmic Matter”, WILEY-VCH, (2008)
arXiv:0809.1602 [astro-ph]

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Linearized Theory I

Weak gravitational fields can be represented by a slightly deformed Minkowski

spacetime :
gµν ' ηµν + hµν + O(hµν )2 , |hµν |  1 (1)
here hµν is a small metric perturbation.
The indices will be raised and lowered by ηµν i.e.

hαβ = η αµ η βν hµν (2)

µν
h = η hµν (3)
µν µν µν
g = η −h why? (4)

and we will define the traceless (φµν ) tensor:

1
φµν = hµν − ηµν h (5)
2
for which we get φ = η µν φµν = h − 2h = −h and
1
hµν = φµν − ηµν φ . (6)
2

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Linearized Theory II

The Christoffel symbols & the Ricci tensor will become :

1 λρ
Γλµν ≈ η (hρν,µ + hµρ,ν − hµν,ρ ) (7)
2
1 σ
R σ µνρ h ρ,νµ + hµν σρ − hµρ σν − hσ ν,ρµ


≈ (8)
2
1
Rµν ≈ Γα µν,α − Γα µα,ν ≈ (hα ν,µα + hα µ,να − hµν,α α − hα α,µν )(9)
2
α ,β
R = η µν Rµν ≈ hαβ αβ − hα ,β (10)

Finally, Einstein tensor gets the form:

(1) 1 α α ,β
(h ν,µα + hα µ,να − hµν,α α − hα α,µν ) − ηµν hαβ ,αβ − hα


Gµν = ,β (11)
2
Einstein’s equations reduce to (how?):

−φµν ,α,α − ηµν φαβ ,αβ + φµα ,ν,α + φνα ,µ,α = κTµν (12)

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Linearized Theory III

Then by using the so called Hilbert (or Lorenz or Harmonic or De Donder)

gauge similar to Lorenz gauge (Aα ,α = Aα ,α = 0) in EM 1

φµα ,α = φµα ,α = 0 (13)

we come to the following equation:

 
1 ∂2
φµν ,α,α ≡ φµν ≡ − − ∇2 φµν = −κTµν (14)
c 2 ∂t 2

which is a simple wave equations describing ripples of spacetime propagating

with the speed of light (why?).
These ripples are called gravitational waves.

1 The De Donder gauge is defined in a curved background by the condition

√
∂µ (g µν −g) = 0
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GW: about Gauge conditions (*) i

General Relativity is invariant under the group of all possible coordinate

transformations x µ → x 0µ (x ) where x 0µ is and arbitrary function of x µ . Under
this transformations (which should be invertible and differentiable) the metric
transforms as
0 ∂x κ ∂x λ
gµν → gµν (x 0 ) = gκλ (x ) . (15)
∂x 0µ ∂x 0ν
This is usually referred as the gauge symmetry of GR.

When we make the assumption (1) we practically fix the coordinate system and
we assume that the approximation is valid in an extended region of the space.
Still a gauge symmetry remains and by careful choice of coordinates the
linearized Einstein equations can be simplified.
We can fix ηµν = diag(−1, 1, 1, 1) and make small changes in the coordinates
that leave ηµν unchanged but induce small changes in hµν .

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GW: about Gauge conditions (*) ii
For example lets consider a change of the form:

x 0µ = x µ + ξ µ (x ) (16)

where ξ µ are 4 small arbitrary functions of the same order as hµν .

Then
∂x 0µ ∂x µ
= δ µ ν + ∂ν ξ µ and = δ µ ν − ∂ν ξ µ
∂x ν ∂x 0ν
Thus, the metric transforms as:

0 ∂x ρ ∂x σ
δµρ − ∂µ ξ ρ (δνσ − ∂ν ξ σ ) (ηρσ + hρσ )


gµν = gρσ =
∂x 0µ ∂x 0ν
0
≈ ηµν + hµν − ∂µ ξν − ∂ν ξµ = ηµν + hµν (17)

Then in the new coordinate system we get

0
hµν = hµν − ξµ,ν − ξν,µ (18)

This transformation is called gauge transformation.

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GW: about Gauge conditions (*) iii
This is analogous to the gauge transformation in Electromagnetism (Aµ ,µ = 0).
That is, if Aµ is a solution of the EM field equations then another solution that
describes precisely the same physical situation is given by

A(new)
µ = Aµ − ψ,µ (19)
where ψ is any scalar field.
µ ,µ
Then the gauge condition A(new) ,µ = A(new) µ = 0 means that
ψ ,µ ,µ = ψ,µ ,µ =ψ = Aµ ,µ = f (x ).
From (18) it is clear that if hµν is a solution to the linearised field equations
then the same physical situation is also described by

φ(new)
µν = φµν − (ξµ,ν + ξν,µ ) = φµν −Ξµν (20)

NOTE
• This is a gauge transformation and not a coordinate one
• We are still working on the same set of coordinates x µ and have defined a
(new)
new tensor φµν whose components in this basis are given by (20).

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GW: about Gauge conditions (*) iv

We can easily see that from (18) or (20) we can get

φ(new) µρ ,ρ = φµρ ,ρ − ξ µ (21)

Therefore, if we assume that φµρ ,ρ = f µ (x ) we can choose the function ξ µ so

that to satisfy
ξ µ = f µ (x ) (22)
Then we can get the Hilbert gauge

φ(new) µρ ,ρ = 0 (23)

NOTE: This gauge condition is preserved by any further gauge transformation

of the form (20) provided that the functions ξ µ satisfy ξ µ = 0 or equivalently
Ξµν = 0.

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GW: about Gauge conditions (*) v
NOTE: Equation (22) always admits a solution, because the d’Alembertian
operator is invertible. If G(x ) is the Green’s function of the d’Alembertian
operator so that
x G(x − y ) = δ 4 (x − y ) (24)

then the corresponding solution is:

Z
ξ µ (x ) = G(x − y )f µ (y )d 4 x (25)

• The choice of the Hilbert gauge φµν ,ν = 0, gives 4 conditions that reduce
the 10 independent components of the symmetric tensor hµν to 6!
• Eqn (20) tells us that, from the 6 independent components of φµν which
satisfy φµν = 0, we can subtract the functions Ξµν , which depend on 4
independent arbitrary functions ξµ satisfying the same equation Ξµν = 0.
• This means that we can choose the functions ξµ so that as to impose 4
conditions on φµν .

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GW: about Gauge conditions (*) vi

• We can choose ξ 0 such that the trace φ = 0 (TRACELESS). Note that if

φ = 0 then φµν = hµν .
• The 3 functions ξi can be chosen so that φ0i = 0.
• Then the Hilbert condition for µ = 0 will be written φ00 ,0 + φ0i ,i = 0. But
since we fixed φ0i = 0 we get φ00 ,0 = 0, i.e. φ00 is a constant in time.
• A time-independent part term φ00 corresponds to the static part of the
grav. interactions i.e. to the Newtonian potential of the source.
• The GW itself is the time-dependent part and therefore as far as the GW
concerns h00 ,0 = 0 means h00 = 0.

In conclusion, we set

h0µ = 0 , hi i = 0 , hij ,i = 0 (26)

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GW: Properties

• Equation (14) is the basis for computing the generation of GWs within the
linearised theory.

• To study the propagation of GWs as well as the interaction with test masses
(and therefore the GW detector) we are interested for the equations outside the
source, i.e. where Tµν = 0.

• GWs are periodic changes of spacetime curvature and for weak gravitational
fields far away from sources they described by a simple wave equations which
admits a solution of the form:
φµν = Aµν cos (kα x α ) , (27)
where Aµν is a symmetric tensor called polarization tensor including
information of the amplitude and the polarization properties of the GWs.
k α ≡ (k 0 = ω/c, ~k) is the wave-vector.
For a single plane wave with given wave-vector k α (n̂ = k/|k|), from eqn (26)
we see that the non-zero components of hij are in a plane transverse to n̂ since
the condition hij ,j = 0 becomes ni hij = 0.
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This solution (27) satisfies Hilbert’s gauge condition, that is:

0 = φµν ,ν = −Aµν k ν sin (kα x α )

which lead to the orthogonality condition

Aµν k ν = 0 . (28)

explains the definition of TRANSVERSE gauge.

From the wave equation (14) we get

0 = φµν ,α ,α = −Aµν k α kα cos (kα x α ) ⇒ k α kα = 0. (29)

This relation suggests that the wave vector k α is null i.e. gravitational waves
are propagating with the speed of light. But, (29) implies that ω 2 = c 2 |~k|2 i.e.
both group and phase velocity of GWs are equal to the speed of light.

∂ω λ ω
vgroup = and vphase = = (30)
∂k T k

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GW: The Transverse - Traceless (TT) Gauge

Based on the gauge freedom which allows to choose ξ µ we derived the

following relations
h0µ = 0 , hi i = 0 , hij ,i = 0 (31)
which define the so-called Transverse - Traceless (TT) Gauge.
Then for a GW propagating in the z direction i.e. it has a wave vector of the
form kµ = (ω/c, 0, 0, −ω/c) where k0 = ω/c is the frequency of the wave that:

 
0 0 0 0
 0 h+ h× 0 
hµν ≡  cos[ω(t − z/c)] (32)
 0 h× −h+ 0 
0 0 0 0

While h+ and h× , are the amplitudes of the gravitational waves in the two
polarizations.
The GWs described in this specific gauge are Transverse and Traceless, and we
TT
will use the notation hµν .

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GW: The Transverse - Traceless (TT) Gauge

The line element will be written as (where ϕ = ω(t − z/c)):

ds 2 = −c 2 dt 2 + [1 + h+ cos(ϕ)] dx 2 + [1 − h+ cos(ϕ)] dy 2 + 2hx cos(ϕ)dxdy
(33)
Projection onto the TT gauge
If a plane wave hµν (x ) propagates in the direction n̂ and it is described in the
Lorentz gauge but not in the TT gauge, we can find the form of the wave in
the TT-gauge as follows.
Introduce the symmetric and transverse ( ni Pij = 0) projector (Pik Pkj = Pij )
tensor with trace Pij = 2
Pij (n̂) = δij − ni nj (34)
Withe the help of Pij we can construct
1
Λij,kl (n̂) = Pik Pjl − Pij Pkl (35)
2
It can be shown (how?) that for a plane wave hµν (x ) in the Lorentz gauge, but
not in the TT gauge, the GW in the TT gauge is given via the Lambda tensor
hijTT = Λij,kl hkl (36) 15
GW: Effects on particles

• A static or slowly moving particle has velocity vector u µ ≈ (1, 0, 0, 0) and

one can assume that τ ≈ t. Then in linearized gravity the geodesic equation
will be written as:
du µ 1
= − (hµα,β + hβµ,α − hαβ,µ ) u α u β (37)
dt 2
leading to
du µ 1
 
= − hµ0,0 − h00,µ . (38)
dt 2
If we now use the T-T gauge (h00 = hµ0 = 0) we conclude that GWs do not
affect isolated particles (at linear oder)!
• If instead we consider a pair of test particles on the cartesian axis Ox being
at distances x0 and −x0 from the origin and we assume a GW traveling in the
z-direction then their distance will be given by the relation:
d`2 = gµν dx µ dx ν = . . .
= −g11 (dx )2 = (1 − h11 )(2x0 )2 = (1 − h+ cos ωt) (2x0 )2 (39)
or approximatelly
1
 
∆` ≈ 1 − h+ cos ωt (2x0 ) . (40)
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GW: Effects...

In a similar way we can show for two particles on the Oy axis that:
1
 
∆` ≈ 1 + h+ cos ωt (2y0 ) . (41)
2
In other wards the coordinate distance of two particles is varying periodically
with the time

Figure 1: The effect of a travelling GW on a ring of particles

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GW: Effects...

Figure 2: The effect of a travelling GW on a ring of particles

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