CHATER ONE

INTRUDUCTION
 1
TREATMENT OF WATER 1.1

Water may require treatment for a number of reasons. Most important is the
necessity of removing the germs of disease. For palatability it must be free from
unpleasant tastes and odors and have an inviting appearance, necessitating the
elimination of gases, murkiness, and color. It should be suitable for such
domestic uses as cooking and washing and also for a wide variety of industrial
purposes, as steam generation, dyeing, etc.
A number of treatment methods have been developed to meet these
necessities. Aeration, certain chemical treatment, or activated carbon will reduce
or prevent tastes and odors. Softening of water, removal of iron, and correction
of excessive corrosiveness are all practical treatment methods. The character and
degree treatment required will depend upon the nature of the water, and this in
turn will depend largely upon its source [1].

COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION PROCESSES 1.2

Coagulation and flocculation are essential processes in a number of diverse

disciplines, including biochemistry, cheese manufacturing, rubber
manufacturing, and in water and wastewater treatment. In water and wastewater
treatment, coagulation and flocculation phenomena are extremely important, In
the area of potable water treatment, clarification of water with coagulation
agents has been practiced from ancient .

The whole treatment process of coagulation-flocculation can be divided into two

distinct procedures, which should be applied consecutively. The first one termed
coagulation, is the process whereby destabilization of a given colloidal
suspension or solution is taken place. The function of coagulation is to
overcome the factors that promote the stability of a given system. It is achieved
with the use of appropriate chemicals, usually aluminum or iron salt, the so
called coagulant agents. The second sub-process, termed flocculation, refers to
the induction of destabilized particles in order to come together, to make contact
and thereby, to form large agglomerates, which can be separated easier usually
through gravity settling[ 2 ]

Coagulation/flocculation is a commonly used process in water and wastewater

treatment in which compounds such as ferric chloride and/or polymer are added
to wastewater in order to destabilize the colloidal materials and cause the small
particles to agglomerate into larger settleable flocs. Several studies have
reported the examination of this process for the treatment of industrial
wastewater, especially with respect to performance optimization of
coagulant/flocculant [ 3 ]

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The optimization of water treatment should be done in order to remove both
hydrophobic and hydrophilic organic compounds. Due to water quality problems
and stricter regulations for drinking water treatment, there is needed for more
efficient and still economical method for removal suspended material, the most
common and economically feasible process for the removal these material are
considered to be coagulation and flocculation followed by sedimentation and
filtration [ 4 ] .

Ambient waters contain a wide variety of particles in the general categories:

mineral (e.g., clays), biological (viruses, bacteria, algae, protozoan cysts, etc. ),
and organic matter (e.g., natural organic matter (NOM)). These particles range
in size from nanometers to perhaps 200-
300 mm. The many aspects of coagulation practice include:
1-Selection of type of coagulant (generally alum or ferric salt).
2-Selection of a coagulant aid, that is polymer (which may or may not be used ).
3-Determination of dosage of each chemical .
4-Design of rapid-mix .
5-evaluation of coagulation effectiveness .
Coagulation effectiveness has been measured traditionally by removal of
turbidity. Color removal is another traditional objective in drinking water
[5]
treatment .

The objective of the coagulation process depends on the water source and the
nature of the suspended, colloidal, and dissolved organic constituents.
Coagulation by the addition of chemicals such as alum and iron salts and/or
organic polymers can involve:
1-Distabilization of small suspended and colloidal particulate matter.
2-Adsorption and/or reaction of portions of the colloidal and dissolved NOM to
particles.
3-Creation of flocculants precipitates that sweep through the water enmeshing
small suspended, colloidal, and dissolved material as they settle.
Coagulants such as aluminum sulfate (alum), ferric chloride, and ferric sulfate
hydrolyzes rapidly when mixed with the water to be treated. As these chemicals
hydrolyze, they form insoluble precipitates that destabilize particles by
adsorbing to the surface of the particles and neutralizing the charge (thus
reducing the repulsive forces).

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Natural or synthetic organic polyelectrolytes (polymers with multiple charged
functional groups) are also used for particle destabilization. Because of many
competing reactions, the theory of chemical coagulation is complex[ 6 ]

The operation of a coagulant-based water treatment sequence relies on two

fundamental sets of processes irrespective of whether the treatment sequence
applies conventional gravity based settling, newer high rate clarification
concepts, or a direct filtration sequence in which no clarification step is applied.
The first set of processes consists of the mixing and flocculation steps, which
include the addition of a coagulant chemical and application of mixing to
disperse the chemical, followed by conditions under which the chemically
conditioned particles will come into contact to build floc of appropriate size for
removal in downstream particle removal processes. The second set of processes
consists of the downstream clarification and filtration steps in which the
flocculated particles are separated from the water [ 7 ]

Coagulants are also used to enhance the performance of membrane

microfiltration and ultrafiltration system and in Pretreatment to prolong the bed
life of granular activated carbon contactors . The development of new coagulant
chemicals , advance in floc removal processes and filter design , particularly
membrane processes , and challenging particle removal performance standards
and goals stimulated substantial diversity in the design and operation of the
coagulation process . Change can be expected to continue into the future [ 8 ].

Flocculation is the unit process in which larger particles are formed from smaller
particles due to collisions between them. The collisions occur by the ''transport''
mechanisms of velocity gradients (induced by laminar flow or turbulence),
Brownian motion, or a sequence of the two.
The term flocculation is the process of causing collisions between:
1-Primary particles.
2-primary particles and floc.
3-Floc particles and other floc.

-3-
In water treatment, the starting point is the rapid mix where ''microflocs'' form
from coagulation chemicals and which may incorporate ''primary'' particles, e.g.,
mineral turbidity, microorganisms, and other ''microscopic particulates''. The
next step is flocculation; the objective is to cause collisions such that the
microflocs grow in size to become ''floc'' particles. If the treatment train is
conventional filtration, the flocculation objective is to produce large settleable
flocs In flotation, on the other hand, the objective is to form a floc of small size,
e.g., 50 mm, that rises readily when small gas bubbles attach. The common
flocculation technology is the paddle wheel. Other technologies include impeller
basins, baffles, and proprietary innovations. These various technologies provide
the ''transport'' mechanisms that include floc collisions[5] .

Two general types of flocculation can be identified: (1) microflocculation (also

known as perikinetic flocculation) in which particle aggregation is brought about
by the random thermal motion of fluid molecules (known as Brownian motion)
and (2) macroflocculation (also known as orthokinetic flocculation) in which
particle aggregation is brought about by inducing velocity gradients and mixing
in the fluid containing the particles to be flocculated. Another form of
macroflocculation is brought about by differential settling in which large
particles overtake small particles to form larger particles[6] .

The purpose of the flocculation process is to promote the interaction of particles

and form aggregates that can be efficiently removed in subsequent separation
processes such as sedimentation, flotation, and granular media bed filtration. For
efficient flocculation to occur the suspension must be destabilized. This is
usually accomplished by the addition of coagulant. The water treatment
literature sometimes makes distinction between the terms coagulant and
flocculent . When this distinction is made , a coagulant is a chemical used to
initially desta-bilize the suspension and is typically added in the rapid –mix
process . In most cases a flocculent the strength of the floc structure . It has
awkwardly been called a coagulant aid . flocculents are often used to increase
filter performance ( they may be called filter aids in this context ) and to
increase the efficiency of the sludge dewatering process[8] .

Flocculation is the agglomeration of small particles and colloids to form

settleable or filterable particles (flocs). Flocculation begins to form immediately
after destabilization in the zone of decaying mixing energy following rapid
mixing, or as a result of the turbulence of transporting flow. In some instances,
this identical flocculation may be an adequate flocculation process. A separation
flocculation process is most often included in the treatment train to enhance
contact of destabilized particles and to build floc particles of optimize size,
density, and strength .

-4-
Floc begins to form within 2 second of coagulant addition and mixing. If high
turbulence or shear is subsequently applied to the water, the formed flocs may
be fragmented, and broken floc may not readily settle or re-form. Optimum floc
that is efficiently settled or filtered is usually formed under conditions of
gradually reducing energy. In large plants, it may be difficult to distribute water
to flocculation basins or filters without quiescent stages and high
energy stages[9].

The precipitated material or ''floc'' is not a simple hydroxide and organic

material is often adsorbed onto the floc. As a result the best chemical conditions
for coagulation vary widely from one water to another. Coagulant and pH
adjustment chemicals are usually added, by means of a metering pump, at the
same point in the system and must be mixed thoroughly and quickly. This is
usually achieved by a flash mixer or by an in-line static mixer [10].

1.3 JAR TEST

Is an important piece of apparatus in any treatment plant laboratory. This

consists of motor –driven horizontal spindle driving about 4,5,6 paddles. Each
paddles rotates in glass beaker 1 L of water . The coagulants are added in graded
doses to each of the beakers. Stirring is initially brisk , then more gentle .The
time to form , heaviness, and other characteristics of the floc in each beaker is
noted, and after stirring ceases the settling time is observed .
The solution of the coagulants under test are added by pipette, the water should
be tested before and after the experiment for turbidity and pH .[11]

JAR TESTS are used to determine the optimum coagulant concentrations and
pH conditions for coagulation-flocculation.

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1.4 CHEMICAL COAGULANTS
The most commonly used coagulants are

 Alum (aluminum sulfate), A12(SO4)3 • 14H20. The most common

coagulant in the United States, it is often used in conjunction with cationic
polymers.
 Polyaluminum chloride, AI(OH)x(C1)y. This is efficient in some waters,
requiring less pH adjustment and producing less sludge.
 Ferric chloride, FeC13. This may be more effective than alum in some
applications.
 Ferric sulfate, Fe2(SO4)3. It is effective in some waters and more
economical in some locations.
 Cationic polymers can be used alone as the primary coagulant or in
conjunction with aluminum or iron coagulants.
Although alum is by far the most widely used coagulant chemical, ferric
chloride or
ferric sulfate forms a better-settling floc in some waters and may be more
consistently effective in removing natural organic matter as compared to
aluminum-based coagulants. Additionally, polyaluminum chloride often
produces a better-settling floc in colder waters and often results in lower
dosages, thereby producing less sludge than alum and ferric coagulants.[ 9 ]
For coagulation – flocculation process advantages and disadvantages may be
taken into consideration.

ADVANTAGES

1- Simplicity and cost-effectiveness.

2- Separates many kind of particles from water.
3- Enhances Filtration process.
4- Uses abundant and low cost chemicals [12] .

DISADVANTAGES

1-Input of chemicals required.

2- Qualified personnel required for design (e.g. construction of chambers and
dosage of chemicals) and system maintenance.
3- Transfer of toxic compound into solid phase and formation of sludge that has
to be treated subsequently.
4- Relatively time consuming process [12] .

-6-
 Literature Review

Nikos and Anastasios found that The development of simple pre - polymerized coagulant
(e.g. polyaluminium chloride ), seems no longer to be sufficient enough The need for more
effective coagulant has lead to the development of new coagulant, via the introduction of
various additives in the structure of pre-polymerized coagulants. Nowadays, the range of
additives has expanded, including organic compounds, such as anionic, cationic or non ionic
polyelectrolytes, leading to new composite coagulants. The application of the new generation
of coagulation reagents exhibits several advantages, compared to the conventional and simple
pre-polymerized coagulants. The incorporation of various additives, inorganic or organic,
results in an increment of molecular weight and components size, which compensates
efficiently the decrease of charge neutralization capability in the new coagulants. Overall they
present better treatment performance, lower residual metal concentration and wider effective
of pH range, which are the main advantages of the composite coagulants[13].

Arkan explained that effect of using types of coagulants aid on the percentage
removal of turbidity and to find the optimum dosage of coagulant (alum) and coagulant aid.
The coagulants used in this study were alum, Porcelanite and Silica Gel The initial turbidity at
450 NTU was used with floc growth and floc formation was studied for Kaolinite 10
micrometer particle size. In this study used coagulant aid with alum in different percents (0,
50%, 60%, 75%). The results indicated that the efficient coagulant type with dose of 30 mg/l
is 4.56 NTU residual turbidity and removal percentage of 98.98% by using alum with silica,
with the percentage of alum is 60% and 40% of Silica and pH value 7.66
The increasing dosages of coagulants with different percentages have effective influence on
reducing of the final water turbidity, also the increasing in dosages values of the Silica
coagulants increased the value of pH especially if the Silica used alone with 100% percentage,
and there are no more changes in the values of TDS, Ec and Salt after the coagulants (Silica
Jel and Porcelanite) have been added[14].

Basma and Hussein studied that removal of turbidity from produced water by chemical
coagulation/flocculation method using locally available coagulants was investigated.
Aluminum sulfate (alum) is selected as a primary coagulant, while calcium hydroxide (lime)
is used as a coagulant aid. The performance of these coagulants was studied through jar test
by comparing turbidity removal at different coagulant / coagulants aid ratio, coagulant dose,
water pH, and sedimentation time. The best conditions for turbidity removal using jar test
process can be o btained at 75% alum+25% lime coagulant at coagulant dose of 80 mg/l at pH
6 and 120 min for sedimentation time.The aluminum sulfate (alum) combination with
coagulant aid (lime) provided higher removal efficiencies of turbidity compared to
coagulation with alum alone[15].

-7-
Abdul Fattah Abu Bakar , Azhar Abdul Halim and Marlia Moh Hanafiah studied that
Based on the coagulation-flocculation process, an automotive wastewater was treated using
polyaluminium chloride (PAC) as the coagulant and an anionic polyacrylamide (PAM) as the
flocculant. Response surface methodology was applied to optimize the operating variables:
coagulant dosage, flocculant dosage and pH. In this experiment, 10% concentration PAC
solution was used and 5% anionic PAM/feedstock solution was prepared using distilled water.
The results show that the optimal conditions for chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal
were a coagulant dosage of 73.3 mg/L, a flocculant dosage of 3.46 mg/L and pH 7.45, while
the optimal conditions for heavy metal (Fe, Cr, Cu) removal were in the coagulant dosage
range of 65.26-170.9 mg/L, a flocculant dosage of 5.36 mg/L and pH 6.13. The experimental
data and predict model proved that response surface methodology (RSM) is a suitable
approach for optimizing the coagulation-flocculation process in treating automotive
wastewater. [16]

O.S. Amuda and I.A. Amoo examine the effectiveness of coagulation and flocculation
process using ferric chloride and polyelectrolyte (non-ionic polyacrylamide) for the treatment
ofbeverage industrial wastewater. The optimum conditions for coagulation/flocculation
process, such as coagulant dosage, polyelectrolyte dosage and pH of solution were
investigated using jar test experiment.
Coagulation/flocculation process was conducted for the treatment of beverage industrial
wastewater to achieve maximum removal of COD (chemical oxygen demand), TP (total
phosphorus) and TSS (total suspended solid). Coagulant dose, polyelectrolyte dose, pH of
solution and addition of polyelectrolyte as coagulant aid were investigated and found to be
important parameters for effective treatment of beverage industrial wastewater.
The results of the present work indicated that the addition of 25 mg/L polyelectrolyte reduced
the dose of ferric chloride from 300 to 100 mg/L during which 99.97 and 91% of TP, TSS and
COD removal were, respectively, achieved [ 17 ] .

-8-
 References
.Ernest W. Steel, Water Supply and Sewerage, Fourth edition]1[
. John bratby, Coagulation and flocculation in water and wastewater treatment, 3 rd edition-2016 ]2[
A.A Tatsi, AI, Zouboulis, K.A Matis, P. Samara, Coagulation & Flocculation Pre-treatment of ]3[
sanitary Iandfill leachates, (2003)
. Jacangelo, Demarco J, Owen DM, Randtke SJ. J Am Water Works Assoc 1995 ]4[

.David Hendricks, Fundamentals of water treatment Unit Process ]5[

John C. Crittenden & R. Rhodes Trussell & David W. Hand & Kerry J. Howe & George ]6[
.Techobanoglous, Water treatment principles and design, 3 rd edition
.Operational Control of Coagulation and filtration processes, third edition ]7[
.James K.Edzwald, Water Quality & Treatment, a handbook on drinking water, Sixth Edition ]8[
.Edward E. Baruth, Water Treatment Plant Design, fourth edition ]9[
.Richard Stuetz, Principles of Water and Wastewater Treatment Processes, 2009 ]10[
.George Smethurst, Basic water treatment for application world – wide, 2 nd edition ]11[
]12[

Nikos Tzoupanos & Anastasios Zouboulis , ‘‘ Coagulation – Flocculation processes in water / wastewater treatment :the ]13[
application of new generation of chemical reagents ’’, 6th IASME / WSEAS International Conference on HEAT
. TRANSFER, THERMAL ENGINEERING and ENVIRONMENT ,Greece, August 20-22, 2008
Arkan Dhari Jalal , ‘‘ The effect of using coagulants and coagulants aid (Porcelanite and Silica Jel) in improving ]14[
water efficiency treatment ’’ , Anbar Journal for Engineering Sciences ,College of Engineering –University of
.Anbar
[15] Basma Abbas Abdul-Majeed & Hussein Basim Oleiwi, ‘‘Evaluation of Alum/Lime Coagulant for the Removal of Turbidity
from Al- Ahdab Iraqi Oilfields ’’, Journal of Engineering ,College of Engineering- University of Baghdad ,Vol.21 , No.7 ,
July- 2015.
[16] Abdul Fattah Abu Bakar & Azhar Abdul Halim & Marlia Moh Hanafiah, “ Optimization of Coagulation and Flocculation
for Automotive Wastewater Treatment using Response Surface Methodology , Nature Environment and Pollution
Technology – An International Quarterly Scientific Journal, Vol.14 , No.3, pp.1-8 , Selangor –Malaysia , 2015.
[17] O.S. Amuda & I.A. Amoo , “ Coagulation / Flocculation process and sludge conditioning in beverage industrial
wastewater treatment ”department of chemistry, federal university of technology, Akure, Nigeria , 24 july 2006

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