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Simple Equations To Represent The Volume-Area-Depth Relations of Shallow Wetlands in Small Topographic Depressions
Simple Equations To Represent The Volume-Area-Depth Relations of Shallow Wetlands in Small Topographic Depressions
www.elsevier.com/locate/jhydrol
Abstract
Small topographic depressions have important functions in hydrology and ecology because they store water in the form of
shallow lakes, wetlands or ephemeral ponds. The relations between the area A, the volume V, and the depth h of water in
depressions are important for evaluating water and dissolved-mass balances of the system. The A–h and V–h relations are
usually determined from fine-resolution elevation maps based on detailed survey data. Simple equations are presented in this
paper, which can be used to: (1) interpolate A–h and V–h data points obtained by a detailed survey; (2) approximate unknown
A–h and V–h relations of a depression from a minimal set of field data without a time-consuming elevation survey; and (3) serve
as a geometric model of depressions in simulation studies. The equations are simple power functions having two constants. The
first constant s is related to the size of the depression, and the second constant p is related to the geometry of the depression. The
power functions adequately represent A–h and V–h relations of all 27 wetlands and ephemeral ponds examined in this paper,
which are situated in the northern prairie region of North America. Assuming that the power functions are applicable for other
similar topographic depressions, an observer only needs to measure A and h twice to determine the two constants in the
equation. The equations will be useful in field studies requiring approximate A–h and V–h relations and in theoretical and
modeling studies. 䉷 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Wetlands; Ephemeral lakes; Ponds; Water balance; Bathymetry; Water storage
Fig. 3. Topographical maps showing the elevation above the mean sea level of the four catchments in the St. Denis NWA. Principal contour
interval is 1 m. Scale bars indicates 50 m. Wetlands are indicated by shades and drainage divides are indicated by thick lines. The location of
small depressions D1, D2, and D3 are indicated in (b).
5–10 m intervals in the wetlands. For the small digital elevation models (DEMs). The maps shown
depressions, survey points were spaced horizontally in Fig. 3 are based on the DEMs. From the DEMs,
at 2–5 m intervals. Estimated measurement error is V–h and A–h relations were calculated using the
within a few centimeters for elevation and within a volume and area integration tool of Surfer. The
few tens of centimeters for horizontal location. The depth of water h is defined as the elevation difference
software package Surfer (Golden Software, Golden, between the water surface and the lowest point in the
CO, USA) was used to estimate the elevation on regu- depression, which means that h 0 when the wetland
larly spaced grids by interpolation and to construct becomes completely dry. The kriging method (Davis,
78
M. Hayashi, G. van der Kamp / Journal of Hydrology 237 (2000) 74–85
Table 1
Area A and volume V of water corresponding to depth h in the wetlands and small depressions in the St. Denis NWA
h (m) A (m 2) V (m 3) A (m 2) V (m 3) A (m 2) V (m 3) A (m 2) V (m 3) A (m 2) V (m 3) A (m 2) V (m 3) A (m 2) V (m 3) A (m 2) V (m 3)
Table 2
Upper depth limit hmax, scaling constant s, power constant p, root-mean-squared error of area Aerr and volume Verr of the wetlands, the relative
magnitude of Aerr with respect to A1m, and Verr with respect to V1m. Asterisks indicate that the relative magnitudes of Aerr and Verr are evaluated
against A and V at hmax
St. Denis
S92 1.2 2450 1.80 97 4.1 17 1.5
S109 1.2 3180 1.61 101 3.2 20 1.4
S120 1.1 2820 2.66 55 1.9 8.6 0.5
S125S 1.0 3840 2.10 20 0.5 5.3 0.3
S104 0.7 1720 1.95 17 1.4 ⴱ 2.6 0.6 ⴱ
D1 0.3 2880 1.55 2.4 0.4 ⴱ 0.9 1.1 ⴱ
D2 0.5 1160 1.45 11 2.5 ⴱ 1.6 1.7 ⴱ
D3 0.7 1130 1.66 15 2.0 ⴱ 2.6 1.1 ⴱ
Shjeflo (1968)
Pothole 1 1.4 51 900 5.12 1360 2.6 685 1.7
Pothole 2 1.7 109 700 3.64 8110 6.9 2010 2.4
Pothole 4 1.5 93 400 4.31 4610 5.2 814 1.5
Pothole 5 2.3 78 200 5.48 1390 1.7 961 1.5
Pothole 5A 1.6 9600 2.49 239 2.6 100 2.1
Pothole 6 1.5 33 300 6.19 200 0.6 359 1.5
Pothole 7 1.5 86 800 3.52 1820 2.1 801 1.7
Pothole 8 1.1 123 100 3.33 6260 5.3 1120 1.3
Pothole C1 1.9 162 900 5.33 4540 2.8 3870 3.4
Lakshman (1971)
Ft. Qu’Appelle 1 1.4 7160 3.22 57 0.8 101 2.0
Ft. Qu’Appelle 2 1.5 8570 3.00 342 4.7 125 3.1
Ft. Qu’Appelle 17 1.5 5790 2.79 83 1.6 37 1.4
Ft. Qu’Appelle 19 1.2 6720 3.75 142 1.5 90 1.6
Ft. Qu’Appelle 20 0.9 4310 3.11 98 1.4 ⴱ 54 1.4 ⴱ
Melfort 7 1.1 8990 2.44 392 4.1 236 4.3
Saskatoon 16 0.9 1960 4.06 31 1.7 ⴱ 44 5.1 ⴱ
Swift Current 1 2.0 34 100 3.26 2610 7.4 1240 7.1
Wilkie 6 0.6 11 800 4.72 242 2.6 ⴱ 118 2.9 ⴱ
Wilkie 12 1.2 2150 3.28 46 2.1 13 0.9
1986, p. 239) was used for interpolation. Preliminary County, Potholes 5, 5A, 6, 7, and 8 in Dickey County,
analysis showed that the calculated V–h and A–h rela- and Pothole C1 in Stutsman County (Fig. 2). The
tions were essentially independent of the choice of Lakshman wetlands are located near Fort Qu’Appelle,
semivariogram and grid spacing. The relations Melfort, Saskatoon, Swift Current and Wilkie (Fig. 2).
presented in this paper were calculated using linear Survey methods and the density of surveyed points
semivariograms with no drift and 5 m grids for the were not clearly described in the original articles,
wetlands and 1 m grids for the small depressions. which only included tables of the elevation of water
surface with respect to an arbitrary datum and the area
3.2. Previous studies and the volume corresponding to each elevation. Shje-
flo (1968) provided the elevation of the lowest point in
Two sets of published data are used in this paper; each basin so that we could calculate the depth of
the first data set from North Dakota, USA (Shjeflo, water corresponding to each elevation and determine
1968) and the second data set from Saskatchewan, A–h and V–h relations. Lakshman (1971) did not
Canada (Lakshman, 1971). The Shjeflo wetlands are provide such data, and we needed to estimate the
located in three locations; Potholes 1, 2, and 4 in Ward lowest elevation by inspecting the water level record.
80 M. Hayashi, G. van der Kamp / Journal of Hydrology 237 (2000) 74–85
Fig. 4. A–h relation of S92 and S109. Solid circles indicate data points and curves indicate the power function (Eq. (3)) with the values of s and
p listed in Table 2.
The estimation was only possible for those wetlands recorded in 1968–1997 for S92 and S109 (van der
that dried up frequently in the reported study period of Kamp et al., 1999). The values of hmax are listed in
1964–1970. In addition the elevation-area-volume Table 2.
data were incomplete for some wetlands. Therefore, Fig. 4 shows the A–h relation of S92, which repre-
out of 25 wetlands in Lakshman (1971), V–h and A–h sents an irregularly-shaped end member, and for
relations were determined for only 15 of them. The S109, which represents a reasonably regularly-shaped
accuracy of estimating h is expected to be in the order end member. Solid circles indicate data points calcu-
of 0.05 m. lated from the DEM and curves show Eq. (3) with the
best-fit values of s and p determined by the least-
squares method. Table 2 lists the values of s and p.
4. Results The power function (Eq. (3)) approximates the A–h
relation of all wetlands reasonably well. To evaluate
4.1. St. Denis wetlands the goodness of fit between the data points and the
power function, root-mean-squared (RMS) error Aerr
The A–h and V–h relations of the wetlands and is defined by
small depressions are listed in Table 1. The data are
v
listed for a depth range between 0 and hmax. The hmax is u X
u1 m
defined by the overflow point for S120, S125 and all Aerr t
A ⫺ APF 2
5
micro-depressions, and by the highest water level m i1 DEM
Fig. 5. V–h relation of S92 and S109. Solid circles indicate data points and curves indicate the power function (Eq. (4)) with the values of s and
p listed in Table 2.
M. Hayashi, G. van der Kamp / Journal of Hydrology 237 (2000) 74–85 81
(1968) and ten in Lakshman (1971) satisfied the relations requires a detailed elevation survey over an
condition, and will be used in the following analysis. entire wetland, which is labor intensive and time
The upper depth limit hmax, listed in Table 2, is arbi- consuming. Based on the above results, it is likely
trarily set to be the highest water level recorded in the that Eqs. (3) and (4) approximately represent A–h
study period (1960–1964 in Shjeflo (1968) and 1964– and V–h relations of most small topographic depres-
1970 in Lakshman (1971)) plus 0.5 m. If A–h and V–h sions. Therefore, at least for the first approximation,
data do not cover hmax, the highest value of h within one only needs to measure A and h at a few different
the data set is considered to be hmax. times to determine s and p.
Eq. (3) was fitted to the A–h relation of the nine For a given wetland, let z be the elevation of the
Shjeflo wetlands to determine s and p (Table 2). The water surface with respect to an arbitrary datum, for
least-squares method was applied to each data set example a staff gauge, and zmin be the elevation of the
within a range 0:1 m ⱕ h ⬍ hmax : The data points lowest point in the wetland. Eq. (3) can be written as
having h less than 0.1 m were excluded from the
analysis because the accuracy of h at such a small A s
z ⫺ zmin =h0 2=p
6
value is questionable. As an example Fig. 7a shows
the A–h relation of a wetland identified as Pothole 4, In principle, three unknown constants s, p, and zmin can
and Fig. 7b shows the V–h relation of the same be determined from three independent
wetland. Solid circles indicate data points and curves measurements of A and z. However, it is easy
show the power functions (Eqs. (3) and (4)). The to measure zmin for most wetlands in small
power functions agree with the data points reasonably depressions. For example, an observer can locate
well for both A–h and V–h relations. Similarly the the lowest point in the wetland just before it
power functions adequately represent A–h and V–h becomes completely dry, or an observer on a
relations of all other Shjeflo wetlands. The RMS boat can probe around the central part of the
errors Aerr and Verr and the relative magnitudes wetland to find the deepest point. Therefore, in
Aerr =A1m and Verr =V1m are listed in Table 2. For all most cases only s and p need to be determined
nine Shjeflo wetlands, Aerr =A and Verr =V are generally from two independent measurements of A and z.
smaller than 10% in a range 0:3 m ⬍ h ⱕ hmax : There are a number of ground-based and airborne
The power function (Eq. (3)) was also applied to the methods to estimate A of many wetlands relatively
Lakshman wetlands to determine the least-squares-fit easily.
values of s and p (Table 2). The agreement between If time and resources are limited, an observer may
data points and the power function is reasonably good chose to estimate p from the size–shape relationship
for all ten wetlands. The RMS errors and their relative shown in Fig. 6. For example, Fig. 6 indicates that p is
magnitude with respect to A1m and V1m are listed in likely close to 2 in small seasonal wetlands and
Table 2. For all ten Lakshman wetlands, Aerr =A and ephemeral ponds. In this case, an observer may
Verr =V are generally smaller than 10% in a range assume p 2 and determine s from a single measure-
0:3 m ⬍ h ⱕ hmax : ment of A and h. The accuracy of A–h and V–h rela-
The relationship between s and p is shown in Fig. 6. tions determined this way may not be high, but some
The positive correlation indicates that Shjeflo and field studies can benefit from the simplicity and the
Lakshman wetlands, which are much larger in size practicality of the method.
than St. Denis wetlands, have higher values of p. We used this method in the St. Denis NWA in
The implication of the size-shape relationship will 1998 to estimate the volume of snowmelt runoff
be discussed later. collected in several depressions that did not have
detailed survey data. This measurement showed
that significant portion of snowmelt runoff is
5. Simple field methods for determining stored in depressions without draining to the
approximate A–h and V–h relations main wetland in the catchment, and gave us an
important step forward in understanding the
In general, accurate determination of A–h and V–h hydrology of prairie wetlands.
M. Hayashi, G. van der Kamp / Journal of Hydrology 237 (2000) 74–85 83
6. Discussion
portion of the hypsometric curves have relatively arid climate having warm summer and cold winter,
simple shape that is adequately represented by the and by thick glacial tills and hummocky topography.
power function (Eq. (3)) even though the overall Many prairie wetlands become partially or completely
shape of the hypsometric curves is more complex. dry in late summer and fall, and the land surface is
It is clear from the above discussion that the A–h subjected to gravity-driven soil creep induced by
relation of a depression should be regarded as the freezing and thawing, drying and wetting (Kirkby,
frequency distribution of land elevation within the 1967), cultivation (de Jong et al., 1998), and animal
depression. Therefore, two given depressions may burrow activities (Black and Montgomery, 1991).
have an identical A–h relation even though their Geomorphological literatures suggest that soil creep
actual shape is significantly different. The shape para- tends to dissipates the irregularity of the landform by
meter p in Eq. (3) represents the slope profile of a diffusion-like processes (Culling, 1960). It is reason-
hypothetical basin (Fig. 1) that is hypsometrically able to expect that the dissipation of irregularity at a
equivalent to the actual depression. local scale results in the smooth frequency distribu-
tion of land elevation at a basin-wide scale, and hence
6.2. Size–shape relationship and landform evolution to simple A–h and V–h relations. If the landform
evolution is solely driven by soil creep, slope profiles
Fig. 6 shows that larger wetlands tend to have are expected to approach curves having a low value of
higher values of p. In general large prairie wetlands p (Fig. 1). In contrast, if the landform evolution is
have water for a long period of time in a given year, in strongly influenced by other mechanisms like under-
fact many of them are semi-permanent lakes, while water sedimentation, slope profiles may take a higher
small prairie wetlands have water only for a few value of p that reflects the balance between several
months after snowmelt. As a result, large wetlands driving forces.
have a flat bottom formed by sedimentation. For It is not clear if similar smoothing mechanisms
example Fig. 9a shows north–south (solid circles) exist in different environments, for example deep
and east–west (open squares) profiles of Pothole 4 lakes on a rocky terrain or playas on tropical savanna.
in Shjeflo (1968) and Fig. 9b shows north–south and Therefore, the applicability of Eqs. (3) and (4) is so far
east–west profiles of S109 in St. Denis. Markers in limited to the prairie region where the equations have
Fig. 9 show the data points and lines show Eq. (2) been tested. However, it will be interesting to examine
using the least-squares-fit values of p and r0. As indi- whether the equations are useful for the lakes and
cated in Fig. 9, the profiles in Pothole 4 have large p wetlands in different environments.
reflecting the flat bottom, while those in S109 have
small p reflecting relatively smooth slope from the
center to the edge. 7. Conclusions
In Fig. 9 p takes a range of values because the
wetlands are asymmetric and each individual slope The main objective of this paper is to examine the
has different curvature. The A–h relation integrates relation between the volume V, area A, and depth h of
all slope profiles within the wetland and defines a wetlands in isolated depressions. For the 27 wetlands
single value of p in an average sense. For example, and ephemeral ponds examined in this paper, A is
a representative p of Pothole 4 (Fig. 9a) may be given proportional to h2=p to a good approximation, and V
by a harmonic average pav of the north, east, south, is proportional to h1⫹2=p ; where p is a dimensionless
and west profiles; pav 4:85: This is comparable to constant. In other words, A–h and V–h relations are
p 4:31; which was obtained by fitting Eq. (3) to the expressed as power functions. The constant p is
A–h data set. Similarly, a harmonic average of the related to the shape of the depression, more specifi-
four profiles of S109 (Fig. 9b) is pav 1:78; which cally the functional form of slope profiles. For exam-
is comparable to p 1:61; which was obtained by ple, a paraboloid-shaped depression has p 2; and a
fitting Eq. (3) to the A–h data set. cylinder-shaped depression has p ! ∞: Natural
The wetlands examined in this paper occur in the depressions have more complex and asymmetric
northern prairie region that is characterized by semi- shape. In general, low values of p occur in depressions
M. Hayashi, G. van der Kamp / Journal of Hydrology 237 (2000) 74–85 85