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Global Developm

TURNING
 Letters to the Editor
YOUTH WITH A PURPOSE tricity to telecommunications, including public in all countries aware of the
the "coherer" a -sensitive detector of circles of loyalty on which
Sir, electric waves, later used by Marconi support for the United Nations de¬
It was a real pleasure for me, a in long-distance radio transmissions. pends. On United Nations' Day (Octo¬
16-year-old, to read your special issue Research and discoveries by Gustave ber 24) and similar holidays they can
on youth (July-August 1965). It showed Ferrie (1868-1932) also contributed to fly three flags together : those of their
quite clearly that young people are the development of radio. city or state, of their nation, and of
now building a world they will one day the United Nations.
BOOKS, FILMS & CHILDREN William Thorn
Inherit not destroying it. Youth, in
fact, is often criticised because it Wilkes-Barre, Pa. U.S.A.
shows an awareness of problems that Sir,

earlier generations preferred to disre¬ I read with great professional THE TREASURES OF MASADA
gard because they were unwilling to interest the article based on Wilbur
disturb the existing order of things. Schramm's book, "The Effects of
Sir,
Thank you for showing us the true Television on Children and Adoles¬
¡mage of youth in 1965. cents" (Feb ). I agree with the author's Masada, one of the most inacces¬
Didier Uriot views. I think the problem has to sible and interesting archaeological
Lomme, France be considered on the highest social, sites in Israel, is now yielding its cul¬
educational and political levels. An tural treasures to both scholar and lay¬
FIRST THINGS FIRST
information medium as persuasive man. This is being accomplished by
as television can, if properly handled, the combined efforts of Israelis and
Sir,
become an instrument of immense an international group of volunteers,
I admire your magazine and parti¬
good, but if wrongly used it can do especially young people, from 28 na¬
cularly its excellent lay-out. But I irreparable harm. tions.
wish you would publish fewer articles There are two other information
Of the important finds so far
on the arts and letters. Instead please
media books and magazines and the unearthed two, I believe, deserve spe¬
tell us more about the major problem cinema which, like certain television cial attention. One consists of some
of hunger in the world and the plight programmes, can have grave psycho¬ more scrolls of the same type as the
of millions of poverty-stricken people.
logical effects on a child. Unesco famous Dead Sea Scrolls. The newly
Your first concern should be to cam¬
should make a study similar to
paign against hunger and all its Mr. Schramm's, but devoted to publi¬
causes and against everthing that cations and to the cinema.
contributes to an exhaustion of the
J. Mallas Casas
world's soil; articles on beautiful minia¬
Barcelona, Spain
tures, mosaics, architecture and
painting should take second place. Ed note: A Unesco study, "The In¬
Antoine de Römer fluence of the Cinema on Children and
Montreal, Canada Adolescents" , was published in the
form of an international bibliography in
WOMAN WITH THE STYLUS
1961 (No 31 in the Unesco Reports and
Papers on Mass Communication). An
Sir,
article based on this report appeared
Thanks to an illustration accompa¬ in the March 1961 issue of The Unesco
nying the article, "Ancestors of the Courier.
Ball-Point Pen", by Luigi Pareti (May),
I have at last solved the mystery of a UNDER THREE FLAGS

portrait which I received as a wedding

present nearly 20 years ago. Your Sir,

caption identifies it as a mural painted International Co-operation Year

at Pompeii in 70 A.D., depicting a comes when much effort is needed to
young Roman woman holding a stylus. establish the United Nations as the
I have always been intrigued by the effective voice of mankind. A few
young woman in my painting and am privileged astronauts can travel In
delighted to have discovered her ori¬ private space craft, but the rest of us
gin thanks to your help. make up the crew of the biggest space
I especially like your issues devoted capsule, the earth itself. found scrolls include portions of Deu¬
to art, archaeology, ethnography, It is widely agreed that loyalty to teronomy and Ezekiel and add in¬
ancient civilizations and all humanistic the locality harmonizes with loyalty to valuable material to the tricky prob¬
questions. the larger unit of government, whether lem of their dating. The other impor¬
Françoise Mutschier it is called state, region, province, or
tant find is the synagogue. Its remains
Ferney Voltaire, France prefecture. In spite of occasional
are an important contribution to the
conflicts, loyalty to a province or can¬
RADIO PIONEERS history of synagogical architecture and
ton is usually seen as compatible with constitutes a link between the archi¬
Sir, loyalty to a nation. In a space cap¬ tectural influences of the times and
sule, the long-range welfare of
Your article on "Telecommunications later developments in the art of build¬
any one nation obviously depends
1869-1965" (May) states correctly that ing synagogues and churches.
upon the welfare of the entire
the invention of radio will always be The literary description of the fall of
globe. Conversely, the welfare of the
associated with such names as James Masada by Josephus is now corrobo¬
world suffers if any one nation has an
Maxwell, Heinrich Hertz, Oliver Lodge, economic collapse. We know, too,
rated by archaeological evidence.
Alexander Popov, Guglielmo Marconi Even his description of the mass sui¬
that warfare in any part of the world
and Lee De Forest. In my view two carries with it the threat of nuclear
cide, which its defenders committed
French scientists, Edouard Branly and rather than surrender to the Romans,
destruction In all other parts as well.
Gustave Ferrie, also belong in this list has been found to be true.
It follows then, that loyalty to any
of radio pioneers. Some new Israeli stamps (See
nation must be compatible with loyalty
Marceau Cauchy above) have been issued to mark the
to the long-term welfare of the entire
Paris, France importance of Masada.
family of man.
Ed note : Edouard Branly (1844- Men and women of good will can David Ariel
1940) was responsible for many deve¬ strengthen the celebration of Interna¬ Assistant Permanent Delegate
lopments in the application of elec tional Co-operation Year by making the of Israel to Unesco
 i . i A iNOOw
WINDOW orín
grin on
o « THt
i«» weno
n w« i. -

Courier Page

OCTOBER 1965 - 18TH YEAR

TURNING POINT

The gigantic effort of the Ü.N. Development Decade

PUBLISHED IN
frank appraisal in four parts
NINE EDITIONS
By U Thant

English 10 NEW STRATEGY FOR DEVELOPMENT

French
By René Maheu

Spanish
Russian 12 TECHNICAL CO-OPERATION

IN A WORLD OF CHANGE
German
By David Owen
Arabic

U.S.A.
20 THE GREAT REVOLUTION

Japanese Towards a universal society

Italian By Walter Lippmann

24 SCIENCE, A NEW SOCIAL FORCE

Published monthly by UNESCO,
By Mikhail Millionshchikov
The United Nations
Educational, Scientific
27 UNESCO METAMORPHOSIS
and Cultural Organization

Sales & Distribution Offices

Unesco, Place de Fontenoy, Paris-7e. OTHER FEATURES

Annual subscription rates: 15/-stg.; $3.00

(Canada) ; 10 French Francs or equivalent;
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COLOMBIA

The UNESCO COURIER is published monthly, except Developing the fabulous valley of the Cauca
in July and August when it is bi-monthly (11 issues a
year) in English, French. Spanish, Russian, German, Arabic,
Japanese and Italian. In the United Kingdom it is distributed 15 PHILIPPINES
by H.M. Stationery Office, P.O. Box 569, London, S. E. I.
Life returns to "Death Valley"
Individual articles and photographs not copyrighted may
be reprinted providing the credit line reads "Reprinted from
the UNESCO COURIER", plus date of issue, and three
voucher copies are sent to the editor. Signed articles re¬ AFGHANISTAN
printed must bear author's name. Non-copyright photos
will be supplied on request. Unsolicited manuscripts cannot A country 90% unexploited
be returned unless accompanied by an international reply
coupon covering postage. Signed articles express the
opinions of the authors and do not necessarily represent THE NEW CEDARS OF LEBANON
tne opinions of UNESCO or those of the editors of the
UNESCO COURIER. Restoring one of nature's ancient treasures
The Unesco Courier is indexed monthly in The Read¬
ers' Guide to Periodical Literature published by
H. W. Wilson Co., New York. FROM THE UNESCO NEWSROOM

Editorial Offices
Unesco, Place de Fontenoy, Paris 7e, France
Cover photo
Editor-in-Chief
Sandy Koffler
We are now at the mid-point of the Uni¬
Assistant Editor-in-Chief
ted Nations Development Decade. What
René Caloz
progress has been made by countries
Assistant to the Editor-in-Chief striving to free themselves from the bur¬
Lucio Attinelli dens of economic underdevelopment and
Managing Editors what major obstacles have, they still to
English Edition : Ronald Fenton (Pans) overcome? The Unesco Courier devotes
French Edition : Jane Albert Hesse (Paris) this issue to these vital questions and
Spanish Edition : Arturo Despouey (Paris) to the multiple aspects of international
Russian Edition : Victor Goliachkov (Paris) technical co-operation. Every day sees
German . Edition : Hans Rieben (Berne) new furrows being ploughed in a world¬
Arabic Edition: Abdel Moneim El Sawi (Cairo) wide process of economic development.
Japanese Edition : Shin-lchi Hasegawa (Tokyo)
Italian Edition: Maria Remiddi (Rome)
Illustrations : Phyllis Feldkamp
Research : Olga Rodel Ci FIAP-Antonio Grau Cloquell
Villafranca del Panadas. Spain
Layout & Design : Robert Jacquemin v . "

All correspondence should be addressed to the Editor-in-Chief.

 TURNING POINT
The United Nations Development Decade is 5 yrs old.

How has it fared ? U Thant gives a frank answer

For the past five years the world community has been engaged in a global
adventure unprecedented in history: the United Nations Development De¬
cade which has now reached its mid-point. How far has this gigantic effort
actually succeeded, what have been the major difficulties and disappoint¬
ments and what are the prospects for the remainder of the Decade during
the 1960s? To these questions, which none of us whatever our country öf
origin can afford to ignore, the Secretary-General of the U.N. offers a frank
appraisal in the challenging analysis published below.

by U Thant
Secretary General of the United Nations

HE idea of a Decade of Development, launched
and sustained by the United Nations, is design¬
ed to remind us of a number of things. First, the process
of development itself the process whereby, at different*
times and at different speeds but with complete irrever¬
sibility, the whole human race is adapting to its use the
modern instruments of science and technology. This
process involves all mankind from the commuter in mod¬
ern Megalopolis to the herdsmen on the Saharan fringe.
The United Nations Development Decade seeks to stim¬
ulate our imagination so that we may become aware of
the increasing interdependence of the whole process the
growth, underneath the vicissitudes of day-to-day politics,
of a substratum of economic and social experience which
is more or less common to all the nations of the earth.
Above all, it tries to dramatize the stark fact
gap in resources between the fully modernized nations and
their still developing neighbours is tending to widen, leaving
some two-thirds of humanity below the poverty line, turn¬
ing the developed societies, whether or not they realize
it, into a privileged élite.
The concept of the Decade is essentially a focus for
action, action fd lessen the gap, to speed up the proces¬
ses of modernization, to release the majority of mankind
from crippling poverty, to mitigate the tensions and hosti¬
lities which must flow from the world's vast inequalities in
wealth, to restore solidarity and hope.
4 the average annual per capita income in the developed
The U.N. General Assembly has emphasized the need for
increasing the transfer of resources to developing coun¬
tries by expressing the hope that the "flow of international
assistance and capital should be increased substantially
so that it might reach as soon as possible approximately
one per cent of the combined national incomes of the eco¬
nomically advanced countries."
The launching of the Development Decade represents a
new departure In international economic relations. By
agreeing to co-ordinate action with a view to attaining a
5 per cent growth rate in developing countries, governments
in fact extended the concept of sustained and expanding
demand from the domestic economy to the world at large.
The adoption of a target for transfers of resources to
developing countries in terms of a proportion of the national
incomes of developed countries showed that the concept
of shared resources is beginning to enter the philosophy
of States in relation not simply to their own citizens but to
that the other States as well.
Today, halfway through the Development Decade, how
has the General Assembly's initiative fared? Many of the
basic facts remain as tough as ever. The harsh fact' per¬
sists that many of the poorest economies have continued
to grow most slowly, the growth in developing countries
as a whole slowed down; at the same time the growth rate
in the economically advanced market economies has acce¬
lerated. The gap between the per capita incomes of the
developing countries» and those of the developed countries
has also widened during the 1960s; between 1960 and 1962
market economies increased by almost $100 while that in
the developing countries increased by barely $5.
 The annual flow of international assistance and capital to is over 2 per cent and rapidly approaching the 3 per cent
developing countries was substantially larger in the early level. In some of the Latin American countries it is higher.
years of the Development Decade than in the second half
of the 1950s. However, more recently the net flow has On present showing there simply is not in prospect a
virtually ceased to increase and progress towards the 1 per growth in agricultural production sufficient to accommo¬
cent goal for resource transfer to developing countries was date this rising flood of people. The world's agricultural
halted. production is growing by under 3 per cent per year, and
the growth rate is much lower in some critical areas. The
Two-thirds of the world's population living in the less continuance of traditional methods in farming has often
developed regions of the world still share less than one- been the main obstacle to any significant increase in food
sixth of the world's income. In 1962 annual per capita production.

income in these regions averaged $136 while that of the

population of the economically advanced market economies
in North America and Western Europe averaged $2,845 and
$1,033, respectively.
APID migration to the cities has further com¬
These abstract figures do little to convey the realities plicated the problem. The rate at which this
which underlie the gaps in income. In spite of dramatic migration has taken place has often far exceeded the rate
improvements in the prevention of disease which over the at which urban employment opportunities have been increas¬
last decade have added ten to twenty years to the expec¬ ing, with the result that unemployment is rising in many of
tation of life in the developing countries, their average the developing countries.
still falls by as much again behind life expectancy round
To give one striking example: in 1955 the Indian esti¬
the North Atlantic. In particular, the tragic death of small
mate of unemployment was some 5 million. By 1961 it had
children weighs far more heavily upon the developing lands.
grown to 8 millions. Even if the planned production targets
In the most highly developed countries, the mortality rate of for 1966 and 1971 are fulfilled, the Indian authorities esti¬
children up to five years of age varies from 4.5 to 6.3 per
mate that unemployment will still rise to 12 million and
1,000. Yet in Latin America, the rates are five to ten times
14 million in these two years respectively. A particularly
higher and in Africa, higher still.
disturbing feature in these situations is the degree to which
One reason lies in the disparities in medical services ; unemployment will fall most heavily on young people. In
Indonesia, 50 per cent of the urban unemployed and In
in North America, Western Europe and the U.S.S.R. where
Ceylon 80 per cent are under 25 years of age.
there is generally one doctor for fewer than 1,000 inha¬
bitants compared with one for 6,000 in India, 32,000 in This phenomenon of urban unemployment may not in
theory be worse than the semi-employment and under¬
Afghanistan, 39,000 in Mali and approximately 96,000 in
nourishment of the villagers. But in the countryside
Ethiopia. Failure to invest adequately in the control of
family and clan give some support. There is a little more
disease and the promotion of health, together with a lack spare food; in some regions, there may be hunting and fish¬
of coverage by health services of large segments of the ing on the side. The city reduces the new migrants to
population where disease is endemic, has led in many the rawest struggle for survival. Yet it is to the cities they
parts of the world to a deterioration of standards of health
come in a flood which far surpasses in speed the general
and sanitation.
growth of population. Cities grow, the world over, by
about 4 per cent a year. Some of the greatest cities grow
at twice that rate. About 5,000 newcomers a week move
into Rio de Janeiro. The capital cities of tropical Africa
NOTHER reason for the difference in mortality
rates certainly lies in disparities in diet. Men have doubled in little more than a decade.

and women in North America and Western Europe eat

on the average about 3,000 calories and 80 to 90 grammes
of protein a day. In Latin America, outside Argentina, the
average falls to 2,400 calories and some 70 grammes of
protein; in Asia to 2,100 calories and 50 grammes a level
still below prewar standards; in Africa the protein consump¬
tion is lower still. But these abstractions give no true
sense of the gap between the steaks and chocolate, the
salads and fruit of diets in the developed countries and the
bowl of rice, with little variety beyond a change of sauce,
which makes up, day in, day out, the food of most Asians.
The problems that spring from the dynamism of growth
in population, coupled with the added dynamism of urban
expansion, are propelled forward by yet another dimension
of dynamic change the change in people's expectations.
This factor is no doubt inescapable in an open world of
total communication where the richer nations give a daily
demonstration of what can be achieved in terrestrial pros¬
perity. But it compels the governments of the developing
lands to undertake policies and projects which, in the short
run, tend to complicate their already formidable difficulties.

In a world where new drugs dramatically reduce morta¬

Inadequacies in diet and medical care are made
lity from such old enemies as yaws or leprosy or tubercu¬
more intolerable for about 1,000 million people by the des¬
losis, people clamour for the medical help that sends the
perate standards of housing which they are forced to population leaping still further ahead of food supplies. In
endure. The major cities of the developing continents all a world of hope and upheaval, the young men seize the new
have their densely crowded shanty towns in which 20 to 30 means of transport designed to open up the countryside to
stream away from the farms before there is room for them
per cent of the city's inhabitants may be living without
In the cities and before the farms are producing a surplus
water, without sewers, without roads. And out in the of food.
countryside the shacks of day labourers, landless men,
In a world now aware of education as the gateway
untouchables and rural unemployed only seem a little less
to advance, parents demand village schools which the
miserable because of their larger ration of light and air.
youths often leave with barely a primary education to seek
The misery of much of the developing world ¡s a progres¬ unskilled jobs in urban centres just the jobs which a more
sive misery. It threatens to grow worse in the second sophisticated industrialization is beginning to abolish.' No
half of the Decade. On present showing the numbers of government of a developing country can escape these
unemployed and men and women suffering from hunger dilemmas. But as the Development Decade advances, the
and malnutrition will be markedly greater in 1970 than impact of all these dynamic forces of explosive change is,
today. It Is in the poorer countries that the highest growth on balance, to make their difficulties more complex and
rate of population is found. In most of Asia and Africa it their prospects more daunting still.

CONT'D ON PAGE 8
 COLOMBIA'S
FABULOUS

PI f 1 VALLEY OF
THE CAUCA

55»Ti3ïS5jg(£2S?»

Like many developing nations,

Colombia is a country of striking
á" contrasts: on the one hand cities

and whole regions (like Bogota, the

:'- capital, right) on a par with any
v^gi found in the most industrialized

countries of the world; on the other

hand, vast areas waiting for full
development. Top left, the Servicio
Nacional de Aprentisaje, a voca¬
tional training school in Bogota,
built some years ago with U.N.
technical aid. The ultra-modern

pilotis support the business training

section attended by 2,000 young
men and women. Lower left, rafts
of "guadua" logs float down the
Cauca River near Cali. The valley
of the Cauca is one of the richest
and most fertile of all South Ame¬

rica, but much of it is still unexploit¬

ed. In 1963 Colombia with the help
of the World Bank undertook an

extensive survey of coal deposits

in the valley and with FAO help set
up an agricultural training centre.

Photos O Paul Almasy, Par

 TURNING POINT

IN DEVELOPMENT

PART mm

B1'distance
UT there is no place for despair. Even if
between the developed -and the
the
de¬
transfers of resources from rich nations to poor to increase
their skills and education, their health, social assets and
veloping countries sometimes seems unbridgeable, the ability to help themselves; and finally, a general effort to
developed are themselves proof that such chasms can be extend the concept of sustained and expanding 'demand
crossed, such disparities reduced to a more tolerable level. from the domestic economy to the world at large all these
After all, the first decades of technological change inside factors can, by analogy, play their part in lessening the gap
the advanced economies produced conditions which closely between rich and poor nations, in sharing more fully the
resemble the divisions and difficulties of the modern world new patrimony of technology and affluence and in creating
economy. a modern'world society. And, in essence, this is what the
In the United Kingdom, for example, in the middle of the Decade of Development is all about.
nineteenth century, after some fifty or sixty years of rapid When the United Nations itself was set up twenty years
economic growth, society was so divided between rich and ago, it was designed, apart from its strictly political pur¬
poor, so diverse in opportunity and affluence, so alien in poses, as a centre for harmonizing international efforts
class and culture that it resembled not so much a unified towards world-wide economic and social improvement but
community as two nations separate in wealth, separate in not as the sole instrument by which that effort should
understanding, indeed, almost as separate in contact and directly be made. Responsibility in particular fields was
sympathy as are the two segments of the modern world divided among the United Nations and a number of autono¬
the rich "North" and the still poverty-stricken "South" mous international agencies.
below the Tropic of Cancer.
But a century has passed and conditions in the deve¬
loped countries have changed dramatically. The slums WITH the Development Decade, co-operation
have largely vanished. Good health is all but universal. among international organizations has become
Educational horizons widen steadily. Entire communities of critical importance. A rural resettlement programme is
have made the transition to the standards of middle-class likely to require not only the crop specialists whom the Food
and Agriculture Organization can provide, assistance from
comfort. It has taken time, but the chasm has been
the International Labour Organization in such matters as
crossed. It can be crossed again. surveying the manpower potential and providing for training
for rural employment, from the World Health Organization in
The analogy is imperfect, no doubt, but it can be a source
the public health aspects of the scheme, from the United
of hope and guidance. In many fundamental ways the pro¬
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization in
cesses of economic and social development, precipitated by
the provision of school and out-of-school educational faci¬
technological change, resemble each other, in spite of the
lities, but also from the United Nations itself in regional
great variety of cultural and national backgrounds against
planning, the provision of social services, the development
which they work. The methods by which today's fully mod¬
ernized societies overcame their internai obstructions are of community organization and local government at the area
of settlement. Furthermore, it may benefit from food sup¬
now part of the vital information available to developing
plied by the World Food Programme, and the United Nations
societies as they struggle with their own problems. Some
Children's Fund may provide equipment and medical sup¬
of the steps taken in the now developed societies are rele¬
plies. If capital as well as technical assistance is needed
vant to the much wider context of development in general.
to carry out the scheme, the government may wish also to
bring the International Bank or its affiliate, the International
Development Association into the picture.
I N the
veries and
nineteenth century,
inventions,
a
coupled with
stream of disco¬
increasing
Another vital factor has been the inception and growth,
sophistication in their application pushed back the limits
from 1949 onwards, of the Expanded Programme of
Technical Assistance. This is a central pooling of govern¬
imposed by materials and skills. The nuclear and chemical
ment contributions designed to provide, financial resources
revolutions of our day with their promise of almost limitless
power and almost unlimited substitutes are only the last in (nearly 500 million dollars in the first fifteen years) which
a sustained series of physical liberations from the oid the United Nations and the agencies could use to meet
restraints.
the priority needs of developing countries for expert
assistance, fellowships and equipment for demonstration
This greater technical elbowroom helps to explain the
and training purposes.
success of another type of adjustment the ability of the
mass of the workers to capture a much larger share of the The Special Fund, a partnership between over 100
economy's production. Once higher purchasing power Governments and the family of United Nations agencies,
became a fact, it was clear that better technology could represents a new dimension of co-operation. Since its
accommodate the larger wage bill by increasing output per inception in January 1959, it has assisted more than 500
worker and that the bill itself had become a vital element
high-priority projects in some 13Ö low-income countries
in sustaining market demand.
and territories involving over 1,000 million dollars of which
Meanwhile, changes in governmental policy also under¬
approximately 60 per cent has been provided by the
lined the importance of sustained demand and increased its
recipient countries.
effectiveness. Through their fiscal policies, governments
both lessened the income gap and reinforced market The Special Fund has concentrated its efforts on four
demand. At the same time, the proportion of taxation
major activities : surveys of available resources and their
spent on schools, health and better housing led to sharp economic potential for development ; strengthening or
increases in skills and working capacity and thus hastened establishing applied research institutes which define
the growth of productivity. industrial and agricultural potentials, promote better use
The expansion and adaptation of science and technology ; of local materials and improve production techniques ;
8 defensive, collective action by poor nations to increase establishing training institutes which produce engineers,
their earnings in the world market; enlightened action by technicians, planners, managers, industrial instructors, and
the developed élite to see that sharing in fact occurs; direct secondary school teachers ; building economic planning
 Three dramas of underdevelopment:

(1) exploding populations (2) rising unemployment

(3) mushrooming shantytowns

units which will focus and co-ordinate national and regional brought primarily and with due weight to the governments'
development efforts. The Fund has also provided advanced attention.

education or technical training for over 70,000 nationals

The United Nations Regional Commissions in the
of seventy-four developing countries.
developing continents in Asia and the Far East, in Latin
The work of the Expanded Programme and the Special America, in Africa have become active centres of co¬
Fund shows how much relatively modest amounts of ordinated strategy. In Latin America, the Economic
multilateral assistance can contribute in helping developing Commission for Latin America has been a leading
countries to make their natural resources more available influence in the movement to set up a free trade area
for productive use, and to put those resources to work and to back it with agreed policies on industrial
for the benefit of their people. The efforts will certainly deployment. In Africa, the Economic Commission for
be intensified if, as the Economic and Social Council Africa has been instrumental in setting up the African
recommends, the two programmes are fused in a single Development Bank and has helped to launch inquiries
United Nations Development Programme. into the possibility of an African Payments Union.

A striking example of the new unified approach is An instance of how far this type of regional co-operation
provided by the World Food Programme under the may go can be seen in the steadily increasing integration
joint sponsorship of the United Nations and the FAO. of Central America. Since the signing of the General
The World Food Programme is a true child of the Develop¬ Treaty on Central American Economic Integration in Guate¬
ment Decade, having begun operations only in 1963. Its mala in December 1960, trade has almost doubled and
finance $100 million for the period 1963-1965 which maybe currencies have become completely convertible.
increased to $250 million in the three-year phase is made
Two other examples of inter-governmental co-operation
up of voluntary contributions in cash, food surpluses and
deserve particular mention. Missions supported by the
services such as shipping.
Special Fund have surveyed the Senegal and the Niger
In addition to giving emergency help in times of disaster, River Basins in Africa and assisted the riparian States
its major work is the longer task of promoting economic in drawing up draft treaties for joint use and development
and social development through the provision of surplus of the river's resources. In the Far East, a much more
food required in development projects as diverse as ambitious scheme is in hand to survey and develop the
irrigation, afforestation and road construction. Much of its
whole of the Lower Mekong River Basin.
work and that of the Food and Agriculture Organization
has received signal support from the Freedom from Hunger The Mekong project covers not only the uses of the
Campaign which, under the leadership of FAQ, has raised river in irrigation, in power, in navigation and flood
control but also the administrative structures needed to
over $220 million and drawn 165 states and territories into
exploit all these possibilities and the kind of economic
action since 1960 in the interests of better diets and more
and social development needed if people are to take full
productive farming. advantage of them.

More than twenty countries, beside the riparian States

Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and the Republic of Viet-Nam
the United Nations and most of the specialized agencies,
HE growing co-operation between the Inter¬ three private foundations and a number of business firms
national Bank and other organizations within the have all been concerned with the preliminary surveys
United Nations system in development work is another and not all the political vicissitudes of the region have
source of increasing efficiency. The Bank, like every other deflected the four local Governments from co-operation
agency concerned with growth, has become more and more in this field. The tragic juxtaposition of the scheme with
aware that the springs of rapid development lie in the the fighting in South-East Asia and the hope that con¬
farms where output and skill must rise if there is to be a ceivably it might provide the context of a constructive
food surplus for the cities, in diversified, industrial growth, peace only serve to heighten its significance.
and in education It is therefore beginning to look in these
new directions and its first step has been to reach special
partnership arrangements 'with the Food and Agriculture
Organization and with Unesco and to devise ways in
Y own definition of an inspired choice is a man
which Bank money up to a level of some $400 million
or more, has unlocked the doors of skill and
can be channelled into its subsidiary, the International
output, confounded the gloomy prophets of inherent physical
Finance Corporation for investment in industrial ventures.
limitation and so fantastically increased man's power io
The United Nations and its agencies, by establishing produce that, in developed economies, to sustain sufficient
patterns of co-operation, agreeing on priorities and working demand is more the problem than to mobilize sufficient
out policies for putting them into effect, can help govern¬ supply. This technology is, naturally and inevitably, one of
ments to co-ordinate their own activities and decisions. the developing nations' chief hopes for the successful
There are opportunities for inter-governmental co-ordin¬ achievement of modernization and for any considerable
ation at other levels. bridging of the gap between rich and poor.
The poor nations are, in some ways, infinitely better
The governing body of each agency is itself a centre
placed than the pioneers of an earlier century. In the
for inter-governmental co-operation. Some agencies the
first place, they have a hundred years of other nations'
Universal Postal Union, for instance, or the International
experience upon which to draw with some degree of
Telecommunication Union are by the very nature of their
clarity. One forgets how much earlier technological ad¬
work intergovernmental throughout their entire operations.
vance was based on uncertain experiment and lucky guess.
Over a wider area, a body such as the U.N. Social
Commission can be the sounding-board for the world's Above all, one forgets the mystery in which the whole
dilemmas for example, its chaotic urbanization, its run¬ process of modernization was shrouded. The early entre¬ 9
away growth in population as well as its aspirations preneurs tried out new processes, tested the market, made
and ensure that they and the policies they call for are a profit or perhaps were ruined and all the time they
CONT'D ON PAGE 30
 NEW STRATEGY
FOR DEVELOPMENT

IT is no longer necessary to prove that education is one

of the basic factors, if not the basic factor in develop¬
ment. Man is both the instrument and the end product of development,
and his education is now a subject that has assumed increasing weight
even in economic studies. If we compare 1965 with 1960 we find that
this is perhaps the major innovation in thinking on development and in
the strategy for development adopted by international organizations.
I am convinced that this fact, now that it is universally acknowledged
and affirmed, should be the major factor in shaping the future policy of
these international organizations in the second half of the U.N. Develop¬
ment Decade.

WITHOUT scientists, engineers and technicians at all

levels no country can call itself free. This raises the
whole problem of scientific and technical education, from secondary
school study to basic research carried out at the higher institute level,
taking in every type of technical training whether in or outside univer¬
sities and schools or within the framework of industry and agriculture.

"HE idea of education no longer has to be promoted.

The motivation for it exists already and springs from
deep within the hearts of the great masses of humanity. This demand
for education has not been created by international organizations or by
governments. On the contrary, to many it must seem like some surging
wave that threatens to sweep everything before it unless it is channelled
in time into new paths where its vast potentialities can be rationally
exploited. The need, the passion, for education is such that it is turning
into an irresistible clamour of world-wide dimensions sparked by the
triple cry for national development, national freedom and respect
for the dignity of man. So strong and far-reaching is this demand that
many nations be they highly developed or not, newly independent or
established for centuries now find themselves face to face with a host

of formidable problems which are no longer just technical or even eco¬

nomic and financial in nature but also political.

René Maheu
Director-General of Unesco

(Passages from an address to the U.N. Eco¬

nomic and Social Council on July 9, 1965)
s
' \

\j>
*\

Giant hydro-electric installation under construction at Furnas

on the Rio Grande (Brazil). Photo: World Bank-J.R. Nonato.
 Fifteen years ago, the first day of July 1950, marked the beginning of the
largest and most far-reaching undertaking in international technical co-opera¬
tion: the United Nations Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance.

The Expanded Programme reaches this anniversary mark in a year of special

emphasis on international responsibilities and action to help meet the problems
of a world in which not only the political security but also the economic and
social well-being of mankind as a whole has yet to find its proper balance.
In the first place, the fifteenth year of the Expanded Programme is also being
celebrated as the twentieth anniversary of the founding of the United Nations
itself. Secondly, this is also International Co-operation Year: and the Expanded
Programme stands out as an example of harmony of purpose and action in the
midst of diversity. Thirdly, the year 1965 marks as well the mid-point of the
United Nations Development Decade; and the Expanded Programme, with its
close partners the United Nations Special Fund and the regular programmes of
the United Nations and the associated specialized agencies constitute together
one of the most important direct contributions of the organized international com¬
munity to economic and social progress in the countries which stand most
urgently in need of development.
Finally, the year brings a prospect of a new and closer association of the
Expanded Programme and the Special Fund already recommended by the Eco¬
nomic and Social Council and awaiting action by the General Assembly in a
single United Nations Development Programme.
The Unesco Courier has asked Mr. David Owen, Chairman of The United
Nations Technical Assistance Board, to recall the early days of the Expanded
Programme and to give an account of its growth and progress. We are happy
to present his article below.

o.

Ó
x

by David Owen

TECHNICAL Excutive Chairman

U. N. Technical Assistance Board

CO-OPERATION WO documents that stand

the history of international

like milestones

assistance to the
In

developing countries are before me as I write these lines.

One is the first, the other the latest, of the Annual Reports
of the Technical Assistance Board to its governing body,
the Technical Assistance Committee of the United Nations

Economic and Social Council. Almost exactly fifteen years

lie between the first and last of these pages and what
a world of change and progress these years have encom-
passedl

"The basis for operations under the Expanded Programme

A WORLD Is now firmly established... the financial support pledged

by governments at the Technical Assistance Conference
now paves the way for the actual launching of this major
undertaking of the family of the United Nations." So we
wrote in our first report, under the date of July 4, 1950.

12
OF CHANGE What we meant, in simpler terms, was that we now at
least had money in pledge, If not yet In the bank
amount of some $20 million; and we also had the machinery
agreed methods and procedures of co-ordination among
to the
mm mWM

One of the first Egyptian women to train as a specialist in industrial hygiene, this student of the Higher
Institute of Public Health in Alexandria is measuring gas toxicity given off in rayon textile manufacture.
The World Health Organization helped the U.A.R. to equip the Institute. In 15 years, U.N. specialized
agencies have sent 859 experts to the U.A.R. and granted over 1,000 fellowships. Over 580 U.A.R. ex¬
perts have gone to other countries. FAO, Unesco, ILO and the International Civil Aviation Organization
this year are taking part in 15 large-scale scientific and technological Special Fund projects in the U.A.R.

the founding members with which to convert that money mounted in each case into the hundreds, we felt that the
Into expert advisers, fellowships and equipment asked for Expanded Programme was substantially in operation.
by developing countries to help them attack their problems
And indeed it was, by comparison with the scale of
of economic and social development.
international assistance previously available. But to turn
Oddly enough, and for the first and last time, we found from the first report of the Technical Assistance Board to
ourselves at that moment with resources far more plentiful the latest is to rediscover how far we had yet to go in
than firm' requests for assistance. These were so few, developing the Expanded Programme, as it has come to
Indeed, that the Technical Assistance Board was able, as be called, and to recognize, with some grounds for pride,
a body, to scrutinize and almost to savour many of them how much has been accomplished.
individually. With no small sense of anticipation, and even
Fifteen years ago the United Nations family looked out
of excitement, we agreed also to send a few exploratory
on a group of over 100 underdeveloped countries and
missions Into the field In order to find out precisely what
territories which were suffering from a lack of capital,
kinds of assistance the countries needed most.
generally unfavourable trade opportunities and a serious
We were, in short, feeling our way into the barely- shortage of technical and administrative skills and expe¬
explored ' realm of co-ordinated International technical rience. The International organizations were in no imme¬
assistance: indeed, "pragmatic" was the expression that diate position to provide the first two ingredients, and so
we applied In that first report to the nature of our approach. they concentrated their energies and the resources to 'be
But by the time and It was only a matter of months made available by the voluntary contributions of Govern¬ 13
that the requests for assistance came pouring in and that ments, on the ingredient which they could effectively
our commitments to provide experts and fellowships mobilize: the exchange of knowledge, skills and experience,
 WORLD OF CHANGE (Cont'd)

32,000 fellowships for training abroad

to organize a civil service or the management of an air¬ tion because they are undramatic and because their suc¬
port; to run a demonstration farm or a model school; to cess, when it happens, happens without fanfare.
train industrial apprentices, nurses and weather forecasters.
The other principal form of technical co-operation under
Our principal medium of assistance to the countries in the Expanded Programme has been the fellowship award
need of it was to be the assignment of "experts", and the means given to the technician, the teacher, the
this seemed to me at the beginning to be fraught with administrator, the factory foreman or the trade unionist
perils. Could we assemble, from our various member in a developing country to obtain further training away
countries, large numbers of men and women with sufficient from home. There have been 32,000 such awards In the

personal and professional qualifications to fulfill our prom¬ last fifteen years, and they have, I believe, left a higher
ises to requesting governments? Even one poorly chosen degree of professional and technical polish at many levels
expert could discredit in an entire country the conception in many developing countries. I have met cabinet ministers
of international assistance, and we would be running this who referred proudly to earlier periods of training under
risk some hundreds of times a year. international auspices, just as I have met railway foremen
and factory supervisors who did their jobs better, or took
It happened in fact that these fears were intensified over jobs of greater responsibility, when they returned
almost immediately by an extremely unfortunate selection from abroad.
of one of our first appointees. He turned out, however,
to be an exception to a record which we and the thousands
of professionals and technicians concerned can hold up
with no little pride. There have been more than 14,000 T the same time, we have learned to regard
appointments in the intervening years: agronomists Lthe fellowship aspect of technical co-operation
recruited and sent out by the Food and Agriculture Orga¬ as a secondary means of achieving national development.
nization; malariologists by the World Health Organization; We have accumulated much evidence that the primary
educational planners by Unesco, atomic energy specia¬ means is the creation of institutions, those locally or region¬
lists by the International Atomic Energy Agency; and so ally based facilities which can ensure the creation and the
on through the hundreds of particular fields of economic perpetuation of skills without draining a country of its scarce
and social development covered by our participating organ¬ and non-expandable supply of trained men and women.
izations (1). I do not think that these agencies would Most government officials have come to share this view,
claim a consistent level of excellence among all their which is reflected in the number of requests for Expanded
appointments, but from my own knowledge I can say that Programme assistance in establishing teacher training
we have had a minimum of embarrassment (and virtually colleges, scientific research institutes, schools for public
none of a political kind despite an almost universal range administration, for social workers, for medical personnel,
of nationalities), adequate standards of competence and and especially for all grades of vocational instructor and
a fair share of inspired choices. supervisor.

The Programme does not run these schools or assemble

entire faculties, any more than it builds dams or maintains
farms. But our experts do provide the support in the plan¬
I Y own definition of an inspired choice is a man ning stage and in the organization and administration of the
(or woman) who can function effectively in the
institutions, and often fill key positions on the staffs until
face of delay, resistance or inertia, adjust his objectives to these institutions can train their own replacements. As a
what can reasonably be accomplished, and gain the con¬
result, we can point to such facilities as the Higher School
fidence and friendship of the people with whom he works.
of Nursing in Alexandria, Egypt, where 124 young nurses
This is especially difficult at the grass roots, but hardly less have already graduated, to the Libyan vocational and
so in the government offices and institutions where more
clerical training centre where the graduating list since
than half of our experts can be found. These are the 1953 has reached over 650, to the Indian Institute of
planners, the statisticians, the fiscal advisers, the admi¬
Technology at Bombay, the Central American School of
nistrators, and all the many others whose conditions of Public Administration and the Middle East Technical Univer¬
work do not conform to the heroic mold, but whose advice
sity in Ankara, Turkey. In these cases and several others,
can seriously affect a country's progress in a given sphere. the International family can reasonably say that without
I am thinking, for example, of one of our economists technical co-operation the facilities might not have existed
at all.
in Libya whose advice was eagerly sought and followed
in establishing national priorities; the experts in Ghana who
They would certainly not have existed, of course, if they
helped to plan and analyze a major country-wide census; the
had not also received the adequate support of the receiving
multi-national team that is helping Singapore to industria¬
governments. In the light of present-day knowledge of
lize; and the people all over Africa who are drawing up plans the possibilities as well as the limitations of technical
for or demonstrating improvements in education, agriculture, assistance, this statement may appear self-evident. It was
medical services and the like. It is one of the ironies of
not necessarily as self-evident when technical co-operation
the first fifteen years of the Expanded Programme that was still a little tried and somewhat Messianic concept.
these kinds of assistance have won the least public atten- We were so preoccupied then with our own machinery for
giving aid that we sometimes tended to take it for granted
that the developing countries would have the Institutional
j . (1) In addition to these four, there are the U.N., the International capacity to absorb the assistance.
J4 Labour Organization, the International Civil Aviation Organization, the
International Telecommunication Union, the World Meteorological In fact, a basic symptom of underdevelopment was the
Organization, thé Universal Postal Union and the Intergovernmental absence or inadequacy of just those facilities and services
Maritime Consultative Organization. that could guarantee the effectiveness of technical assis-

CONT'D ON PAGE 16
 Below, typical village on the Tabuk
plateau. Anti-malariá team can be seen
crossing fields in foreground. -Left,
farmer's wife and children who
have recently returned to their village.

Photos WHO-Paul Alrnasy

£*«*«*

:% WmM \\wWk

Ufe returns to '" xtàhfr&£'-ï-22i2

Philippine doctor stops to chat with

'Death Valley'
Tabuk farmer and son while carry¬
ing out a health check-up in the area.

Until ten years ago the fertile but

malaria-ridden high plateau of Tabuk,
north of Luzon in the Philippines,
was known as "Death Valley". Mala¬
ria was driving farmers away from
the area in which there are 23 vil¬

lages. As a result of a campaign

waged by Philippine health teams in
co-operation with the World Health
Organization, the farmers have
returned. Tabuk is now called the

"rice granary" of northern Luzon.

International co-operation has thus
also contributed to the world-wide

Freedom from Hunger Campaign

launched by the Food and Agriculture
Organization.- FAO and WHO have
joined with Philippine specialists ' in
a wide range of co-operative pro¬
jects ranging from virology and food
and drug administration to fisheries
development and animal husbandry.
 AFGHANISTAN :

a land 90 % unexploited
Left, photo-reproduction apparatus pro¬
vided by Unesco in use at the audio¬
visual centre in Kabul (Afghanistan).
The centre prints textbooks and maps.

Below, pipe-laying in a Kabul suburb-

part of a new public works programme.
The ILO ¡s helping Afghanistan to plan
for full employment as well as to im¬
prove its vocational training facilities.
ILO

An arid and mountainous country and the ancient meeting place of

Greek and Indian cultures, Afghanistan has a population of 12 million,
fully 90 % of which is concentrated in the country's fertile plains and
valleys. Only one-tenth of Afghanistan's land is really exploited. Its
economy still largely depends on agriculture and animal husbandry,
although the government is now beginning to develop the wealth of
the subsoil (oil, natural gas, coal and iron). In 1964 nearly 950,000
dollars were provided for Afghanistan's development under the U.N.
Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance, and between 1959 and
1964 the U.N. Special Fund contributed over 10 million dollars. A more
recent Special Fund project, the higher teacher training college, in
Kabul, was opened in April 1965. Unesco is helping Afghanistan to
develop primary, secondary and technical education and in co-operation
with Unicef it has set up a teacher training academy. Unesco spec¬
ialists have also helped to modernize physics programmes and teaching
materials at Kabul University.

MMMMMMMMMMM

WORLD OF CHANGE (Cont'd)

National effort counts most

tance: national machinery for co-ordinating assistance; an ing with and making use of all kinds of external aid and also,
economic and social development plan with built-in priori¬ I firmly believe, by the efforts by which the United Nations
ties; an adequate legislative and administrative framework; and its agencies are helping governments in those very
and, not least, a nucleus of technicians and administrators directions.

who could be assigned as counterparts to the international

experts.
Under the Expanded Programme, for example, new pro¬
gramming procedures were adopted in 1954 which put the
The absence of all or some of these affected not only burden of establishing priorities for development on the
the Expanded Programme but also the endeavours of all receiving governments themselves and which encouraged,
those governments and organizations which ventured and indeed virtually obliged them to set up central co-or¬
independently into the new field of economic aid, and it dinating units to arrange their requests for assistance
tried the mettle of many persons involved. I recall the according to national development priorities. Working with
case of a most distinguished mining engineer whom we these units are the resident representatives of the Tech¬
had assigned to an Asian country. More than six months nical Assistance Board and the field representatives of
of his allotted year were allowed to pass without any the agencies, who are able to guide governments in their
support from the ministry which had eagerly sought his choice and use of' foreign assistance, the former in terms
services. Just as we were about to move him to another of overall policy, the latter on the technical substance of
country, however, his work caught the interest of quite projects.
another branch of the government, and he was on his
way to a successful assignment. Moreover, the Expanded Programme has had an effect
on national planning and co-ordination, particularly in the
But cases such as' this demonstrate the flexibility of the newer countries, by the very nature of the assistance which
individual rather than the solution of the basic problem. This is offered: not only, as I have mentioned, by the emphasis
16 was left to be solved and is moving slowly towards solu¬ given to training, but also by providing expert advice in
tion with every passing day by the administrative maturing all areas of economic and social planning and administra¬
of governments, by their accumulation of experience in deal tion. From the very beginning, I felt that this delicate and
Afghans report for
work on a section

of the Asian High¬

way now under cons¬
truction between
Kabul and Kandahar.

crucial area of assistance is a natural focal point for an ginally have believed. I am not thinking so much of such
international (and therefore disinterested in character) pro¬ classic cases as that of an expert whose recommendations
gramme, and it has been gratifying to .see this confirmed on the reorganization of a country's civil service languished
by the requests of many governments for assistance of on a shelf for four years, until a new administration dusted
this kind. it off and made it national law. I am thinking rather of the
stubborn resistance of the problems of poverty, disease
We have grounds for being satisfied that the Expanded and ignorance their capacity, .indeed, to grow as well as
Programme has proved itself to be a substantial and useful to survive. In the rapidly increasing population of the
instrument for economic and social development. We developing countries as a- whole, these evils are capable
remind ourselves constantly, however, that it is an instru¬ of blighting even larger numbers of lives now than when
ment and that, like all instruments, it must be used pro¬
we began our concerted attack on them fifteen years ago.
perly to produce measurable results. Technical co-operation
cannot work wonders by itself. It was never meant to do We can be satisfied that national and international efforts

so. In the enormously complicated task of building the have together prevented the toll from being even greater
economy of a nation, it is that nation's own strenous efforts and have opened for many thousands of people opportu-
on Its own behalf which count first. Those efforts may nitids as well as hope for economic and social improve¬
bear fruit more or less quickly depending upon the availa¬ ment. But we have far to go before we can be satisfied
bility of capital (from within and without), the opportunities that enough has been done to create such opportunities
for profitable foreign trade and a dozen other vital and and to justify such hopes.
interlocking factors, of which provision of skills is only
one, however important. It is always difficult and some¬ Generous though our governments have been in contri¬

times presumptious, therefore, to try to measure the buting to this cause their donations through the Expanded
contribution of the Expanded Programme or any other Programme alone total the equivalent of five hundred million
avenue of technical assistance to the overall development dollars for 15 years their earnest desire to see the burdens
of underdevelopment lifted for the sake of a decent and
of a given country.
peaceful life for all mankind has yet to be matched by the
It was said fifteen years ago that ours was a programme resources needed for the purpose. The growth of the
not for years but for decades and this has turned out Special Fund, and the proposed merger of the two program- ^_
to be, if anything, an understatement. Looking at some of mes in a combined United Nations Development Programme, | /
our work, I must frankly confess that it has often taken gives us reason to hope that these resources will increas¬
longer to achieve worthwhile results than we might ori ingly be made available in the years ahead.
 THE NEW CEDARS
OF LEBANON

All along the Lebanon

range terraces are
"Wail, O fir tree; for the cedar is fallen; because the goodly XT being carved from the
ones are destroyed: wail O ye oaks of Bashan.- for the rocky hillsides to re¬
strong forest is come down." This biblical lamentation ceive millions of young
trees cedar and pine.
(Zechariah XI; 2) will soon be valid no longer for today the
famous cedar forests of the Lebanon are rising again.

m
Civilization after civilization ravaged these forests for
shipbuilding and countless other uses. Two world wars
ushered in the last stages of their decline with timbers
^ \
being used as fuel and for railway sleepers. Only four
small groves survived on the arid stony wastes of the
mountains. Today these mountain areas are being reno¬ l»MW>MI

vated under Lebanon's "Green Plan". Thousands of young

trees have already been planted on their slopes and mil¬
lions of others will follow under the reforestation project
which the Lebanese Government is carrying out with the
help of the FAO and the U.N. Special Fund. Surveys of
the soil, water, vegetation and livestock resources have
been completed. The dual aim of this campaign is to im¬
prove the lot of the mountain farmers and to restore one
of Lebanon's ancient and celebrated natural beauties.

Using aerial stereo¬

scopic photographs,
a forestry expert plots
the contour lines for
the reforestation areas.

"fai&i
 3*4

THE 3to s.

GREAT

REVOLUTION
by
Walter

Lippmann

*" rP*Mm
u^^
^V^^^^S

L **A\

% 2
 To mark International Co-operation Year 1965, eminent
men from different parts of the world were invited this
year by Secretary- G enera/ U Thant to speak at the
United Nations Headquartors on some of the great
problems of our time. Here we present the text of the
address delivered by Walter Lippmann, the American
journalist and commentator, author of some 25 books
mostly on international affairs, and twice winner
of the coveted Pulitzer Prize for Journalism. For

another text in this same series see page 25.

I AM naturally beset with memories and

emotions, for I am old enough to have seen the
beginnings of the League of Nations. Indeed, as a young
man and as a journalist and as a subordinate official,
I followed as closely as I could the evolution of that first
attempt in this century to organize a universal society.
I saw it founder in the upheaval which led to the Second
World War. But I saw something else. In the darkest
days of that war, there was an almost universal assumption
that, when the fierce Insurrection had been defeated, the
interrupted task of organizing the universal society could
and must be resumed.
I hope I have learned something from this experience.
This is my only excuse for addressing you in this place.
Thus, for one thing, I have learned to think of the two
attempts to organize the universal society as a single and
continuous chapter in the history of mankind. It cannot
be an accident, it cannot be mere coincidence, that the two
attempts have occurred so closely together in this century.
There have been many wars in other centuries,
wars for the hegemony of the world, poisonous civil wars,
great
bloody national wars, savage wars of religion. But in
these long and violent centuries, only an occasional
Utopian thinker dared even to conceive the construction
of an organized international society. Even when men
dared to dream, their dreams were limited. For they never
entertained the idea that an international society could and
that the answer will help us to understand why the first
attempt, that of the League of Nations, failed, and why
the second attempt, this attempt of the United Nations
today, is threatened, and what must be done to prevent
it from failing. I put it in this way because we can do
ourselves no good by proceeding on a false optimism.
A universal society is inevitable. But there is no certainty
that this, our second attempt at a universal society, will
be the last attempt. What I have to say does, I believe,
offer hope for the future. But it is hope only for those
who are induced by it to make a far greater effort for
peace than the governments concerned today have as yet
begun to make.
The old regime
of mankind
Iask your indulgence if I go back to the original
question, which is why in this century, and in
this century alone, there is a general assumption that it is
possible and necessary to organize a universal society.
The feeling that it is possible proceeds from the fact that
modern war has become a universal calamity, that therefore
a universal society is necessary, and that necessity is the
mother of invention.

must be universal, embracing all the continents on the

globe and all peoples of the human race.
The concept
of a universal society
The great historical fact is that this century has wit¬
nessed the consummation of a phase in human evolution
that began in the eighteenth century. In these two cen¬
turies there has been proceeding at an ever-increasing
tempo the dissolution of the ancestral order in which men
have lived and have acquired their habits, and the dis¬
appearance of the old régimes which were built on this
ancestral order.

The old régime of mankind consisted of a hierarchical

ET, in our time, that Utopian idea has become
society, bound together by usage and custom and presided
part of the political calculation of the practical over by royal and imperial authority. Obedience was a
statesmen in all the governments. They took it seriously, duty which must not be questioned and a habit which must
though perhaps not with full comprehension, after the First not be broken. In this ancestral order, wars between the
World War. They took it seriously during the Second royal and imperial authorities were normal, and the intervals
World War, again not realizing what universalism would of peace lasted only as long as the balance of power among
mean when there were as many nations as are now repre¬ them remained stable.
sented in the General Assembly. Now, statesmen must
This ancestral order was struck its first and fatal blow
take universalism seriously.
in the eighteenth century. In almost all of the Western
I ask myself why the idea of a universal society has Hemisphere, the imperial and colonial system was over¬
become a practical consideration in this century and only thrown and destroyed between 1775 and 1820. Elsewhere
21
in this century. it survived, though it was being eroded from within. It
I think there is an answer to this question. I think, too, survived until the beginning of the twentieth century.
CONT'D ON NEXT PAGE
 THE GREAT REVOLUTION (Cont'd)

The First World War destroyed the imperial system in

central and eastern Europe and In the Middle Eastin the
Europe of the Hohenzollerns, the Hapsburgs, the Roma¬
novs, and of the Ottoman rulers. It left behind, and
apparently Intact, the imperial system in Asia and Africa.
After the First World War, the liquidation of the old
régime produced a vacuum of governments in the great
region between the Rhine River and Vladivostok, between
the North Sea and the Persian Gulf. There were no
legitimate successor governments in this great region and
in these lands when the League of Nations was founded.
Now, it ¡s a fact of human experience that men cannot
endure for long being governed by a power that they do
not accept as legitimate. There was, therefore, a fierce
turbulence produced by fanatical upstart tyrannies, strug¬
gling for survival and for domination.
The League of Nations presided over an immense revo¬
lutionary struggle. It could not control that struggle. It
could not compose that struggle. The failure of the League
of Nations has much to teach us today. The primary and
supreme lesson is that it failed because it could not make
peace and nobody else was able to make peace. In the
creation of a universal society, it is not enough to have
a covenant to which all swear allegiance. It is not enough
to set up machinery of consultation, concilation, mediation
and arbitration which is available to all. There must be
also a basic situation that is acceptable to all who might
have the power to disturb it.
The universal society must have a foundation, and that
foundation can be made up only of peace settlements
which are accepted by all the nations capable of over¬
throwing the settlement. A universal society can do much
to keep the peace if, and only if, first of all peace has
been made. For if peace has not been made by the belli¬
gerents, the foundations of a universal society are insecure.
The history of this cruel and bloody century is one of
on earth has been altered radically by revolution: for the
recurring cycles of war and revolution. In this cycle the
old principle that a legitimate authority derives from tra¬
old régimes and the old landmarks are swept away and
dition and is carried on by usage and custom, there has
old habits uprooted, and new wars are engendered in the
disorder which ensues. The Second World War carried been put in its place the modern and revolutionary principle
much further what the First World War had begun. It that legitimate government rests on the consent of the
governed and that this consent comes from their freedom
liquidated the feeble, interim successor régimes which
to choose and from their capacity to make a choice.
existed in the unpacified regions of Europe and the Middle
East. The Second World War demolished the imperial This fundamental revolution in human affairs is the
system In India, in Indo-China, in Indonesia. In Africa, it environment within which the United Nations works. We
demolished the colonial system from the Mediterranean can reach some measure of the depth and scope of this
down to Angola, South Rhodesia and the Union of South revolution when we look about our world. The two great
Africa. wars have not yet been settled and concluded. Stable
governments have not yet been established in all the new
national states nor in all the older national states. We
The lesson of the must not be surprised, and indeed, perhaps we should not
even be downhearted, at realizing that the change from
League of Nations government by tradition to government by consent is
perhaps the most unsettling change in the political history

I Fusthethatlesson of the League of Nations teaches

peace settlements must be the found¬
of mankind.

The fact that amidst this accumulating disorder there

ation of the universal society, then the world we look out
have been two attempts to organize a universal society is
upon offers us no reason for complacency and for self- evidence that man's hopes are wiser than his fears. For
congratulation. there would be little reason to think that a world society
After the two world wars and the revolutions which exists or is being created if we listen only to the official
followed them, there is still no peace settlement in Central statements and look only at the front pages of the news¬
Europe, there Is still no peace settlement in Eastern Asia. papers. The official statements provide little more than
There are only the armistice lines of the Second World an overpowering dissonance and discord in which all the
War which divide Korea, which divide the Japanese islands, issues are irreconcilable.

which divide China, which divide Indo-China. There is

no peace settlement in Africa, no peace which under the
aegis of the United Nations could then be kept in order.
Practical politics
The future of the United Nations is bound up with the
agonies and the hopes of a great historical process. This of preventing war
process is the dissolution of the ancestral order of power
and authority under which mankind has been accustomed
HE practical politics of preventing war in this
to live. An anarchy of emptiness has followed this dissolu¬
generation turn on the fact that as nuclear
tion. Amidst violence and frustration and disappointment,
science has produced weapons of annihilation, weapons
22 we are living through the attempts to create in this vacuum
which in terms of human endurance are absolute weapons,
a new and acceptable order.
war between nuclear powers can no longer be an instru¬
During the past two centuries, almost every government ment of their national policy. This will still be the case even

if, as is most probable, a considerable number of states
acquire nuclear weapons. For no nation can risk the use of
these weapons anywhere because, having those weapons,
it is subject itself to fearful retaliation. However, the acqui¬
sition of these weapons does not mean that a state has
added enormously to its power and influence. For in the
act of becoming a nuclear power, it has also made itself a
target, a target for the nuclear weapons of other states.
Therefore, the prospect of averting great war by mutual
deterrence is a reasonably good prospect. But that does
not mean that violence and disorder are disappearing from
the world. We know that they are not. For the technique
of war is changing. In the First World War we had the
massacre of conscript armies. This was succeeded in the
Second World War by attacks with fire bombs and nuclear
bombs on the civilian population in the cities. Nowadays,
wars are for the most part revolutionary wars, guerrilla
wars, little wars fought by small numbers of men with little
weapons and with terrorism and propaganda.
It Is difficult to imagine a treaty to put an end to revolu¬
tionary wars directed against unstable societies. Our
objective must be to contain these little wars, to Isolate
them, to immunize them, to neutralize them, so that they
do not inflame the rivalry of the great nuclear powers.
Is that all? No, I am sure it is not. For we must look
beneath the surface of the events of the day. When we
look beneath the surface, we shall see that there is under
way what we may call the Great Revolution, and it is upon
this Great Revolution that- we must rely to bring about
peace and stability on which eventually the universal
society can flourish.
What is the Great Revolution? It is a radical change in
the human condition. It ¡s a product of man's advancing
knowledge, his knowledge of how to control the material
conditions of his life on earth.
We are still only at the beginnings of this, the most
fundamental of all the revolutions and, in a sense, perhaps
the response to the revolutions which destroyed the ances¬
tral order and the old régime. The knowledge on which
this Great Revolution is based is a unique experience in
© H.W. Silvester. Lioux-Vaucluse (France)
man's long history. Thus, already we know in theory and
in practice how to produce plenty in place of famine. That
marks a sharp break in the history of mankind. Fifty years
ago this knowledge did not exist. We know, too, how to
bring fresh water out of the ocean and to make the deserts
flourish. We know how to control conception and the wild
growth of population which threatens to nullify any pro¬
gress we make in improving the material conditions of life.
Therefore, we no longer have to be afraid that medicine
will save too many lives. We no longer have to rely on
epidemics and famine to keep the population from over¬
running the earth. We know that there need no longer be
any fear of a shortage of power anywhere on earth.
The conquest
of poverty
T the same time, we have at last begun to
Mearn how local and national and regional eco¬
nomies can be managed, how they can be brought under
human control and no longer left to the capricious play of
invisible forces. The art of managing the economy is
perhaps the youngest of all the arts. But as it Is perfected,
it is one of the most promising revolutions in the human
condition. For the sucessful management of the developed
economies should produce a rate of growth in the production
of wealth which can wipe out the material causes of social
conflict. At the same time, it should produce such ample
surplus that there will be quite sufficient capital available
to prime the pump in the less developed regions ot the
earth.
The modern age differs from all the ages that have gone
before in that the conquest of poverty has for the first time
become a rational object of policy for all states. This has
come about because of a conjuncture of discoveries and
inventions arising from new knowledge, from the sciences 09
and the arts which have to do with the conscious and deli-
berate regulation of human affairs the regulation of the
growth of population and the planning of its environment.
CONT'D ON NEXT PAGE
 THE GREAT REVOLUTION (Cont'd)

We are still a long way from the time when this knowledge
is perfected. We are even a long way from the time when
all governments will know how to use it. as it is being
perfected and will have the will to do so. We are still a
long way from the time when it will be the common sense
of all mankind. But undoubtedly the knowledge has begun
to exist, it has been applied, it is being tested and proved,
and we are dealing with something that exists, not with
something vaguely imagined.
The existence of this knowledge carries with It a certain
guarantee that it will not be lost and forgotten unless
civilization itself is destroyed. The knowledge is not the
secret of one man or of one country or of one ideology.
It is the common property of all men who wish to use it
and can learn to use it. Because this knowledge exists,
it will be applied. And being applied, it will by trial and
error be perfected more and more. Many of the superficial
revolutions in human history have come and gone and A treaty without precedent in
modern diplomatic history, the
been forgotten. But a revolution in man's knowledge of
Antarctic Treaty, signed in
the nature of things is, at least in modern times with 1959, made this vast ice¬
modern methods of keeping records, irreversible, and on bound continent into an inter¬
that thesis, I believe we can found our faith in the future. national land of science where

Men have never before had reason to believe that the

conquest of poverty or the attainment of social peace ¡s a
possible and practical object of statesmanship. In this
half-century these objectives have in fact become just
nuclear explosions and any
kind of military activity are
prohibited (See The Unesco
Courier, Jan. 1962). Here, a
UM^:
helicopter sets down on the
that practical politics in the work-a-day world. The Great ice pack alongside a Japanese
Revolution is undercutting and undermining the dominant observation ship taking part
ideological issues of this era. The Cold War will not be in the large-scale Antarctic
settled by the victory of capitalism or of communism. On research programma of the
the contrary, the Great Revolution will transcend the Cold International Geophysical Year.
War because it will enable the pioneer societies to do
Japanese Government photo
what neither capitalism nor communism has been able to
do for them, which is to move towards a standard of living
which is better than any that can be attained by a struggle
of classes.

The promise
of the Great Revolution

ND so, in conclusion, let me say that I have

Confidence in the future of the universal society
because it can now have a positive vocation, an affirmative
purpose, which can embrace and engage all the Interests
of men. This vocation and purpose is the conquest of
poverty and the making of social peace by carrying out the
promise of the Great Revolution.
From this vantage point we can look back over the half-
century during which there have been these two attempts
to organize an international society for the enforcement
of peace. Looking back, we can say that peace as such
SCIENCE
has not been enough. Men will not make peace the
absence of struggle and conflict their paramount ¡deal.
For they have other Interests, some of which they cherish
more than life itself.

If the universal society is to live and flourish, It must

have some more interesting thing to do than to stand by,
and now and then to intervene in some quarrel when it
A NEW
breaks out. Defence is a primary and indispensable func¬
tion of any organized society. But not defence alone. No
less indispensable is the promotion of the welfare of the
members of the society. This is true of all organized
governments, and it is true of the United Nations.
While the United Nations must do what it can to influence
the powers to make peace, while It must do what it can to
SOCIAL
keep the peace, while it must rally its whole power and
influence to avert big war, it will not live by peace alone.
That is too grey an horizon. The horizon should be vivid
with splendour and hope. The masses of mankind from the
poorest to the richest are preoccupied above all else with
the problem of living with this Great Revolution which
brings the promise and the prospect of the fulfilment of
FORCE
24 their hopes.
With these promises and these prospects of the Great
Revolution, the United Nations must Identify Itself.
by Mikhail Millionshchikov
 *- V- ,

HE time has now come to enhance the role of people; and yet another, the obstacles, still to be overcome,
reason in the life of human society. In the world in the way of a broad development of international trade and
of today there are various social systems; reason must of economic, scientific and technical co-operation.
help us find ways for states with different social systems
In order to bring about a substantial improvement in
to coexist on peaceful terms. the situation, the appropriate course would be to follow
the example of the scientists, who achieve success when
Nowadays, attempts to urge the "acceptability" of ther¬
they steadfastly seek bold new solutions to the problems
monuclear war as an instrument of policy, and calls to
confronting science, and when they do so in an atmosphere
continue competing in means of mass destruction, are not
of co-operation instead of enmity. This atmosphere of
meeting with their previous success. It has become pos¬
honest, mutually advantageous, workmanlike co-operation
sible to take practical steps which have made the danger
and trust should also prevail in the relations among
of world-wide thermonuclear war somewhat more remote:
peoples.
among them, the Moscow Treaty banning nuclear weapon
tests in three environments, the United Nations resolution Lenin, the founder of the Soviet State, said that
calling upon states to refrain from placing weapons of the best way to celebrate an anniversary was to concen¬
mass destruction in orbit in outer space, the curtailment trate on the problems still to be solved. Observance of
of the production of fissionable materials for military pur¬ the International Co-operation Year will fittingly mark the
poses and some reduction in the military expenditures of twentieth anniversary of the United Nations only if it really
the great powers. moves mankind forward towards the solution of the prob¬
lems confronting it today.
If events could continue on this course it would afford
When man becomes aware of the mortal danger that
special satisfaction to peace-loving people; it would prove
hangs over him, all the other cares and wants that beset
that reason is capable of controlling the destructive poten¬
him recede into the background. Security that Is the first-
tial of the elemental forces which they themselves have
priority problem whose solution is the vital prerequisite
discovered and released. However, many factors still hang,
for the solution of all the problems confronting mankind.
like the sword of Damocles, over mankind. One such
factor is the threat of thermonuclear catastrophe far from We have spoken of this matter so often In recent years
eliminated still, and aggravated by the growth of the nuclear that the real meaning of these words Is gradually slipping
arsenal and the heavy burden of the arms race. Another from our grasp; we are coming to regard them as a psycho¬
25
is colonialism and racism; another, poverty, hunger and logical and political cliché, bereft of content. And yet
disease; another, the illiteracy of hundreds of millions of the real danger that threatens mankind, that threatens its
CONT'D ON NEXT PAGE
 SCIENCE, A NEW SOCIAL FORCE (Cont'd)

For a greater unity of mankind

very existence, has never been as great as it is In our
time.
In the past two decades mankind has acquired the capa¬
city to destroy itself not once but many times over. Lest
this potential should turn into nightmare reality, all reason¬
ing people must find a settlement for the disputes which
divide them. We cannot, we dare not forget that in the
nuclear era the conditions in which human society exists
have undergone drastic change, and that a catastrophe
of .unprecedented dimensions may be unleashed unless
people who do not understand the changes that have taken
place in the world fundamentally alter their behaviour and
their way of thinking.
From the standpoint of the inherent logic of social deve¬
lopment and scientific and technical progress, a world
thermonuclear catastrophe is not inevitable. Yet the accu¬
mulation of weapons of mass destruction continues. The
danger of their being triggered off is growing.
appearing on the international scene, and their peoples
are uprooting colonialism, destroying the economic and
political positions of foreign monopolies, altering the old
colonial structure of their economy and creating a new
structure. The time is not far distant when these countries
will no longer play the role of mere suppliers of agricul¬
tural and industrial raw materials for the world's markets,
a role bequeathed to them by the colonial era.
The development of international trade free from discri¬
mination and artificially erected barriers would provide a
sound basis for the establishment of friendly relations
among countries and would help to preserve and streng¬
then peace, confidence and mutual understanding among
peoples. For that reason, it is a matter of profound
concern to men of science that the International Co-opera¬
tion Year should consolidate the positive results achieved
by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Develop¬
ment and give a powerful new impetus to the development
of international trade.

At the same time, however, no single one of the various

possible areas of development of International co-opera¬
tion can claim a monopoly or can serve as a panacea.
Man's economic, political and scientific problems consti¬
I|Nresponsibility.
the circumstances, scientists bear a special
Representing the highest inte¬
tute a single interdependent system. As a consequence,
their solution also must be universal in scope, and must
rests of scientific and social progress, they must, I feel, be based on effectively co-ordinated international co¬
co-ordinate and pool their efforts with the efforts of all men operation in all these spheres. From this angle, the first
of goodwill in the noble cause of eliminating colonialism important task Is to determine correctly, the basic and
once and for all and preventing a thermonuclear war. It is primary link in the chain of problems confronting us.
now generally recognized that the surest way to solve this
problem is through general and complete disarmament
under strict international control. Only in a disarmed world
free from wars can science in its turn become completely a
constructive instead of a destructive force. The Pugwash
Conference of scientists Is doing what it can in the struggle lCIENCE has an increasing number of positive
to prevent a nuclear catastrophe, not to mention the efforts political achievements to its credit; it is becom¬
for peace that the World Council of Peace and many other ing an increasingly active social force of our time.
organizations are making. In the light of the experience gained, I would emphasize
Scientists and people in public life throughout the world that the development of international scientific co-operation
should work out an agreed programme for safeguarding makes an appreciable contribution to the cause of peace.
international security through disarmament. It seems to A direct result of the fulfilment of the Antarctic programme
me that one of the possible ways of achieving such a of the International Geophysical Year was the conclusion
programme might be to have an international year for the in 1959 of the Antarctic Treaty, which proclaimed a sixth
preparation of disarmament. The implementation of such of the earth as the first demilitarized zone and thereby
a programme would undoubtedly assist in removing many laid down the principle of reducing militarism's sphere
technical and political obstacles both to partial and to of action ¡n the world.

general and complete disarmament. It might be agreed An International Year of Preparation for Disarmament
to continue such efforts until suitable inter-governmental
would also be a significant contribution to the cause of
agreements place disarmament on a solid foundation. At international co-operation and would be fruitful both poli¬
the same time, this would place the entire question of
tically and scientifically. There is no doubt that such a
international co-operation in the scientific and political
heartening example would provide a strong stimulus for
spheres alike on a new plane, which is especially Important,
further steps in that direction; and this is of vital impor¬
as in present conditions scientific co-operation Is insepa¬ tance, for the International Co-operation Year is to usher
rable from and determined by political co-operation, although
in a period of broad and many-sided efforts to bring
in turn exerting an increasing influence upon it. mankind closer to a world without weapons and without
wars, a world in which scientific and technical progress
will seek only the good of mankind and will help to create
conditions fit for human beings to live In.

By becoming a direct productive force, science Is creat¬

HE unity of mankind in our time is evident from ing material and spiritual values on an unheard-of, gigantic
the unity and close interdependence of the vital scale. Science Itself must also see to it that those values

problems facing people wherever they may live. Nowadays
scientific and political problems alike are indissolubly linked
with economic problems. The development of International
co-operation in the economic field by every possible means
lays a solid material foundation for the development of
political, scientific and technical co-operation. Here Inter¬
national trade should be the main avenue of approach. In
our day and age, trade not only drives out war and streng¬
thens peace, which In Itself promotes scientific and tech¬
26
nical progress, but directly accelerates such progress by
disseminating licences, patents, new types of products and
new technological processes. New independent states are
are not destroyed. In our era science is called upon to
revolutionize not only the economic, social and political
life of society, but also its very way of thinking. By
penetrating and dominating all spheres of social activity,
scientific reason, as the most highly organized and most
disciplined mode of thought, can and must help to find
a rational solution for the problems of mankind.
MIKHAIL MILUONSHCHIKOV is a vice-president of the U.S.S.R.
Academy of Science and acting president of the Kurchatov Institute
of Atomic Energy. He has taken an active part in the International
Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs.
 I

METAMORPHOSIS

Bachofen, Geneva

To be called a "developing" country is a badge of honour now accounts for some two-thirds of all

because it means that a nation has undertaken to lift itself...
out of the stage of economic underdevelopment and to do
in a few decades what in earlier history has usually taken
centuries.
in "Mass Media & National Development" *
THE years since World War II
might well be called the age of
international action a time during which
nations have pooled their efforts as never
before to solve problems too great for
single countries to overcome alone. Much
of this joint action has been taken through
a partnership of governments and their
peoples working together through the Uni¬
ted Nations and its specialized agencies
budgetary and extra-budgetary resources of
the Organization."
"More important still, it has involved
Unesco to an increasingly greater extent
in operational activities and has thereby
Wilbur Schramm
brought about what amounts to a veritable
metamorphosis in the working methods and
immediate priorities if not in the spirit and
ultimate objectives of Unesco. This meta¬
morphosis has been so profound that one
is perfectly justified to speak of the birth
of a new Unesco, markedly different from
experience of 3,000 Unesco technical
the Organization of the early years when
missions carried out under the aegis of the Unesco was basically an.agency for intellec¬
U.N. Expanded Programme. In addition to tual co-operation."
this, 3,824 senior and junior technicians,
scientists, specialists and officials were Unesco's programme of technical co¬
granted fellowships abroad to enable operation for development has laid special
them to keep abreast of the latest technical emphasis since 1960 on three major fields:
advances in other parts of the world. development of education; development of
the sciences; development of the mass
It would be a great mistake to assume media.

under programmes of technical co-opera¬ that experts come only from the more
To make the fullest use of their human
tion. developed countries ; half of the countries
and material resources, the developing
receiving aid are also supplying experts
Technical co-operation for development countries need not just money and mach¬
to assist in the development of other lands.
has been an important element of Unesco's ines to forge the tools for economic and
India, the United Arab Republic and Brazil
programme since 1946 when Unesco itself social betterment but people who are prop¬
to cite only three countries have sent many
was created. The launching in 1950 of the erly trained to use these tools, whether
experts to serve abroad.
U.N. Expanded Programme of Technical As¬ they be simple lathes or complicated
sistance brought about a tremendous in¬ By the end of 1964 Unesco had provided a equipment to operate large-scale industrial
crease in the breadth and scope of these total of sixty million dollars worth of co¬ plants.
activities. operative technical aid in the form of expert When the U.N. Expanded Programme was
missions, fellowships for study abroad and launched in 1950 Unesco had substantial
In the course of the past fifteen years
technical equipment. but nevertheless limited information on the
101 developing countries have joined with
Unesco In co-operative technical efforts Unesco has committed itself so whole¬
educational needs of the developing coun¬
and have benefited from the skills and tries and how it could best co-operate in
heartedly to development that, in the words
meeting these needs. 27
of its Director-General, René Maheu,
addressed to the U.N. Economic and Social As a first step it sent out teams to survey
* Published by Unesco-Stanford University Press,
1964. (t6.00 ; 301- 21 F). Council in Geneva on July 9, 1965 : "this the educational situation and potential, as
CONT'D ON NEXT PAGE
 METAMORPHOSIS IN UNESCO (Cont'd)

$60,000,000 for technical

missions, fellows & equipment

in Afghanistan, Burma, Libya, Thailand and period of the Expanded Programme (the
the Philippines. These surveys were not early 1960s) coincided with the attainment
only of great value to the countries but of independence by many countries, espe¬
enabled Unesco itself to work out a co¬ cially in Africa.
ordinated programme of technical aid and
Unesco co-operated closely with these
co-operation, and set up urgent priorities.
member nations in the programming of
Thus during the first five years of educational development and the training
Unesco's technical aid programmes rural of their nationals. Regional training centres
fundamental education was given priority were established in Santiago (1962), at New
attention in development programmes initi¬ Delhi (1962) and at Dakar (1964).
ated by a host of countries notably Cam¬ Regional conferences of ministers of
bodia, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Jordan, Korea, education and other officials responsible
Thailand, Sudan, and national fundamental for economic development plans were also
education centres were created by govern¬ held to study the problems of education in
ments with Unesco's help in order to train relation to economic and social develop¬
various types of fundamental education ment. The first such meeting, financed out The world water shortage is so serious
workers. In other countries (e.g. Afgha¬ of technical aid funds, took place at the that Unesco has this year launched a
nistan, Bolivia, Morocco, Tunisia) Unesco end of 1950. It was held in Karachi and Hydrological Decade a vast co-operative
experts helped in the setting up of national it produced what came to be known as the programme of research into water prob¬
fundamental education services, often inclu¬ "Karachi Plan" which has been modified lems. Since 1962 Tunisia has studied the
ding facilities for producing inexpensive since by subsequent meetings of ministers use of saline water to irrigate its parched
educational materials. from the Asian countries concerned. lands. Above, water flowing in this canal
is used by a Tunisian experimental farm.
Specialists co-operated with Unesco
Right, construction of concrete bins for
member nations in the preparation of text¬
growing and irrigating plants. Water
books for adults, literacy teaching, agricul¬
flowing from bins into the large pits
tural education, production or vernacular
(foreground) will be measured to deter¬
language literature, women's education and mine loss from evaporation in the soil and
and rural handicrafts instruction. Other WHILE major efforts in the fields of transpiration by the plants. Tunisia . is
Unesco experts collaborated in the launch¬ fundamental education, primary
carrying out this research in co-operation
ing of fundamental education programmes education and educational planning have with the U.N. Special Fund and Unesco.
in Indonesia, Iraq, Libya, Paraguay and Peru been prominent in the technical assistance
Photos Unesco-Dominique Roger
in co-operation with other U.N. agencies. activities carried out by Unesco under the
Expanded Programme, other important fields
During this period Unesco gave special have also been covered. These include
emphasis to the development of regional secondary education, curriculum develop¬
programmes for training fundamental edu¬ ment, higher education, promotion of
cation workers, especially in Latin Ame¬ education for girls and women, school build¬
rica, where the Regional Fundamental Edu¬ ing construction and educational research
cation Centre for Community Development in teaching methods and materials, etc.
(CREFAL) was opened at Patzcuaro, Mexi¬
co, in 1950 and also through the Arab Regional centres have been established in
States Training Centre for Education for Addis Ababa for the production of primary
Community Development (ASFEC) which and secondary school textbooks and in
was established at Sirs-el-Layyan, U.A.R. in Yaounde for textbook production. In addi¬
1952. These two centres have since pro¬ tion, regional school building research cen¬
vided many hundreds of trained workers for tres have been established in Khartoum, developments in science in other parts of
the expanding national programmes. Mexico City and Bandung (the last named the world. Thus, as soon as the Technical
centre is being re-established in another Assistance Programme was started, a plan
location). was drawn up to establish, in several
member nations, centres of scientific and
In teacher training, a pattern of co-op¬
technical documentation.
eration has developed whereby Unesco, in
conjunction with Unicef, has set up in-
ANOTHER major priority area which service training courses under the Expand¬
emerged during the 1950s was ed Programme so as to improve the quality
the field of primary education, in which of primary school teaching, and has given
Unesco sent numerous advisers to many of technical advice on numerous projects in THE aim of these centres was to

its member nations on a wide-range of the field of primary school inspection and collect the most important scien¬
missions which included: advice in rural administration. tific periodicals and documentation publish¬
education, teacher training, research in ed in the world, and to make them available
The end of the first five-year period of
teaching methods, use of audio-visual aids, in a convenient and rapid way to the
co-operation was marked by a new trend
educational surveys, textbook production, scientists of the country or the region
in which isolated activities gave way to
child psychology, establishment of model concerned. The duration of the project
larger projects planned in the context of
schools and educational administration. under the Expanded Programme was limited
broad long-range educational development
to five years. The first centre was estab¬
Particular attention was focused on Latin programmes.
lished in Mexico, and was followed by
America where a major project on the ex¬ In the fields of libraries, museums, read¬ others in India, Yugoslavia, Brazil, U.A.R.,
tension and improvement of primary edu¬ ing materials and documentation, regional Pakistan, Uruguay, Philippines, Indonesia,
cation was established at the end of 1956. centres have been established and regional Thailand, Cuba and Korea. Unesco still
This major effort by the countries of Latin and country missions have been carried co-operates in running centres in Thailand
America has brought together national out with assistance from the U. N. Expanded and Korea.
resources, supplemented by assistance Programme.
under Unesco's regular programme as well Scientific teaching and research have
as under the U.N. Expanded Programme. During Unesco's early years, its Science also been developed and reinforced under
Its purpose was to help the co-operating Co-operation Offices based in Latin Ame¬ the programme, mainly in existing and newly
states to come nearer to the goal of provi¬ rica, the Middle-East, South Asia and created universities. Unesco experts have
28 ding education for all children of primary South-East Asia, had established firm advised on curricula and on laboratory and
school-going age. working relationships with the scientists of field experiments for students, on seminars
their own region. It was felt, however, for university staffs and on the introduction
Considerable growth in the third five-year that they were lacking information on of new methods and new equipment. Dur-
ing the last fifteen years, universities of the social sciences (political science, public America and Africa. In 1961, the Economic
32 different countries were modernized and administration, economics, and the social and Social Council invited the Technical
developed under this scheme. effects of industrialization and technical Assistance Board, the Special Fund and
change). Regional social science centres other appropriate agencies to assist the
Another area of activity under the have been established in Brazil and India. less-developed countries in expanding and
Expanded Programme relates to the
strengthening their national information
creation of scientific instruments centres,
media, and a new programme field was thus
where specialized laboratory equipment is
established for action under the Expanded
made and repaired. The natural outgrowth
Programme of Technical Assistance in which
of such a centre has led to testing and
ALTHOUGH Unesco has been Unesco was invited to play a major role.
standardization of apparatus and construc¬
tion of equipment for schools. Both types providing assistance in the deve¬ While continuing its, by now, traditional
of projects are now developed under the lopment and use of mass communication assistance in establishing audio-visual ser¬
facilities since the beginning of the vices for education, Unesco has therefore
Special Fund programme.
Expanded Programme of Technical Assis¬ been able to meet new requests in the field
Unesco has also been associated with tance, such aid was entirely concentrated
of mass communication proper. It has, for
the reform of higher technical education in for the first ten years or so on the educa¬ instance, provided expert services in the
two ways: by granting fellowships to key tional use of the media. From the start, a
establishing of national news agencies, in
administrators and professors from techni¬ small but steadily increasing portion of
developing the press and in launching tele¬
cal universities or faculties of engineering Unesco's programme was devoted to such vision. The volume of these activities is
who were later to be responsible for orga¬ projects as the establishment of school still not large in absolute figures, but it
nizing a new programme (in Mexico and broadcasting services, of educational film was this sector which showed the largest
Yugoslavia for example); and by helping services and the setting up of national
proportional increase in Unesco's 1965-66
new institutions such as the large regional audio-visual centres. One example was the
programme, requests received from its mem¬
Indian Institutes of Technology and the setting up of the Latin American Educational
ber countries showing a 36% increase
Middle East Technical University. Film Institute in Mexico.
above the previous period.
Technical aid missions have also been
A major change occurred after the U.N. Within the overall framework of mass
concerned with the efforts of governments to Economic and Social Council had asked communication development, Unesco has
lay down á national scientific policy. Alge¬
Unesco in 1959 to undertake a general given priority to the training of professional
ria, Iraq, Kenya, Lebanon, Madagascar and
survey of information resources and needs personnel, and to a large extent this has
Morocco have received experts in this field
in the developing countries. Accordingly been most fruitfully accomplished through 9Q
as part of the Expanded Programme of
in 1960, 1961 and 1962, Unesco organized the organization of regional training courses
Technical Assistance.
three large-scale regional meetings on the and through assistance in the establishment
Missions have also been carried out in needs of information media in Asia, Latin of training institutes.
TURNING POINT bV u Thant (cont'd from p. 9)

were unwittingly changing the face of the earth. The very
phrase that was used, "the Industrial Revolution" is a
symbol of the inadequate estimate of what in fact was
happening. Industry played only one part in the remaking
of a whole society by the uses of reason, calculation,
analysis, cost-consciousness, improvement, experiment
and feed-back.
Today, with hindsight we can better interpret what has
been happening. In fact, the whole idea of development
as a dynamic process, the factors which make for trans¬
formation, the policies which can accelerate it lie at the
very root of the concept of a "Decade of Development".
It is therefore hardly surprising that the United Nations
and the specialized agencies have undertaken special
studies and experiments dealing with the process of
development itself.
1961 the United Nations convened a Conference on New
Sources of Energy which provided the first world-wide
exchange of existing knowledge and experience in solar
energy, wind power, geothermal and tidal energy and consi¬
dered means of bringing techniques relating to these types
of energy into wider use. The United Nations has carried
out extensive studies in the development of water resour¬
ces. Panels on the use of nuclear energy in desalinization
are held by the International Atomic Energy Agency twice
a year. The United Nations is holding an interregional
seminar on the economic aspects of water desalinization
later this year. It has also been actively engaged with
other agencies in the investigation of ground-water
resources for domestic, agricultural and industrial uses In
regions where lack of water has been preventing economic
development.

A second advantage in the developing world is the

sheer scale of information now available in every field ET the present position of the developing
connected with development. There is not an area of nations, confronted with the vast surge of
knowledge or action in which remarkable experiments modern technology, is not all gain. Since much of the
have not been carried out experiments which can be
technology has been designed for other societies at other
freely studied and may be of crucial help. In the critical
times, it does not always fit in with the present needs of
fields of agriculture, for instance, well-known and straight¬
emergent States. Worse, it may even involve them in
forward changes in the use of fertilizer, better seed, new contradictions which more developed societies have avoid¬
tools and plant protection can produce as much as qua¬ ed. The most notorious and difficult of the contradictions
druple yields from the land. The developing world might
is the tendency of modern measures of health to bring
well despair if it had used up all the available technology
about a very sharp increase in population before any other
and was still undernourished. The vastness of potential
factor in the community food production, educational
innovation is the best guarantee of progress and the
development, savings, industrial development has become
task of transferring knowledge of it is correspondingly
really dynamic.
urgent.
This is not the only contradiction. A very large part of
At a level which escapes the headlines and therefore today's productive technology is geared to the needs of
takes place almost in anonymity, a phenomenal increase societies in which labour tends to be scarce and capital
abundant. A modern refinery can cost over $60 million,
has occurred over the last fifteen years in the process
yet employ only 300 people. This is an extreme case but
of humanity educating itself. If the first change in any
the trend is general. Automatic looms, combine harves¬
revolution is to change the way in which people think, ters, road laying machinery, earth-movers, power shovels
the whole world today is mined with explosive change the inventions of sophisticated technology dispense with
change in the whole dimension and dissemination of human the only resource which all the developing countries have
in abundant, indeed over-abundant, supply their man¬
knowledge, in the power that goes with it, in the
power offering instead machines which swallow up their
expectations to which it gives rise. meagre savings. And just those areas of the economy
which seem to promise the most certain road to growth,
wealth and Independence the heavy industrial sector
URING the Development Decade, the tempo of which, via the magnetic appeal of the United States and
all this exchange of information and experience the U.S.S.R. fascinates the new economies are precisely
has been increasing. So have the attempts of the United the sectors in which capital investments are highest and
Nations family to look ahead and study its material dynamic¬ the returns longest to mature.
ally. For instance, the United Nations itself has published
A similar disproportion bedevils other fields. For
its "Long-term Economic Projections for the World Eco¬
example, virtually the entire expenditure of the world in
nomy." The Food and Agriculture Organization has put
commercial research takes place in the developed nations.
out projections for agricultural commodities up to 1970, and
It is designed to cut costs and increase competitiveness
is engaged on an ambitious Indicative World Plan for Agri¬
in the developed sector. Some substitutes made possible
culture. Meanwhile Its Third World Food Survey has made
by the chemical revolution for instance plastics and
calculations of food needs up to the year 2000 which
rayon are cheaper than natural substances. Where the
suggest that while food supplies in general must triple, the
difference in price only slightly favours primary producers,
increase needed for the poor countries is over 200 per
manufacturers in developed countries often prefer substi¬
cent higher still.
tutes which are under their control and beyond the vicissi¬
A wide variety of papers studying the likely development tudes of politics and weather. A new cheaper chemical
of international trade to the end of the sixties were pre¬ Insecticide could ruin in a year one of the chief standbys
pared for the United Nations Conference on Trade and of peasant farming ¡n East Africa pyrethrum. Binder
Development held in 1964. Thus, the developing govern¬ twine made as a by-product of petro-chemicals could
threaten to knock out the other sisal. There are no flows
ments are being offered more than simple current data.
of research money on anything like the same scale to
Along with this increase in the fund of knowledge increase the competitiveness of primary products or to
available has gone an increase in internationally aided diversify their use. Technology, used overwhelmingly as
research of all kinds and in the search for new sources of
a tool of developed societies, can turn into a potent instru¬
natural wealth. In promoting scientific research in a great
variety of fields Unesco has played a central role. In ment of disruption elsewhere.
 Developing nations represent only 4 ¥b

of the world's export of manufactured goods

(and of this figure one quarter comes from Hong Kong alone!)

These risks lay at the basis of the United Nations deci¬ manufactures and even this percentage is very mislead¬
sion to summon a Conference to be prepared and run ing. Nearly a quarter of these exports are provided by
with the co-operation of a number of the agencies, on the the one fabulous source of Hong Kong.
Application of Science and Technology for the Benefit of Since most of the developing nations were still colo¬
the Less Developed Areas. It met in Geneva in 1963 and nies at the end of the Second World War, and the
decided both to follow-up this first initiative and to take
independence of the majority was not achieved until the
positive steps to get more brains and money into research
early sixties, it was only in the last few years that the
oriented towards developing needs. An Advisory Com¬ attention of the international community has been drawn
mittee was established which began to meet in 1964 with to the unbalanced patterns of world trade. The develop¬
the aim of picking out, from the vast potential supply of
ing countries had increasingly begun to realize a certain
problems and possibilities, the most urgent points for common interest in formulating their common grievances
"concerted attack".
against existing arrangements and seeking redress for
It was naturally not difficult to define major areas of them. The United Nations was a natural forum for their
primary interest more and better food, improved health, activity for it was at meetings of the United Nations and
new techniques and education, urban planning, the better its related organs and subsidiary bodies that many of
use of natural resources and methods of industrialization. the ideas which were beginning to engage the serious
The trouble is that such a list tends to be virtually cotermin¬ attention of the developing countries in the economic
ous with human existence and it is now the Advisory sphere, were initially broached. And the culmination of
Committee's more difficult task on which it has, in fact, this pressure by the developing countries was the conven¬
embarked to pick out in each category points of "attack" ing in Geneva in the spring of 1964, of the United Nations
where the chances of a breakthrough are great and the Conference on Trade and Development, itself the most
advantages of making one very wide-spread. important event so far of the United Nations Decade
One such instance is clearly large-scale desalinization of Development.
of water for agriculture, for which" the best hope lies in The developing nations' three main headings of dissatis¬
utilizing nuclear energy, another is the provision, from a faction are the uncertainty and instability of export
multitude of sources, of more protein in ordinary diets, incomes; the difficulty of access to developed markets
both by producing synthetic protein and by conserving for some raw materials and for any more diversified and
available proteins by a variety of methods ranging from processed exports; and the structural bias of the whole
cold-storage chains to food irradiation. market towards the interests of the rich. Between 1950
and 1962, the unit value of exports from developing coun¬
tries to developed countries fell by 5 per cent in compa¬
II nations,
N the relations between rich nations and poor
the market they share is the world¬
rison with 1955 the figure was 12 per cent. Incidentally,
this decline was enough, in the case of Latin America,
wide market of international trade, and the higher earnings
to wipe out the effect of all the imports of public and
the poor nations must seek is a higher proportion of the private capital during the fifties.
gains made in international commerce. The share of deve¬
The United Nations Conference on Trade and Deve¬
loping countries in world exports declined steadily from
lopment led to the establishment of institutional machinery
nearly one third in 1950 to only slightly more than one-fifth within the United Nations to deal with problems of trade
in 1962. One of the major targets of international action and development on a continuing basis. This» in itself
must be at least to restore the proportions they previously is a landmark in the history of international organization.
enjoyed.
The underlying pattern of the world market has not
changed very much over the last century. It was brought
into being by the developed nations' need to look over¬
NO single idea has more profoundly shaped the
modern economy than the belief that all citizens
seas for food, minerals and tropical materials, to invest
have the right to share in its resources and opportunities.
the necessary capital to produce them in mines and plan¬
Whether the policy is predominantly realized by the transfer
tations, in transport and harbours, to recoup the investment
out of the sale of the exported materials and pay for of wealth through taxation from rich to poor as in the
whatever local balance remained with their own export market economies, or by budgetary provisions as in centrally
of manufactures.
planned States, the consequences tend in the same direc¬
tion towards a community in which the' wealth created in
This pattern of trade left little capital in the local eco¬ it is so divided that the vast majority of the people have
nomy, led to virtually no modernization outside the sector the education, the skills, the environment and the kind of
concerned with foreign trade and therefore did not set income needed to lead a satisfying life.
in motion local forces of diversification and growth. Inter¬
Since the war, there has been some evidence to suggest
national trade, outside the developed core made up largely
that this concept of shared resources is beginning to
of North . Atlantic States, continued to rest on the
enter the philosophy of States in relation not simply to
exchanges between strong, modernized and developed
their own citizens but to other States as well. During
communities on the one hand and, on the other, weak
the fifties, the flow of financial resources from developed
economies dependent, very often, on a single product.
Intensification of trade could only occur between develop¬ to developing countries steadily increased.
ed economies and virtually the whole organization of the To meet the needs of developing countries several new
trade remained in Western hands. multilateral lending agencies have been established, both
within and outside the United Nations framework, in the
To this day, about 66 per cent of world trade is en¬
late 1950s and early 1960s. These include the International
grossed by the developed market economies. They control
Finance Corporation and the International Development
94 per cent of the world's shipping and virtually all its Association, the African Development Bank, the Inter-Ame¬
insurance. To a very considerable degree, they still control rican Development Bank and the Central American Bank
the processing of the materials underdeveloped nations of Economic Integration and the Development Fund of the
account for only 4 per cent of the world's exports of European Economic Community. Preparations are also

CONT'D ON NEXT PAGE

 TURNING POINT

IN DEVELOPMENT

(Cont'd)
The 'beer, boots and bricks' phase

of early industrial development

under way for the setting up of an Asian Development nomy, now impedes that process. Yet modernization alone
Bank. With the increase in multilateral lending facilities, can provide food and income for the growing millions.
the establishment of the United Nations Special Fund and The Conference will make inescapably, dramatically
the expansion of activities under United Nations technical clear that the situation carries with it a potentially ine¬
assistance, the proportion of resources which are being vitable risk of disease, starvation and social collapse.
provided to developing countries through multilateral Governments can therefore be urged, with even greater
channels has increased from around 6 per cent of the energy, to give proper priority to the slowing down of
total in the late 1950s to over 10 per cent in 1963. population growth rates and the adoption of acceptable
The need for external assistance is not confined to methods of control.

long-term development capital. Developing as well as So far, the United Nations has chiefly concentrated on
developed countries need "working capital" to underpin drawing attention to population factors in the context of
international trade. Between 1960 and early 1965 the economic and social development by means of scientific
International Monetary Fund made available $5,600 million evaluation and analysis of data.
to forty-three members, thirty-two of them developing
States. It has also started to operate a modest scheme It is now going to expand the scope of its work so
that it includes questions connected with policies which
to compensate primary producing countries for fluctuations
are designed to influence the size, structure and change
in export receipts.
of the population. In Asia and the Far East, as a result
of a decision of the Economic Commission for Asia and
the Far East in 1964, United Nations activities have been
T the mid-point of the Decade one cannot say extended to include family planning and this year a United
that the future of this essential financing is Nations team was sent to India to review the family plan¬
secure. In spite of the increase in the flow of long-term ning programe and to make recommendations for acce¬
capital since the mid-1950s, the target set by the General lerating it within the five-year economic plan.
Assembly according to which resource transfers to develop¬ The population problem of the developing countries,
ing countries are to rise to 1 per cent of the national incomes however, is not merely one of too rapid increase in the
of developed countries has not yet been attained. In fact, total numbers it is vastly accentuated by massive shifts
the levelling off in the flow of funds to developing coun¬ of population from the countryside to the burgeoning cities.
tries since 1961 has set back progress towards the target.
The great cities of the affluent world themselves suffer
It is as though such programmes had lost the élan from overcrowding, social disorder, pollution and traffic
of a new venture before they had acquired the respec¬
congestion. But in the developing world, the worst aspect
tability of old usage. The words are spoken, the gestures of the urban dilemma is again one that the developed
are made, but the sense of clear commitment seems world to some extent escaped the massive movement
elusive. The richer nations of the West, a little bemused
of rural migrants into the cities ahead of any real chance
by the quick easy success of the Marshall Plan among of their earning a living. The most conspicuous problem
a group of essentially already developed nations, have is the acute shortage of housing resulting in overcrowd¬
tended to approach the whole problem of development with ing, the growth of "shanty towns" and a chronic shortage
an unrealistic time scale. Put in the aid, mobilize the
of community services and facilities.
resources and, within a decade, the young economies
should be well on their way to self-sustaining growth. So,
in the crudest terms, ran the hope. But even the most
favoured of the developed nations the United States HE United Nations has set targets for housing
took eighty years to reach industrial maturity. Even the in the developing countries based on a standard
most ingenious Japan took at least forty for its first of ten new dwellings for every 1,000 inhabitants. So far
revolution and, since the war, fifteen for its second. only two new dwellings for every 1,000 inhabitants have
The nations which seek to develop their economies been built in many developing countries even though these
countries have allocated 15 to 25 per cent of their total
today face all the old dilemmas of rapid transition how
investment in capital formation to residential construction.
to modernize static farming, how to squeeze savings from
The United Nations has made studies of urbanization
a poor pre-industrial population, how to choose those in various regions Africa, the Middle East. It has call¬
industries which actually produce a surplus, how to finance ed conferences on such issues as new towns and on urban
the new skills needed to produce more capital before development, planning and policy. It has assisted in the
the capital exists to divert to the schools. But they face preparation of national physical plans, including master
plans for cities. It has helped in resettling shanty town
even tougher problems as well the population explosion, dwellers. Now the Social Commission has adopted a
urbanization beyond control, unfavourable trade patterns proposal suggesting that a full-scale inter-governmental
and inappropriate technology. programme for joint investigation of the problem should
be launched, and areas set aside for studies and experi¬
The United Nations has already produced a very large ments in regional solutions which seem essential if unwieldy
volume of information on the explosive nature of the movements of internal migration are not to throw intole¬
world's expansion in population. The censuses it inspired rable strains on young and still unstable economies. There
have shown, throughout the developing world, even a higher ¡s the germ here of the kind of world process of confront¬
growth rate than had been expected. The World Popu¬ ation and education that has occurred in the field of trade;
lation Conference, to be held in 1965 (1), will no doubt but what is also needed is action and investment on a
underline with new urgency the degree to which, in the scale hitherto quite unknown.
developing continents, the decline in mortality and growth
in population, by preceding the modernization of the eco-
Recognition of these deeper difficulties should help to
educate and reassure those in the developed world who
32 despair too soon, who fear that because the developing
nations have not made a decisive break-through to growth
(1) The conference took place from August 30 to September 10 in
Belgrade Editor.
and economic independence in ten years, they never will.
 PART 3
HE slow but real progress of development has And clearly within the context of any educational plan,
attracted less public attention than its occasional no single item is more urgent than teaching the teachers.
In this field Unesco with the help of the Special Fund
spectacular mishaps. Indeed, the public has been largely
has taken the initiative in planning and establishing
ignorant of what has been learned in the last fifteen years
teacher-training colleges and the International Bank,
in the field of development and of how much, in region after recognizing the productivity of education, has begun to
region, is beginning to go modestly well. provide credits for educational projects which involve the
direct development of education itself both in terms of the
The first point to make is that the developing world, for number of students in schools and the content of the
all its frustrations, is in motion. National incomes are educational programme. Unesco's recently' started pilot
rising and most agricultural economics have made some
programme for universal literacy represents an imaginative
break from traditional farming. The beginnings of industrial
growth are to be found on every side. This is not yet the new approach both to increasing productivity and to the
recipe for "take-off" but it is a considerable advance on the wider enjoyment of elementary human rights and dignity.
stagnation of the twenties and the thirties.
No less significant an insight in postwar developmen¬
This new dynamism has sprung in part from the fact
tal strategy is the new priority accorded to agriculture.
that quite a number of the developing countries have been
Unless production on the farms on which the great bulk
investing their resources in the right things. And one of the people still live begins to go up, there is no sur¬
reason for this is the increasing relevance of the advice plus for saving, no surplus to feed the towns, no surplus
they receive from experts supplied by governments, uni¬ to keep pace with rising population and keep down costly
versities, foundations, and, to a greater and greater degree, imports of food, no agricultural raw materials to feed into
the United Nations and the specialized agencies, partly industry, above all, no rise in farm income to provide an
through their own budgets, but more substantially through expanding market for the nascent industrial system.
the voluntary contributions of governments to such under¬
takings as the Special Fund and the Expanded Programme There is no conflict between the priorities of farming
of Technical Assistance. and industry, and the need to re-emphasize farming springs
not from any desire to "keep developing economies depen¬
dent" but simply to counteract the glamour of factory
NLY ten years ago, the general tendency was
chimmeys which may all. too often be smoking above pro¬
to agree that savings made up the critically
ducts which no one in the community can afford to buy.
scarce factor in static economies. Pour in the needed
stimulus, add to the foreign exchange reserves, get the Wherever the agricultural sector has been jolted into
World Bank to put in some infra-structure and the economy movement in Taiwan, for instance, or increasingly in
would begin to stir. In some economies the strategy was Pakistan the reasons tend to be the same. Access to
not far wrong. After ten years they needed no more water, access to the new technologies of fertilizer and
exceptional assistance. But in other communities, the effect improved seed, ample credit for the farmers, inducements
of capital aid without much wider modifications of policy to work and produce more in the shape of land owner¬
was rather like splashing water on to leached soli. It ship or secure tenancy, co-operatives to give advantages
simply washed off. of scale and some control over marketing, quick access
to the urban market, reclamation of land through malaria
Much of the progress that has been made since and
eradication these are the recipes and it is in these fields
which »the Decade of Development seeks to dramatize
that the relevant
international agencies, with the Food
is concerned with producing a better soil in which the
and Agriculture Organization at the centre of the picture,
assistance can germinate. A few examples of this better
are at work. Moreover, each element is seen more and
developmental husbandry will illustrate the point. There
more as a part in a fully concerted policy.
can hardly be a realistic plan for expanding a country's
infra-structure transport, power, and so forth unless an
inventory of its resources and their whereabouts has been
«EVELOP1NG countries themselves have tend¬
established. In this field of pre-investment surveys, the
ed to give special attention to the industrial
Special Fund has taken the lead.
sectors in their development programmes. In this field the
But the greatest potential resource of any country are question of priorities is of particular importance and
its human resources. Trained men for administration, for difficulty. Each country has its own particular endowment
education, for public health and medicine these, too, of resources and its own local needs and skills. Up to a
belong to the stage of pre-investment since no investment point, the first efforts in industry usually substitute local
can succeed without them. Here, aided by increasing products for imports. This is the "beer, boots and bricks"
resources from the Special Fund and the Expanded Pro¬ phase through which most economies pass. But whatever
gramme, the United Nations family is setting up institu¬ the background of the economy, one need is clear expert
tions for administration, managerial and industrial training advice in selecting the types of industry that are likely
and is supporting universities and technical colleges. to prosper.

However, far more is needed than the higher cadres.
Underdeveloped countries are by definition short of all the
intermediate skills as well. A welcome decision has just
been taken by the International Labour Organization govern¬
ing body as a contribution to the Development Decade,
to open this year the Turin International Centre for Advanc¬
ed Technical and Vocational Training. To relate interme¬
diate skills to the probable needs of each particular eco¬
nomy, . new techniques have been evolved, particularly
the techniques .of manpower surveys and educational
planning to which the International Labour Organization
and Unesco respectively have made a signal contribution.
Private foreign investment has an important role to play in
industrial development, particularly if, in return for tax and
tariff concessions most developing governments offer, the
firms are ready to train local people at all levels of skill and
look for local participation in the enterprise. While skill bot¬
tlenecks in developing countries do impose some limitations
on their capacity to make effective use of additional foreign
investment, new projects in which foreign capital can be
fruitfully absorbed are constantly being revealed and creat¬
ed with the expansion of education and training. The Unit¬ 33
ed Nations family is doing its best to help developing
countries to identify these projects.

CONT'D ON NEXT PAGE

 TURNING POINT

IN DEVELOPMENT

(Cont'd)
We know how much still remains to be done

but we also know what we can do

In addition to these problems, a new and formidable and amortization payments were more than tripled. By
one the full dimensions of which are only gradually 1963 the servicing of the external debt absorbed over
becoming apparent looms ahead: this is the problem of 13 per cent of the export receipts of these countries.
the growing indebtedness of the developing countries, In response to the increasing debt servicing difficulties
and the limits that this imposes on their ability to utilize of the developing countries the United States took the
the credits which may be available to them. tnitiative of providing development loans at low interest
According ,to International Bank estimates, the public rates and on easy repayment terms, and other countries
and government-guaranteed debts of thirty-seven develop¬ gradually eased their own lending terms. The developed
ing countries rose from $7,000 million in 1955 to $18,000 countries also co-operated in setting up the IDA as a
million in 1962, interest payments increased nearly fourfold, "soft-loan" subsidiary of the International Bank.

PART 4 Conclusion
HERE have been some clumsy beginnings and Clearly, if in the world community which science and
uncertain efforts. But the activity, the effort, technology are moulding into an inescapable unity, the
the learning, the striving, the aspiration are fully as impor¬ same principles are applied, the case is very strong for
tant as the inevitable delays and mistakes. After such an attempt to base an increasing proportion of international
energetic beginnings, it would be tragic and foolish indeed assistance of all sorts in trade, in technical aid, in capital
if the effort of assistance were now permitted to falter. transfers, in compensatory finance upon international
institutions and upon an agreed international formula or
The United Nations does not exist apart from its standard of obligation such as the target of 1 per cent
member governments and in the last analysis governmental of national income. What is formulated as a universal
decisions will determine the tempo of its activities over obligation is more likely to obviate misunderstanding and
the rest of the Development Decade. One of the chief possible recriminations. What is given in the name of
reasons for today's uncertainty is that it reflects a general citizenship has the best chance of creating responsible
crisis in the world's political relationships. It is true that citizens in return. This at least has been a large part
this has not yet impaired directly the United Nations work of the experience of developed society in its domestic
of development. But it has impaired the atmosphere. It aspect. It is still the only working experience upon which
has lessened goodwill and confidence. Yet the paradoxical the world can draw in fashioning its own common life.
truth is that the U.N.'s development work can be one of
the world's chief instruments in lessening political friction. Reason and vision together tell the nations that they
have entered into an uncharted phase of the world eco¬
But development, which should be one of mankind's
nomy. Although over -^120,000 millions are being spent on
great constructive tasks is often bedevilled with suspicion
arms each year, this arms burden has not prevented eco¬
and misunderstanding, owing partly to the memories of
the colonial era and the persistence in some cases of nomic growth in the developed world at an annual rate of 5
to 6 per, cent. How much more could be achieved for
economic dependence.
the benefit of the whole world if even a part of these
It is for this reason that the question has been raised vast efforts could be redirected from producing the instru¬
whether a larger emphasis on the use of international ments of death to producing the instruments of growth
or multilateral agencies in the work of development might and work and lifel Roads and dams, water and fertilizer,
not permit the vital task to go forward in an atmosphere steel and machines, houses and cities, skills and welfare
less charged with political tension. For instance, in the all these could provide an economic stimulus equal to
recent governmental study of France's aid programme that of arms production, all could therefore be as simply
which is the world's largest in relative terms of national and as easily afforded by the richer States.
income it was recommended that the percentage chan¬
nelled through multilateral agencies might be raised from But development need not wait for disarmament, and it
12 per cent to 25 per cent. There are cogent reasons must not. The greatest task of the United Nations Decade
for such proposals. The United Nations and its related of Development is to convince governments and peoples
agencies comprise rich States and poor States and enjoy that they have the means to wipe out mass poverty with
the advantage of having representatives of both on their its attendant miseries and dangers, and to stir them to
governing bodies and on their staffs. use those means to the full. We have seen how much
remains to be done, at this mid-point of the Decade,
But perhaps the strongest argument for giving the
to achieve even the modest targets set.
international agencies a larger share in the work of
development lies not so much in immediate questions of H
Who, then, can deny the compelling urgency of apply¬
effectiveness or efficiency but in the deeper question of
ing our efforts more purposefully, more vigorously and
the kind of world community the nations are to live in.
with a more coherent strategy? Whether we shall succeed
At this point it is necessary to return once more to the
is still doubtful, and in that measure so is the future of
experience inside developed countries. When these coun¬ man. But there is no doubt whatever about what can
tries confronted as does the world today the vast
be done. If we have courage and constancy of purpose,
inequalities of wealth and opportunity which coincided with
a better world for all is within our reach.
the deployment of the new resources, they^did not try to
bridge the gap solely by private person-to-person giving
and philanthropy. The decisive change was the decision
34 that citizens as a matter of right and social justice should
From "The United Nations Development Decade at Mid-point" ,
begin to share more fully in the steadily increasing an appraisal presented by the Secretary-General to the U.N. Economic
resources of their community. and Social Council m July, 1965.
 ARMS COSTS SOAR: The world now

an
spends $180,000
arms according to a
international conference
million
survey
on
annually
prepared
the economic
on
for From the Unesco New
aspects of disarmament held in Oslo. Arms
spending has thus soared 50% above the
$120,000 million estimate made by the United
Nations in 1962 (See The Unesco Courier,
Nov. 1964.)

I NTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES: Basic facts

Unesco also hopes to publish a monograph EDUCATIONAL FORECAST FOR ASIA:
' on the aims and programmes of over 5,300 on the subject. Unesco specialists and Asian consultants
organizations are given in Unesco's Hand¬
working together at the Unesco Regional
book of International Exchanges. In its 960
RADIOACTIVE HAZARDS: The Interna¬ Education Office in Bangkok, recently used
pages, this quadrilingual (English, French,
tional Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna is a computer to forecast and simulate the
Russian and Spanish) handbook lists over
expanding its programme of international gui¬ future growth of educational systems in Asian
4,000 international exchange opportunities in
dance on methods of protection against ha¬ countries. They did so by producing an
education, science, culture and mass commu¬
zards from radioactive materials used in in¬ "Asian Educational Model" which, as new
nication.
dustry of other fields. The programme, run information is fed into it, will continue to
in co-operation with other UN agencies, in¬ provide educationists with a picture of short
JAPAN'S PEACE CORPS: Japan is setting up
cludes specialized training courses and and long-term results of national policies and
a peace corps of young men and women
information and advisory services. other factors in educational growth.
to work as teams in developing countries of
Asia and Africa. Volunteers are chosen for
COIL STUDIES IN BRAZIL: Scientists re-
their skills in such fields as farming, forestry, CLAVONIC STUDIES: The Government of
fishing, medicine, engineering and education. cently carried out a 1,500-mile soil inven¬
Poland is offering ten university fellow¬
tory in Brazil's Acre Territory and Mato
ships for Slavonic studies in the fields of
TEACHERS FOR AFRICA: A new Unesco Grosso State. Travelling in jeeps, the team
Polish history, Polish philology and Sla¬
booklet, "Teachers for Africa", lists some set out to investigate the food-growing
vonic philology for the 1966-67 academic
3,600 teaching posts available in Africa during potentialities of this relatively unexplored
year. The fellowships are intended for mem¬
area.
1965-66. Vacancies In secondary, technical ber states of Unesco and will be awarded
and teacher training schools and in univer¬ under Unesco's sponsorship to applicants
sities are covered by the booklet which ADLAI STEVENSON: In a message of con¬
selected from among candidates presented by
can be obtained from Teaching Abroad Ser¬ dolence sent to the U.S. Secretary of the governments concerned.
vice, Unesco, Place de Fontenoy, Paris T. State on the death of Adlai Stevenson,
Unesco's Director-General, Mr. René Maheu,
UNESCO CENTRES IN ASIA: Unesco's wrote: "Adlai Stevenson's outstanding con¬ INDIAN OCEAN EXPEDITION: The Interna-
eight regional centres in Asia have been tribution to international co-operation and I tional Indian Ocean Expedition co-sponsor¬
achieving their twin objectives of promoting peace through his work in the United Nations ed by Unesco and the Special Committee
intra-Asian co-operation and of attaining the and his lifelong championship of human on Oceanic Research in which 25 countries
special technical purposes for which each of rights and deep concern over the major prob¬ and 40 research vessels have taken part is
them was set up. These are the findings lems of humanity will long be remembered now in its final phase. During the past six
of a special evaluation commission set up with gratitude." years over 150 scientific cruises have been
by Unesco's Director-General to survey and made during which the hottest, saltiest water
assess the work of the centres. WORLD CONGRESS ON ILLITERACY: in the world's oceans has been investigated
The World Congress of Ministers of and vast geophysical studies have produced
TEACHING MACHINES: The University of Education on the Eradication of Illiteracy maps of the ocean's floor. A recent meeting
Pittsburgh (USA) is making a world sur¬ convened by Unesco opened in Teheran on of scientists in Bombay discussed the find¬
vey of the use of programmed instruction September 8. Initiated by the Shah of Iran, ings of the expedition's meteorological
and teaching machines on behalf cf Unesco. the congress is part of the world literacy research which may be of vital economic
Results will be published as a World Direc¬ programme adopted by the Unesco General importance to countries affected by weather
tory of Programmed Instruction Activities, and Conference in November 1964. generated over the Indian Ocean.

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 WHO-Paul Almasy

Outstanding among the major development projects achieved by Ghana since indepen¬
NEVif TOWN dence are the giant Volta River hydroelectric power plant, which began operation in
September, and the new port at Tema Africa's largest man-made harbour. A new
BORN town with modern homes for over 80,000 people (above) has already sprung up in the
port's hinterland. Tema has also acquired an extensive industrial complex, including a
IN GHANA huge aluminium smelter, an oil refinery, a steel works and a fish processing plant.