Sewerage PDF

Works Audit – Sewerage and Sewage Treatment 1
HANDBOOK
ON
SEWERAGE AND SEWAGE
TREATMENT
Office of the Principal Accountant General (Civil Audit) Chennai

SEWERAGE AND SEWAGE TREATMENT

1. PREAMBLE
The standard specification prescribed in the Manual on Sewerage and Sewage
Treatment issued by Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organisation,
Ministry of Urban Development, in December 1993, guidelines issued by Ministry of
Environment and Forest Department, National River Conservation and guidelines prescribed
by Chennai Metropolitan and Water Supply and Sewerage Board and TWAD Board on
Sewerage and Sewage Treatment which are more useful for audit are given below:
The Sewerage system consists mainly of :-
i) Collection system (sewer, sewer appurtenances)
ii) Conveyance system (pumping station, pumping main etc.)
iii) Treatment plant
2. PLANNING (Chapter 1 of CPHEEO Manual)
1. Objective
The objective of a public waste water collection and disposal system is to ensure that
sewage or excreta and sullage discharged from communities is properly collected,
transported, treated to the required degree and finally disposed of without causing any health
or environmental problems.
2. Need for planning
Planning is required at different levels; national, state, regional and community.
Though the responsibility of various organizations in charge of planning public waste water
disposal systems is different in each case, they still have to function within the priorities fixed
by the national and state governments and to keep in view overall requirements of the area.
The waste water disposal projects formulated by the various State sponsoring
Authorities at present do not always contain all the essential elements for appraisal. When
projects are assessed for their cost benefit ratio and for institutional or funding purposes, they
are not amenable for comparative study and appraisal. Also at times different standards are
adopted by the Central and State agencies regarding various design parameters. It is
necessary therefore to specify appropriate standards and design criteria and to avoid different
approaches
3. Basic Design considerations ( Para 1.3 of CPHEEO Manual)
In designing waste water collection, treatment and disposal systems, planning generally
begins from the final disposal point going backwards to give an integrated and optimum design
Co suit the topography and the available hydraulic head, supplemented by pumping if essential.

Once the disposal points are tentatively selected, further design is guided by the following basic
design considerations:
a. Engineering
b. Environmental
c. Process
d. Cost
These considerations are discussed below in detail:
a) Engineering Considerations ( Para 1.3.1 of CPHEEO Manual)
Topographical, engineering and other considerations which figure prominently in
project design are noted below:
1. Design period, stage wise population to be served and expected sewage flow
and fluctuations
2. Topography of general area to be served, its slope and terrain. Tentative sites
available for treatment plant, pumping stations and disposal works
3. Available hydraulic head in the system up to high flood level in case of
disposal to a nearby river or high tide level in case of coastal discharge or the level of the
irrigation are to be commanded in case of land disposal
4. Ground water depth and its seasonal fluctuation affecting construction, sewer
infiltration, structural design (uplift considerations)
5. Soil bearing capacity and type of strata expected to be met in construction
6. On site disposal facilities, including the possibilities of segregating the sullage
water and sewage and reuse or recycle sullage water within the households
b) Environmental Considerations: (Para 1.3.2 of CPHEEO Manual)
The environmental and socio-economic impacts of a sewage treatment plant may
prove adverse during the operation stage. Therefore the following aspects should be
considered during design.
i) Surface water Hydrology and Quality
ii) Ground water quality
iii) Coastal water quality
iv) Odour and Mosquito nuisance
v) Public Health and
vi) Land scaping
c) Process Considerations: ( Para 1.3.3 of CPHEEO Manual)
Process considerations involve factors which affect the choice of treatment method, its
design criteria and related requirements such as the following:
i) Waste water flow and characteristics
ii) Degree of treatment required
iii) Performance characteristics
iv) Other process requirements such as land, power operating equipments,
skilled staff, nature of maintenance problems, extent of sludge production
and its disposal requirements, loss of head through plant in relation to
available head etc

d) Cost Considerations: ( Para 1.3.4 of CPHEEO Manual)

The overall costs (Capital and operating) have to be determined in order to arrive at
the most optimum solution
4 Design Period ( Para 1.4 of CPHEEO Manual)
Sewerage projects may be designed normally to meet the requirements over a thirty
year period after their completion. The period between design and completion should also be
taken into account which should be between three to six years depending on the type and size
of the project.
The thirty year period may however be modified in regard to certain components of
the project depending on their useful life or the facility for carrying out extensions when
required and rate of interest so that expenditure far ahead of its utilization is avoided.
Necessary land for future expansion /duplication of components should be acquired in the
beginning itself. Where expensive tunnels and large aqueducts are involved entailing large
capital outlay for duplication, they may be designed for ultimate project requirements.
The project components may be designed to meet the periods mentioned below:
Design Periods For Components Of Sewerage System And Sewage Treatment
(Table 1.1 of CPHEEO Manual)
Sl. No. Component Recommended Design Clarification
period in years
1 Collection System i.e. 30 The system should be designed for the
Sewer network prospective population of 30 years, as its
replacement is not possible during its use.
2. Pumping stations (Civil 30 Duplicating machinery within the pumping
Works) station would be easier/cost of civil works
will be economical for full design period.
3. Pumping Machinery 15 Life of pumping machinery is generally 15
years.
4. Sewage Treatment Plant 30 The construction may be in a phased manner
as initial the flows may not reach the
designed levels and it will be uneconomical
to build the full capacity plant initially.
(Refer Chapter 10.2).
5. Effluent disposal and 30 Provision of design capacities in the initial
utilization stages itself is economical.
5. Population Forecast (Para 1.5 of CPHEEO Manual)
The design population will have to be estimated with due regard to all the factors
governing the future growth and development of the project area in the industrial,
commercial, educational, social and administrative spheres. Special factors causing sudden
immigration or influx of population should also be foreseen to the extent possible.
A judgement based on these factors would help in selecting the most suitable method
of deriving the probable trend of the population growth in the area or areas of the project from
out of the following mathematical methods, graphically interpolated where necessary. The
following are some of the methods prescribed by the CPHEEO for working out the projected
population.
a) Demographic method of Population Projection
b) Arithmetical increase Method
c) Incremental increase Method

d) Geometrical increase Method

e) Decreasing rate of Growth
f) Graphical method
i) Graphical method based on single city
ii) Graphical method based on cities with similar growth pattern
g) Logistic Method
h) Method of Density
Note: Detailed procedure for estimating the population forecast given in Manual on Water
Supply & Treatment may be referred to.
Final Forecast: (Para 1.5.2 of CPHEEO Manual)
While the forecast of the prospective population of a projected area at any given time
during the period of design can be derived by any one of the aforesaid methods appropriate to
each case, the density and distribution of such population within the several areas, zones or
districts will again have to be made with a discerning judgement on the relative probabilities
of expansion within each zone or district, according to its nature of development and based on
existing and contemplated town planning regulations.
Wherever population growth forecast or Master plans prepared by town planning or
other appropriate authorities are available, the decision regarding the design population
should take their figures into account.
The population estimate is guided by the anticipated growth rates of each community.
These differ in different zones of the same town. A design period of 30 years (excluding
construction period) is recommended for all types of sewers. (Para 3.2.1 of CPHEEO
Manual)
Where a Master Plan containing land use pattern and zoning regulations is available
for the town, the anticipated population can be based on the ultimate densities and permitted
floor space index provided for in the Master Plan. In the absence of such information on
population the following densities as suggested for adoption. (Para 3.2.2 of CPHEEO
Manual)
Size of town Density of population

(population) per hectare
Up to 5,000 75-150
5,000 to 20,000 150 –250
20,000 to 50,000 250 –300
50,000 to 1,00,000 300 – 350
Above 1,00,000 350 – 1000

In cities where Floor Space Index (FSI) or Floor Area Ratio (FAR) limits are fixed by
the local authority this approach may be used for working out the population density. FSI or
FAR is the ratio of total floor area (of all the floors) to the plot area. The densities of
population on this concept may be worked out as in the following example:
Assume that a particular development plan rules provide for the following reservations
for different land uses.
Roads 20 %
Gardens 15%
Schools (including play grounds) 5%
Markets 2%
Hospital and Dispensary 2%
Total 44%
Area available for Residential Development (100 – 44) = 56 %

Actual total floor area = Area for residential development x FSI
Assuming an FSI of 0.5 and floor area of 9 m2 /person
Number of persons or density per hectare = 0.56x10,000x0.5 = 311
9
6.Estimation of Waste Water Flow (Para 1.6 of CPHEEO Manual)
There are two types of sewerage systems viz.
i) Sanitary Sewer system, designed to receive domestic sewage and
industrial wastes excluding storm water. Storm water sewers designed to carry 5 carry off
storm water and ground water but excluding domestic sewage and industrial waste.
ii) Combined sewer system is designed to receive domestic sewage,
industrial wastes and storm water. The combined sewer system though economical initially
suffers from several disadvantages and is normally not recommended.
1..Estimation of Sanitary Sewage: (Para 3.2 of CPHEEO Manual)
The Sewer capacity to be provided must be determined from the analysis of the
present and probable quantities expected at the end of design period. The estimation of flow
is based upon the contributory population and the per capita flow of sewage both the factors
being guided by design period as discussed below:
a) Per capita Sewage flow : (Para 3.2.4 of CPHEEO Manual)
The entire spent water of a community should normally contribute to the total flow in
a sanitary sewer. However, the observed Dry Weather Flow quantities (DWF) usually are
slightly less than the per capita water consumption, since some water is lost in evaporation,
seepage into ground, leakage etc. In arid regions, mean sewage flows may be as little as 40
percent of water consumption. In well developed areas, flows may be as high as 90 % due to
industrial wastes, changed water use habits etc. Generally, 80 % of the water supply may be
expected to reach the sewers unless there is data available to the contrary. However, the

sewers should be designed for a minimum waste water flow of 100 litres per cpaita per day.
Industries commercial buildings often use water other than the municipal supply and may
discharge their liquid wastes into the sanitary sewers. Estimates of such flows have to be
made separately. The details of requirements of water for institutions and industries are
discussed in Chapter 2 of Manual on Water Supply and Treatment. Industrial wastes have to
be treated to the standards prescribed by the regulatory authorities before being discharged
into sewers. For some areas, it is safe to assume that the future density of population for
design purpose to be equal to the saturation density. It is desirable that all sewers serving a
small area be designed on the basis of saturation density.
Infiltration into sewer may occur through pipes, pipe joints and structures. The
probable amount has to be evaluated carefully.
b. Flow Assumptions : (Para 3.2.5 of CPHEEO Manual)
The flow in sewers varies considerably from hour to hour and also
seasonally, but for the purposes of hydraulic design it is the estimated peak flow that is
adopted. The peak factor or the ratio of maximum to average flow depends upon contributory
population and the following values are recommended. These peak factors will be applied to
the projected population for the design year considering an average wastewater flow based on
allocation
Contributory population Peak factor
Up to 20,000 3.0
20,000 to 50,000 2.50
50,000 to 7,50,000 2.25
Above 7,50,000 2.00
The peak factors also depend upon the density of population, topography of the site,
hours of water supply and therefore it is desirable to estimate the same in individual cases, if
required. The minimum flow may vary from 1/3 to 1/2 of average flow.
c Ground water infiltration : (Para 3.2.7 of CPHEEO Manual)
Estimate of flow in sanitary sewers may include certain flows due to infiltration of
ground water through joints. The quantity will depend on workmanship in laying of sewers
and level of the ground water table and permeability of the surrounding soil. Since sewers are
designed for peak discharges, allowance for ground water infiltration for the worst condition
in the area should be made. Suggested estimates for ground water infiltration for sewers laid
below ground water table are as follows:
Units Minimum Maximum
Litres/Ha.d 5,000 50,000
Litres/Km.d 500 5,000
Lpd/manhole 250 500

With improved standards of workmanship and availability of various construction

aids, these values should tend to the minimum, rather than the maximum. These values
should not mean any relaxation on the water tightness test requirements.
d. Effect of Industrial Waste
Waste from industries can form an important component of sewage flow both in volume
and composition. It is therefore necessary to collect detailed data about nature of industries,
quantity and character of the waste and their variations, which may affect the sewerage system or
the sewage treatment process. Quality and character of waste water are to be based on flow
measurements and laboratory analysis of the composite samples.
Estimation of Combined Sewer: : (Para 3.3 of CPHEEO Manual)
Estimation of combined sewer includes flow of sanitary sewage and storm water run
off
Estimation of Storm water Run off
Sanitary sewers are not expected to receive storm water. Strict inspection and
vigilance and proper design and construction of sewers and manholes should eliminate this
flow or bring it down to a very insignificant quantity.
Storm runoff is that portion of the precipitation, which drains over the ground surface.
Estimation of such runoff reaching the storm sewers therefore is dependent on intensity and
duration of precipitation, characteristics of the tributary area and the time required for such
flow to reach the sewer. The storm water flow for this purpose may be determined by using
the rational method, hydrograph method, rainfall-runoff correlation studies, digital computer
models, inlet method or empirical formulae. Of all these methods, the rational method is
more commonly used.
Rational Method (Para 3.3.1 of CPHEEO Manual)
The entire precipitation over the drainage district does not reach the sewer. The
characteristics of the drainage district, such as, imperviousness, topography including
depressions and water pockets, shape of the drainage basin and duration of the precipitation
determine the fraction of the total precipitation which will reach the sewer. This fraction
known as the coefficient of runoff needs to be determined for each drainage district. The
runoff reaching the sewer is given by the expression,
Q = 10 C I A
Where Q is the runoff in m3/hr
C is the coefficient of runoff
I is the intensity of rainfall in mm/hr
A is the area of drainage district in hectares
7 Survey and Investigation(Para 1.8 of CPHEEO Manual)
Survey and investigation are pre-requisites both for framing of the preliminary report and
the preparation of a detailed sewerage project. The engineering and policy decisions taken are
dependent on the correctness of the data collected and its proper evaluation. It includes
collection of basic information, project surveys and preparation of project report.
1. Basic information

It includes collection of datas relating to physical aspects (viz., topography, selection of

sites for various components including disposal sites, subsoil conditions etc.,) developmental
aspects (viz. type of land used, density of population, growth of population industries etc,
existing drainage and sewerage facilities, flow characteristics, disposal rate etc) fiscal aspects
(viz source of land, factors affecting the repayment of loan such as revenue etc) and other
aspects likely to influence the project.
2. Project Surveys
i) Preliminary project surveys
This is concerned with the broad aspects of the project. Data on aspects such as
capacity required, basic arrangement and size, physical features affecting general layout
and design, availability of affluent disposal facilities, probable cost and possible methods
of financing, shall be collected to prepare an engineering report describing the scope and
cost of the project with reasonable accuracy. In framing such estimates, due
consideration must be given to the escalation of prices of basic materials and their
availability. While extreme precision and detail are not required in this phase all the basic
data obtained must be reliable.
ii) Detailed project surveys

Surveys for this phase form the basis for the engineering design as well as for the
preparation of plans and specifications for incorporation in the detailed project report. In
contrast to preliminary survey this survey must be precise and contain contours of all the
areas to be served giving all the details that will facilitate the designer to prepare design
and construction of plans suiting the field conditions. It should include, interalia,
network of benchmarks and traverse surveys to identify the nature as well as extent of the
existing underground structures requiring displacement, negotiation or clearance. Such
detailed surveys are necessary to establish rights of way, minimize utility relocation
costs, obtain better bids and prevent changing and rerouting of lines.
iii) Construction Surveys
All control points such as base lines and bench marks for sewer alignment and
grade should be established by the engineer along the route of the proposed construction.
All these points should be referred adequately to permanent objects.
a) Preliminary Layouts
Before starting the work, rights-of-way, work areas, clearing limits and pavement
cuts should be laid out clearly to ensure that the work proceeds smoothly. Approach
roads, detours, by-passes and protective fencing should also be laid out and constructed
prior to undertaking sewer construction work. All layout work must be completed and
checked before construction begins.
b) Setting Line and Grade
The transfer of line and grade from control points, established by the engineers, to
the construction work should be the responsibility of the executing agency till work is
completed.
3) Project Report (1.9 of CPHEEO Manual)
All projects have to follow distinct stages between the period they are conceived
and completed. The various stages are:

a) Pre-investment Planning
- Identification of a project
- Preparation of project report
b) Appraisal and Sanction
c) Construction of facilities and carrying out support activities
d) Operation and maintenance
e) Monitoring and feed back
Since project preparation is quite expensive and time consuming, all projects
should normally proceed through three stages and at the end of each stage a decision should be
taken whether to proceed to the next planning stage and commit the necessary manpower and
financial resources for the next stage. Report at the end of each stage should include a time
table and cost estimate for undertaking the next stage activity and a realistic schedule for all
future stages of project development, taking into consideration time required for review and
approval of the report, providing funding for the next stage, mobilizing personnel or fixing
agency (for the next stage of project preparation) data gathering, physical surveys, site
investigations etc.
The basic design of a project is influenced by the authorities/organizations who are
involved in approving, implementing, operating and maintaining the project. Therefore the
institutional arrangements, through which a project will be brought into operation, must be
considered at the project preparation stage. Similarly responsibility for project preparation
may change at various stages. Arrangements in this respect should be finalized for each stage
of project preparation. Some times more than one organization may have a role to play in the
various stages of preparation of a project. It is therefore necessary to identify a single entity to
be responsible for overall management and coordination of each stage of project preparation.
It is desirable that implementing authority is identified and those responsible for operation of a
project are consulted at the project preparation stage.
Audit Approach
Inter-alia the following points could arise:
1. Whether population forecast was worked out correctly and the estimate of waste
water assessed correctly for the design period. Over estimation of population would
lead to creation of infrastructure in excess of the actual requirement involving extra
cost. Under assessment lead to creating additional infrastructure to meet the
requirement of the full design life involving extra cost.
2. Cases where pump set designed for ultimate stage may be verified and extra cost
involved on erection of pumpset and motor for ultimate stage instead of intermediate
stage and also power consumption on higher capacity of motor may be worked out
and commented.
3. Whether various components of sewerage system were designed and constructed for
the stipulated designed period if not financial implication may be commented.
4. Whether detailed survey and investigation carried out and alignment for pumping
main, sewer main fixed correctly taking into account topography of the ground and
level difference needed for laying the sewers and location of outfall and disposal
works. The following point could emerge
(i) Cases where the sewage could not reach the collection well due to level
differences

(ii) Cases of shifting the alignment due to various reasons

(iii)Cases where the pumping station and disposal site could not be located due to
public objection or other reasons
(iv) Whether investigation report specified the details of land required to be acquired
or transferred to for the scheme. Cases where the schemes held up due to non
assessment of the land required initially and incorporated in the Project report and
subsequent delay thereof may be commented.
5. Whether funds for implementation of Project was identified before taking up the
Schemes, cases where projects held up due to want of funds could be commented.
3. DESIGN OF SEWER AND APPURTENANTS

1 Design of Sewer(Chapter 3 of CPHEEO Manual)
Sewerage system may be classified as sanitary sewers designed to receive domestic
sewage and industrial waste excluding storm water. Storm sewers designed to carry off storm
water and ground water but excluding domestic sewage and industrial wastes and Combined
sewers designed to receive sewage, industrial waste and storm water. The combined system of
sewerage though may be economical initially, suffer from several disadvantages such as sluggish
flow during non-stormy days, leading to deposition of sewage, solids causing foul odours and
increased cost of eventual sewage treatment or pumping cost, associated with disposal of
sewage. In view of this, the combined system is normally not recommended.
The design of sewer interalia included estimation of sanitary sewage, estimation of storm
water runoff and hydraulic, of sewer; design of sewer system etc. The method for estimation of
sewage and storm water runoff is discussed in the previous chapter.
Hydraulics of Sewers (Para 3.4 of CPHEEO Manual)
• Flow in sewers is said to be steady if the rate of discharge at a point in a conduit remains
constant with time and if the discharge varies with time it is unsteady. If the velocity and
depth of flow are the same from point to point along the conduit, the steady open channel
flow is said to be uniform flow and non-uniform if either the velocity, depth or both are
changing.
• A properly functioning sewer has to carry the peak flow for which it is designed and
transport suspended solids in such a manner that deposits in a sewer are kept to a
minimum. The design for wastewater collection system presumes flow to be steady and
uniform. The unsteady and non uniform waste water flow characteristics are accounted
in the design by proper sizing of manholes
• Flow friction: (Para 3.4.2 of CPHEEO Manual ) - The available head in waste water
lines is utilized in overcoming surface resistance and in small part, in attaining kinetic
energy for flow. For design purpose, Mannings formula for open channel flow and
Hazen William and Darcy-Wcisback formula for closed conduit or pressure flow is used
for working out the head loss due to friction
Design criteria:- It is better practice to design sewers with partial full condition to
provide ventilation and keeping sewage in fresh condition. Hence peak factor for design
sewer shall range between 2 to 3.5. From consideration of ventilation in waste water
flow, sewers should not be designed to run full. All sewers are designed to flow 80
percent of full ultimate flow. For design of sewer net work the slope and diameter of
sewers should be decided to meet the following two conditions:

i. A self cleansing velocity is maintained at present peak flow

ii. A sewer runs at 0.80 full at ultimate peak flow.
• Self cleansing velocity:- To ensure that deposition of suspended solids does not take
place, minimum self cleansing velocities are required to be considered in the design.
Hydraulic elements of circular sewers possess equal self cleansing properties at all
depths. The self cleansing properties for different conduit are given below:
i) Sanitary Sewer: For design peak flow – 0.8 metre/sec
For present peak flow – 0.6 metre/sec
ii) Open drain: - 0.75 to 0.9 metre/sec
iii) Inverted siphon: - 1.00 metre/sec
iv) Minimum velocity for force main: - 0.3 metre/sec
• Maximum permitted depth of flow: The pipes will be designed to flow at depth indicated
below where the maximum permissible depth of flow in sewers for established velocity
criteria:
Diameter in Depth of flow which will convey
mm (d) designed quantity
Up to 400 0.50 d
400 to 900 0.67 d
Above 900 0.75 d
• Velocity: (Para 3.4.3 of CPHEEO Manual) The flow in sewer varies from hour to hour
and also seasonally. But for the purpose of hydraulic design, estimated peak flow is
adopted. The size of Sewer is to have adequate capacity for the peak flow to be achieved at
the end of design period so as to avoid steeper gradient and deeper excavation. It is
desirable to design sewers for higher velocity wherever possible. The sanitary sewer is
designed to obtain adequate scouring velocities at the average or at least at the maximum
flow at the beginning of the design period for a given flow and slope. Velocity is little
influenced by pipe diameter. The recommended slope for minimum velocity is given
below which ensure minimum velocity of 0.60 metre/sec.
• Table 3.7 of CPHEEO Manual)
Present peak flow (lps) Slope per 1000 m
2 6.0
3 4.0
5 3.1
10 2.0
15 1.30
20 1.20
30 1.00
After arriving at slopes for present peak flows, the pipe size should be decided on the basis
of ultimate design peak low and the permissible depth of flow. The minimum diameter of
public sewer may be 150 mm. In hilly areas, where extreme slope are prevalent, the size of
sewer may be 100 mm.


• Maximum Permissible Velocity:

Description Maximum permissible velocity
Stoneware pipe 1.4 metre/sec
Brick drain 1.8 to 2.1 metre/sec
Concrete drain 2.5 metre/sec
Cemented drain 3.0 metre/sec
Cast Iron pipe 3.0 metre/sec
• Depth of cover: One meter cover on pipeline is normally sufficient to protect the
pipelines from external damage.
2 Sewer Appurtenances (Chapter 4 of CPHEEO Manual)
Sewer appurtenances are devices necessary in addition to pipes and conduits for the pipes
functioning of any complete system of sanitary, storm or combined sewers. They include
structures and devices such as various types of manholes, lamp holes, gully traps, intercepting
chambers, flush tanks, ventilation shafts, catch basins, street inlets, regulators, siphons, grease
traps, side float weir, leaping weir, venture-flumes and out fall structures.
1. Manhole: (Para 4.2 of CPHEEO Manual)

• A manhole is an opening constructed in the alignment of a sewer for facilitating a
person to access the sewer for the purpose of inspection, testing, cleaning and
removal of obstruction of the sewer line.
• Spacing : Manhole should be built at every change of alignment, gradient or
diameter at the head of all sewers and branches and at every junction of two or
more sewers.
• The maximum distance between manholes should be 30 m.
• Spacing of manhole in large sewers above 900 mm diameter to 1500mm may be
of above 90 to 150 m in straight run sewer and spacing of manholes at 150 to 200
m may be allowed in straight run sewer of 1.5 to 2.0 m dia., which may further be
increased up to 300 m for sewer of over 2 m diameter. A spacing allowance of
100 m per 1 m dia of sewer is a general rule in case of very large sewer.
• Manholes are of rectangular, arch type and circular type
• Circular manholes are stronger than rectangular and arch type manhole and hence
circular manhole is preferred over other two types. The circular manholes can be
provided for all depths, starting from 0.9 metres. Depending on the depth of
manhole, diameter of manhole changes. The internal diameter of the manholes
may be kept as follows for varying depths: (para 4.2.1.2 of CPHEEO Manual)
i) For depth above 0.90 m up to 1.65 m - 900 mm dia.

ii) For depth above 1.65 m up to 2.30 m - 1200 mm dia
iii) For depth above 2.30 m up to 9.0 m - 1500 mm dia
iv) For depth above 9.0 m up to 14.0 m - 1800 mm dia

• The width/diameter of the manhole should not be less than the internal diameter
of the sewer plus 150 mm benching on both sides (150 mm + 150 mm).
• Manhole covers: A minimum clear opening of 60 cm is recommended.
• Floor slab of manhole: RCC 150 mm thick to withstand uplift.
• Drop manholes: Required when the maximum difference in inverts between the
shallowest incoming and the outgoing sewer of a manhole is more than 60 cm.
2. Flushing Tank:
• Located at the head of a sewer. They are designed for 10 minutes flow as a self-
cleansing velocity of 0.6 m/sec.
• Capacities:
150 mm sewer - 6400 litres
The capacity of these tanks is usually 1/10 of the cubic capacity of sewer length to be
flushed.
House Service Connection (Para 4.4 of CPHEEO Manual)
-- For large diameter of sewers, house service connections may be given through rider sewers,
which should be connected through manhole or drop manhole. Where there is no Y or T left
for new connection insertion of new Y or T is not prescribed.
-- House service connection should be minimum size of 150 mm diameter sewer with minimum
slope of 1:60 laid as far as possible to a straight line and grade.
-- The House service connection sewer line has to be connected to the manhole and will be
joined with sewer pipe already embedded within the wall of the manhole while constructing
the manhole. The House service connection will be taken up to the property boundary. The
property owner shall connect the sewer line laid up to the property boundary with House
service connection.

3 Materials for Sewer Construction (Chapter 5 of CPHEEO Manual)

Factors influencing the selection of materials for sewer construction are flow
characteristics, availability size required including fittings and ease of handling and installations,
water tightness and simplicity of assembly, physical strength, resistance to acids, alkalies, gases,
solvents etc., resistance to scour, durability and cost including handling and installation.
Type of materials (Para 5.1 & 5.2 of CPHEEO Manual)
Factors influencing the selection of Material for sewer construction are flow
characteristics , availability in the sizes required including fitting and case of handling and
installation, water fighters and simplicity in assembling, physical strength, resistance to acids,
alkalies, gases solvents etc. resistance to scour, durability and cost including handling and
installation. No single material will meet all the conditions that may be encountered in sewer
design. Selection should be made for the particular application and different materials may be
selected for parts of a single project.
• According to CPHEEO Manual the following type of materials may be used for sewer
construction.
(i). Brick work is used for construction of sewer particularly for large diameters. Brick sewers
shall have cement concrete or stone for invert and 12.5 mm thick cement plaster with neat
finish. To prevent ground water infiltration, it is desirable to plaster the outer surface.
(ii) In sewerage pumping system or Rising Main, the internal pressure is very high sometimes.
There may be pressure fluctuations and occasional surge. Any failure or breakage in the
Rising main will jeopardize the whole system since the Rising main is the most vital part of
the sewerage system. At present for pressure mains Pre- stressed concrete (PSC), Cast Iron
(CI) and Ductile Iron (DI) pipes are used. Use of MS pipes should be avoided since MS
pipes are very much prone to chemical and septic corrosion. MS. pipe should not be used
for partially full sewage. But for higher diameters in the range of 1200 to 1800 mm MS
pipes /PSC pipes with Sulphate Resistant Cement (SRC) lining can be used.
(iii)In case of gravity sewer system, Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) pipes, Stoneware pipes,
CI pipes and DI pipes with SRC lining are usually adopted
Stoneware or Vitrified clay (Para 5.2.3 of CPHEEO Manual)
The Vitrified clay pipes is advantageous over other pipe material on high resistance to
corrosion and erosion due to grit and high velocities. Though a minimum crushing strength of
1600 kg/m is usually adopted for all sizes manufactured presently, vitrified clay pipes of
crushing strength 2800 kg/m and over are manufactured in other countries. The strength of
vitrified clay pipes often necessitates special bedding or concrete cradling to improve field
supporting strength. The stoneware pipes and fittings shall withstand internal hydraulic test
pressure of 0.3 Mpa and 0.15 Mpa respectively without showing sign of injury or leakage. The
pressure shall be applied at a rate not exceeding 0.075 Mpa in 5 seconds (IS 3006:1979).

Size of Pipe internal diameter Wall thickness of

in mm stoneware pipe
100 12 mm
150 15mm
200 16mm
250 20mm
300 25mm
350 30mm
• Jointing of Sewer pipes: From structural considerations of structural requirements joints
may be classified as rigid and flexible joints. Joints such as cement mortar, lead, flanged
and welded joints are under the category of rigid joints. All types of mechanical joints
such as rubber gasket joints are flexible. Flexible joints are preferable to rigid joints
particularly with granular bed.
Width of Trenches : (Cause 3.2 of IS 4127:1967)
The width of the trench corresponds to the depth of the trench is given.
Depth of Trench Width of Trench
1. Upto an average depth of 120 cm Diameter of pipe + 30 cm
2. Above 120 cm Diameter of pipe + 40 cm
Note: Width should not be less than 75 cm for depth exceeding 90 cm
Back filling: Trench shall be divided into 3 zones
Zone A: From bottom of trench to the level of center line of the pipe
Zone B : From the level of the center line of the pipe to a level 30 cm above top of the pipe
Zone C: From top of Zone B to the top of the trench
Zone A shall be refilled with sand, fine gravel or other approved materials
Zone B and Zone C shall be refilled with materials as prescribed by department.

4. STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF BURIED SEWERS

(Chapter 6 of CPHEEO Manual)
The structural design of a sewer is based on the relationship that the supporting
strength of the sewer as installed divided by a suitable factor of safety must equal or exceed
the load imposed on it by the weight of earth and any superimposed loads.
The essential steps in the design and construction of buried sewers or conduits to
provide safe installations are therefore:
(i) Determination of the maximum load that will be applied to the pipe based
on the trench and backfill conditions and the live loads to be encountered.
(ii) Computation of the safe load carrying capacity of the pipe when installed
and bedded in the manner to be specified using a suitable factor of safety
and making certain the design supporting strength thus obtained is greater
than the maximum load to be applied.
(iii) Specifying the maximum trench widths to be permitted, the type of pipe
bedding to be obtained and the manner in which the backfill is to be made
in accordance with the conditions used for the design.
(iv) Checking each pipe for structural defects before installation and making
sure that only sound pipes are installed and
(v) Ensuring by adequate inspection and engineering supervision that all
trench widths, sub grade work, bedding, pipe laying and backfilling are in
accordance with design assumptions as set forth in the project
specifications.
Proper design and adequate specifications alone are not enough to ensure protection from
dangerous overloading of pipe. Effective value of these depends on the degree to which the
design assumptions are realized in actual construction. For this reason thorough and
competent inspection is necessary to ensure that the installation conforms to the design
requirements. There are three type of construction of Sewer (a) embankment condition (b)
trench condition and (c) tunnel condition. (Para 6.1 & 6.31 of CPHEEO Manual)
Generally Sewers are laid in trenches by excavation of earth and refilling to the original
ground level. Hence type of loads in trench condition are discussed below:
Type of loads (Para 6.2 CPHEEO Manual)
In a buried sewer, stresses are induced by external loads and also by internal pressure in
case of a pressure main. The external loads are of two categories viz. load due to
backfill material known as backfill load and superimposed load which again is of two
types viz. concentrated load and distributed load. Moving loads may be considered as
equivalent to uniformly distributed load. Sewer lines are mostly constructed of stoneware,
concrete or cast iron which are considered as rigid pipes (while steel pipes, if used are not
considered as rigid pipes). The flexibility affects the load imposed on the pipe and the stresses
induced in it.
Loads on conduits due to backfill: (Para 6.3 of CPHEEO Manual)

The vertical dead load to which a conduit is subjected under trench conditions is the
resultant of two major forces. The first component is the weight of the prism of soil within the
trench and above the top of the pipe and the second is due to the friction or shearing forces
generated between the prism of soil in the trench and the sides of the trench produced by
settlement of backfill. The resultant load on the horizontal plane at the top of the pipe within the
trench is equal to the weight of the backfill minus these upward shearing forces.
Computation of loads: The load on rigid conduits in trench condition is given by the
Marston’s formula in the form
Wc= Cd w B2d
Wc = the load on the pipe in kg per linear metre
.w = the unit weight of backfill soil in kg/m3
Bd= the width of trench at the top of the pipe in m and
Cd= the load coefficient which is a function of a ratio of height of fill to width of trench
(H/Bd)
H = Depth of refilling of soil from top of pipe to the ground level in metres.
Weights of common filling materials (w) and values of Cd for common soil conditions
encountered are given in Table 1 and 2 respectively.
The weights of common filling materials (w) are given in the table below
Table 1
Materials Weight (kg/m3)
Dry sand 1600
Ordinary (Damp sand) 1840
Wet sand 1920
Damp clay 1920
Saturated clay 2080
Saturated top soil 1840
Sand and Damp soil 1600
Table 2
Values of Cd for calculating loads on pipes in trenches (Wc=CdWB2d)
Ratio H/B Safe working values of Cd

Minimum Maximum for Completely Ordinary Extreme

possible ordinary sand saturated Top maximum for maximum for
without Soil clay clay
cohesion
0.5 0.455 0.461 0.464 0.469 0.474
1.0 0.830 0.852 0.864 0.881 0.898
1.5 1.140 1.183 1.208 1.242 1.278
2.0 1.395 1.464 1.504 1.560 1.618
2.5 1.606 1.702 1.764 1.838 1.923
3.0 1.780 1.904 1.978 2.083 2.196
3.5 1.923 2.075 2.167 2.298 2.441
4.0 2.041 2.221 2.329 2.487 2.660
4.5 2.136 2.344 2.469 2.650 2.856
5.0 2.219 2.448 2.590 2.798 3.032
5.5 2.286 2.537 2.693 2.926 3.190
6.0 2.340 2.612 2.782 3.038 3.331
6.5 2.386 2.675 2.859 3.137 3.458
7.0 2.423 2.729 2.925 3.223 3.571
7.5 2.454 2.775 2.982 3.223 3.571
8.0 2.479 2.814 3.031 3.366 3.764
8.5 2.500 2.847 3.073 3.424 3.845
9.0 2.518 2.875 3.109 3.476 3.918
9.5 2.532 2.898 3.141 3.521 3.983
10.0 2.543 2.918 3.167 3.560 4.042
11.0 2.561 2.950 3.210 3.626 4.141
12.0 2.573 2.972 3.242 3.676 4.221
13.0 2.581 2.989 3.266 3.715 4.285
14.0 2.587 3.000 3.283 3.745 4.336
15.0 2.591 3.009 3.296 3.768 4.378
Very 2.599 3.030 3.333 3.846 4.548
Great
H- Depth of refill to top of pipe in metre

B- Trench width at top of pipe in metres

2. Load on conduit due to super imposed loads: (Para 6.4 of CPHEEO Manuals)
The type of super imposed loads which generally encountered in buried conduits may be
(a) concentrated load and (b) distributed load.
a) Concentrated Load: (Para 6.4.1 of CPHEEO Manual ) The formula for load due to
super imposed concentrated load such as a truck wheel is given in the following form by Holl’s
integration of Boussinesq’s formula
Wsc = Cs (PF/L)
Wsc= the load on the conduit in kg/m
P = the concentrated load in kg acting on the surface
F = the impact factor (1.0 for air field runways, 1.5 for highway traffic and air field taxi
ways, 1.75 for railways traffic) and
Cs= the load coefficient which is a function of
Bc L
----- and ----
2H 2H
Where
H = the height of the top of the conduit to ground surface in m
Bc= the outside width of conduit in m and
L=the effective length of the conduit to which the load is transmitted in m
Values of Cs for various values of (Bc/2H) and (L/2H) are obtained from Table 3
The effective length of the conduit is defined as the length over which the average load
due to surface traffic units produces the same stress in the conduit wall as does the actual load
which varies in intensity from point to point. This is generally taken as 1m or the actual length
of the conduit if it is less than 1 m
b) Distributed load : (Para 6.4.2 of CPHEEO Manual For the case of distributed
superimposed loads, the formula for load on conduit is given by
Wsd = Cs p F Bc
Where
Wsd= the load on the conduit in kg/m
.p = the intensity of the distributed load in kg/m2
f = the impact factor
Bc= The width of the conduit in m
Cs = the load coefficient, a function of D/2H and L/2H from Table 3
H = the height of the top of conduit to the ground surface in m and
D and L are width and length in m respectively of the area over which the distributed
load
Field supporting Strength (Para 6.5.2 of CPHEEO Manual)
The field supporting strength of a rigid conduit is the maximum load per unit length,
which the pipe will support while retaining complete serviceability when installed under
specified conditions of bedding and backfilling. The field supporting strength, however does not

include any factor of safety. The ratio of the strength of a pipe under any stated condition of
loading and bedding to its strength measured by three edge bearing test is called the load factor.
The load factor does not contain a factor of safety. Load factors have been determined
experimentally and analytically for the commonly used construction condition for both trench
and embankment conduits.
Supporting strength in Trench conditions (Para 6.5.3 of CPHEEO Manual)
Classes of bedding:
Four classes, A, B, C and D of bedding are used most often for pipes in trenches. Class A
bedding may be either concrete cradle or concrete arch. Class B is a bedding having a shaped
bottom or compacted granular bedding with a carefully compacted backfill. Class C is ordinary
bedding having a shaped bottom or compacted granular bedding but with a lightly compacted
backfill. Class D is on with flat bottom trench with no care being taken to secure compaction of
backfill at the sides and immediately over the pipe and hence is not recommended. Class B or C
bedding with compacted granular bedding is generally recommended. Shaped bottom is
impracticable and costly and hence is not recommended. The pipe bedding materials must
remain firm and not permit displacement of pipes which include Red gravel, coarse sand,
crushed gravel etc. The material has to be uniformly graded or well graded.
Well graded material is most effective for stabilizing trench bottom and has a lesser tendency
to flow than uniformly graded materials. However, uniformly graded material is easier to place
and compact above sewer pipes.
Load factors (Para 6.5.3.2 of CPHEEO Manual)
LOAD FACTORS FOR DIFFERENT CLASSES OF BEDDING (Table 6.6 of CPHEEO Manual)
CLASS OF CONDITION LOAD

BEDDING FACTOR
A a. concrete cradle plain concrete and lightly tamped backfill 2.2
A b. Concrete cradle plain concrete with carefully tampled backfill 2.8
A c. Concrete cradle – RCC with P-0.4 % Upto 3.4
A d. Arch type plain concrete 2.8
RCC with P-0.4% Upto 3.4
RCC with P-1.0% Upto 4.8
(P is the ratio of the area of steel to the area of concrete at the crown)
B Shaped bottom or compacted granular bedding with carefully compacted 1.9
backfill
C Shaped bottom or compacted granular bedding with lightly compacted 1.5
backfill
D Flat bottom trench 1.1
Note: C type of bedding is normally adopted.
The granular material used must stabilize the trench bottom in addition to providing a firm
and uniform support for the pipe. Well graded crushed rock or gravel with the maximum size not
exceeding 25 mm is recommended for the purpose.
Where rock or other unyielding foundation material is encountered bedding may be
according to one of the Class A,B or C but with the following additional requirements.
Class A: The hard unyielding material should be excavated down to the bottom of the
concrete cradle.

Class B or C: The hard unyielding material should be excavated below the bottom of the pipe and
pipe bell to a depth of atleast 15 cm.
The width of the excavation should be atleast 1.25 times the outside dia of the pipe and it
should be refilled with granular material.
Total encasement of non-reinforced rigid pipe in concrete may be necessary where the
required safe supporting strength cannot be obtained by other bedding methods. The load factor
for concrete encasement varies with the thickness of concrete.
Relation ship between the different element in structural Design:

The basic design relationships between the different design elements for rigid pipes are
as follows:
Safe working strength = Ultimate three edge bearing strength
------------------------------------------
Factor of safety
Safe field supporting strength = safe working strength x load factor
Note: The factor of safety recommended is `1.5’
Problem: Determine the structural requirement of 200 mm dia stone ware pipe laid in a trench
to a width of 0.8 m in depth of 1.30 metre in ordinary soil and wheel load of 6.25
tonnes.
Solution: Pipe thickness t= 16 mm for 200 mm dia

(i) Back fill load: BC = D + 2t = 200 + 2x16 = 232mm
Bd=0.8 m
H=1.30-0.232=1.068 m
H/Bd=1.068/0.8=1.335
Cd= 1.05 (From Table 2)
W= 1840 (From Table 1)
Wc=Cd W B2d =1.05 x 1840 x 0.82 = 1237 kg/m
(ii) Concentrated load

L = 0.60 (normal length of Stoneware pipe)
H= 1.068 m
L/2H=0.60/2 x 1.068 = 0.28
BC/2H= 0.232/2x1.068 = 0.11
From Table 3 of CPHEEO Manual for values L/2H = 0.28 and BC/2H = -11
Cs=0.0498
Wsc = C S P F/L= 0.0498 x 1.5 /0.60 = 778 kg/m

(iii) Internal load ie Water Load at 75 % flow

22 2 2 1 75
Water load = ---- x --- x --- x----x 1000 x –0.6x -----
7 10 10 4 100
= 14 kg/m
Total load WLo= 1237 + 778+14 = 2029 kg/m
Safe supporting strtength of 200 mm stone ware pipe
with `C’ clean bedding= 1650 x 1.5/1.5 = 1650 kg/m
Audit Approach
Interalia the following audit points could be seen
1. Cases where due to defective design and execution of sewer and sewer appurtenances,
the designed quantity of sewer could not reach the collection well causing overflow or
leakages. This untreated sewage water due to leakage would pollute the river or lake
causing public ill health and pollution. This aspects may be analysed.
2. Though stoneware pipe were sufficient for collection sewer up to 350 mm dia, CI pipes
are being used. The safety factor and design criteria for the sewer has to be examined
and the extra cost on use of pipes other than stone ware for collection systems upto 350
mm dia may be commented.
3. Even in case of use of other pipes, the class of pipe used may be analysed with reference
to designed pressure and extra cost on use of higher class of pipe may be commented.
4. Whether trenches were excavated to the specified width or not the extra cost due to
higher width of trenches may be commented.
4. SEWAGE AND STORM WATER PUMPING STATION

Pumping stations handle Sewage/Storm water either for lifting the sewage so as to
discharge into another gravity sewer or for treatment/disposal of the Sewage/effluent.
• The capacity of the pumping station has to be based on present and future sewage flow
considering a design period of 15 years. The civil structures and pipelines of both dry
sump and the wet well should be designed for a flow of 30 years. The needs of future
expansion need special attention especially in respect of provision of additional space for
replacing the smaller pumping units by larger area, increasing the capacity of the wet
well and constructing new pumping station to cope with the increased flow. The initial
flows are generally too small and the effect of the minimum flow should be studied
before selecting the size of the pumps for the project to be commissioned in order to
avoid too infrequent pumping operation and long retention of sewage wet wells. (Para
9.3) of CPHEEO)
• Pumping stations traditionally have two wells, the wet well receiving the incoming
sewage and dry well housing the pumps.

Dry well: (Para 9.6.1 of CPHEEO) The size of the dry well should be adequate to house
number of pumps at the desired capacity of pumping.
Wet Well: (Para 9.6.2 of CPHEEO) The size of the wet well is influenced by the sewage
capacity to be provided. The capacity of the well is to be so kept that with any combination of
inflow and pumping the cycle of operation for each pump will not be less than 5 minutes and the
maximum detention time in the wet well will not exceed 30 minutes of average flow.
• In the wet well baffles should be provided at required places to ensure uniform flow at
each pump suction.
• Wherever possible grid removal ahead of pumping should be adopted to increase the life
of the pumps.
PUMPS: (Para 9.7 of CPHEEO Manual)
The selection of pump is based on many consideration such as the type of pump, the size
of pump, the number of pumps, the capacity or flow rate of each pump range of throttling of
each pump, the head of pumping and others.
• Capacity of the pump shall be adequate to meet the peak rate of flow with 50% stand by.
To obtain the least operating cost, the pumping equipments should be selected to perform
efficiently at all flow including the peak flow. Two or more pumps are always desirable at
sewage pumping station. The size and number of unit for larger pumping station, shall be
so selected that the variations of inflow can be handled by throttling of the delivery values
or by varying the speed of the pump without starting and stopping the pump too frequently
or necessitating excessive storage. (Para 9.7.1 of CPHEEO Manual)
• The capacity of a pump is usually stated in terms of Dry Weather Flow (DWF) estimated
for the pumping station. The general practices is to provide 3 pumps for small capacity
pumping station comprising of 1 pump of 1 DWF, 1 of 2 DWF and third of 3 DWF
Capacity. For large capacity pumping station, 5 pumps are usually provided comprising of
2 of ½ DWF 2 for 1 DWF and 1 of 3 DWF capacity including standby. (Para 9.7.1 of
CPHEEO Manual)
• The total head of pumping has to be calculated taking note of four factors; (Para 9.7.5 of
CPHEEO Manual)
(i) the difference between the static level of the liquid in the suction sump in the wet
well and the highest point on the discharge side ie. Static head.
(ii) the rate of flow and size of the discharge mouth determine the velocity at the point of
discharge (ie. Velocity head or kinetic head)
(iii) the difference in the pressure on the liquid in the suction sump and at the point of
delivery rate, delivery pressure will be higher than the atmospheric pressure (i.e.
Pressure head)
(iv) the frictional losses across the pipes, values, bend and all such appurtenance (i.e.
Frictional loss)

• Operation of the pumps—Dry running of pumps should be avoided—The delivery value

should be operated gradually to avoid surges.
Electrical Equipment (Para 9-9 of CPHEEO Manual)
The electrical equipment selected shall be adequate, reliable and safe. The adequacy is
determined by the continuous current required for the station – load and the available short circuit
characteristic of the power supply. The reliability depends upon the capacity of the electrical
system to deliver power, when and where it is required, under normal as well as abnormal
conditions. Safety involves the protection life and also the safe guarding of the equipment under
all conditions of operation & maintenance. None of these three aspects shall be sacrificed for the
sake of initial economy. The electrical system shall be designed with such flexibility as to permit
one or more components to be taken out of service at any time without interrupting the continuous
operation of the station. A proper selection of voltages in the electrical types is one of the most
important decisions that will affect the overall system – characteristic and the plant performance.
• Normally outdoor transformer sub station are provided and may be indoors also on public
safety protection etc.,
• Duplicate transformer may be provided where installation so demands.

Audit Approaches
Interalia the following could be seen
• Cases where pumps and motor designed for ultimate stage instead of 15 years may be
identified and comments on wasteful expenditure on installation of higher capacity of pump
set and recurring extra cost of power consumption due to higher capacity may be included.
• Whether pumpsets are installed to the prescribed level for DWF or in excess of
requirements. Unwarranted installation cost on extra pumpset may be commented
• Cases of failure of pumpset resulting in non pumping of Sewage loading for pollution may
also be commented after analyzing the causes for failure of pumpset.
• Cases where transformer of the stand bye or one stand bye besides diesel Generator of the
same capacity provided especially by CMWSS (Metro Water) Chennai. Normally one
duplicate (Stand bye) is required for. The excess provision of transformer and the cost
there of may be commented..

5. SEWAGE TREATEMENT
(Chapter 10 of CPHEEO Manual )
The object of sewage treatment is to stabilise decomposable organic matter present in

sewage and the effluent and sludge which can be disposed of in the environment without causing
health hazards or nuisance.
The processes commonly employed in domestic waste water treatment function and units
used to achieve these functions are listed below
1. Design Period:
Design period of 30 years after its completion. The time lag between the design and the
completion could not oridinarily exceed 2 to 3 years and in exceptional circumstances 5 years.
Construction of sewage treatment plant may be carried out in phases with an intial design period
ranging from 5 to 10 years excluding the construction period so that expenditure far ahead of
utility is avoided. The comparative merits to cover the full 30 years period versus the first 15
years or earlier should be examined to decide the most economical initial arrangements
satisfactorily to cover the first 15 years or lesser. (Para 10.2 of CPHEEO Manual)
2. Sewerage Flow:
The quantity of sewerage and its characteristic show a marked range of hourly variation
and hence peak, average and minimum flows are important consideration. The process loading
in the sewage treatment are based on the daily average flows and average characteristics as
determined from a 24 hour weighted composite sample. In the absence of any data average flow
of 150 lpcd may be adopted. The hydraulic design load varies from component to component of
the treatment plant with all appurtenance conduits, channel, etc. being designed for the
maximum flow which may vary from 2.0 to 3.5 times the average flow.
Sedimentation tanks are designed on the basis of average flow while consideration of
both maximum and minimum flow is important in the design of screen and grit chamber.

3. Unit operations/processes, their functions and devices used for domestic wastewater treatment
(Table 10-1 of CPHEEO Manual)
Unit operations and
S.No Functions Treatment Devices
process
1 SCREENING Removal of large floating, Bar racks and screens of
suspended and settleable solids various description
2 GRIT REMOVAL Removal of inorganic Grit chamber
suspended solids
3 PRIMARY Removal of organic and Primary sedimentation
SEDIMENTATION inorganic settable solids tank
4 a) AEROBIC BIOGICAL Conversion of colloidal, Activated sludge process
SUSPENDED GROWTH dissolved and residual units and its
PROCESS suspended organic matter into modifications, waste
settable biofloc and stable stabilisation Ponds,
inorganics Aerated Lagoons.
b) AEROBIC BIOGICAL Same as above Trickling Filter, Rotating
ATTACHED GROWTH Biological Contactor
PROCESS
5 ANAEROBIC Conversion of organic matter Anaerobic Filter, Bed
BIOLOGICAL GROWTH into CH4 & CO2 and organic Submerged Media
PROCESSES relatively stable organic Anaerobic Reactor,
residue Upflow Anaerobic
Sludge Blanket Reactor;
Anaerobic Rotating
Biological Contactor
6 ANAEROBIC Same as above Anaerobic Digester
STABILISATION OF
ORGANIC SLUDGES
4. Sewage treatment of processes (Para 10-10 of CPHEEO Manual )

Sewage treatment processes may be generally classified as primary, secondary and
tertiary. The general yardstick of evaluating the performance of sewage treatment plants is the
degree of reduction of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Suspended Solids (SS) and Total
Coliforms. The efficiency of a treatment plant depends not only on proper design and
construction but also on good operation and maintenance. Expected efficiencies of various
treatment units are given below:
Expected efficiencies of various treatment units (Table 10-3 of CPHEEO Manual )
Percentage reduction
S.No.
Process Total
SS BOD
coliform
1 Primary Treatment (Sedimentation) 45-60 30-45 40-60
2 Chemical Treatment 60-80 45-65 60-90
3 Secondary Treatment 75-85 70-90 80-90
(i) Standard trickling filters
(ii)High rate trickling filters
(a) single stage 75-85 75-80 80-90
(b) Two stage 90-95 90-95 90-60
(iii) Activated sludge plants 85-90 85-95 90-96
(iv) (a) Stabilization ponds (Single cell) 80-90 90-95 90-95
(b) Stabilization ponds (Two Cells) 90-95 95-97 95-98

Tertiary treatment is adopted when reuse of effluent for industrial purposes is

contemplated or when circumstances dictate the requirement of higher quality effluents.
Cost is the prime consideration in the selection of the treatment method. It should
include the cost of installation, capitalized cost of maintenance and operation taking into account
interest charges and period of amortisation. An alternative will be to consider the annual cost
covering amortisation and interest charges for the loan obtained for the installation together with
the annual operating and maintenance costs. In some cases there is a component of subsidy
granted by the Government for the installation of the treatment works and the maintenance cost
is borne entirely by the local body or the agency concerned. Both these will have to be taken
into account for making realistic comparison of the alternatives.
Other factors that may influence are ease of construction and maintenance, benefits that
accrue from better environmental sanitation, location, availability of land and topographical
conditions.
5. Sedimentation (chapter 12 of CPHEEO manual)
The purpose of sedimentation of sewage is to separate the settleable solids so that the
settled waste water, if discharged into water courses, does not form sludge banks and when used
for land disposal does not lead to clogging of soil pores and excessive organic loading. Primary
sedimentation of sewage also reduces the organics load on secondary treatment units.
Sedimentation is used in waste water treatment to remove (i) inorganic suspended solids or grit in
grit chamber (ii) organic and residual inorganic solids, free oil and grease and other floating
materials, etc. The settleable solids to be removed from waste water in primary or secondary
settling tank after grit removal.
6. Design considerations: (for primary and secondary settling tank or clarifier)

(Para 12.4 of CPHEEO manual)
Several factors such as flow variations, density currents, solids concentration, solids
loading, area, detention time and overflow rate influence the design and performance of
sedimentation tanks. Sedimentation tanks are designed for average flow conditions. Hence,
during peak flow periods, the detention period gets reduced with increase in the overflow rate and
consequent overloading for a short period. If hourly flow variations are wide as in the case of
some industrial waste flows, it may be necessary to build an equalization tank, ahead of the
treatment units so that uniform loading is made possible in all treatment units.
For primary sedimentation tanks, both, surface overflow rate and detention period
(hydraulic residence time) are important criteria as the solids to be settled are flocculent in nature
and undergo flocculation. The major design parameters for secondary settling tanks designed to
remove bioflocculated solids are solids loading rate or solid flux as well as surface over flow rate.
The plan surface area of secondary settling tanks is determined using both criteria and the greater
of the two is adopted for design. In addition, other design parameters are depth, displacement
velocity (horizontal velocity of flow) and weir loading rate.
The overflow rate represents the hydraulic loading per unit surface area of tank in unit time
expressed as m3/d/m2 . Overflow rates must be checked both at average flows and peak flow. The
smaller values in the ranges given are applicable to small plants of capacities less than 5 mld.

The solids loading rate or solid flux is an important decision variable for the design of
secondary sedimentation tank receiving bioflocculated solids. The solid flux represents the solids
loading per unit surface area of tank per unit time and is expressed as kg SS/m2 d.
Weir loading influences the removal of solids in sedimentation tank, particularly in
secondary settling tanks where flocculated solids are settled. There is no positive evidence that
weir loading has any significant effect on removal of solids in primary settling tanks. However,
certain loading rates based on practice are recommended both for primary as well as secondary
tanks. For all primary, intermediate and secondary settling tanks, except in the case of secondary
tanks for activated sludge process, weir loading of the order of 125m3/d.m. for average flows is
recommended. For secondary settling tanks in activated sludge or its modifications, the weir
loading is around 185 m3/d.m. The loading should however ensure uniform withdrawal over the
entire periphery of the tank to avoid short circuiting or dead pockets. Performance of existing
sedimentation tanks can be improved by merely increasing their weir length.
The depth sets the detention time in the settling tank and also influences sludge thickening
in secondary settling tanks of activated sludge plants.
Design parameters for settling tanks or clarifiers
(Table 12.1 of CPHEEO manual)
Type of settling Overflow rate Solid loading Depth Detention

M3/d/m2 Kg/m2/d M time
Hour
Average Peak Average Peak
A. PRIMARY SETTLING
1) Primary settling only 25-30 50-60 2.5 – 3.5 2.0– 2.5
2) Primary settling followed by 35-50 80-120 2.5 – 3.5
secondary treatment
3) Primary settling with activated 25 – 35 50 – 60 3.5 – 4.5
sludge return
B. SECONDARY SETTLING
4) Secondary settling for trickling filter 15-25 40 – 50 70 –120 190 2.5 – 3.5 1.5– 2.0
5) Secondary settling for activated 15-35 40 – 50 70 –140 210 3.5 – 4.5 -
sludge(excluding extended aeration)
6) Secondary settling for extended 8 –15 25 – 35 25– 120 170 3.5 – 4.5 -
aeration
Note: Para 10.4 of CPHEEO manual stipulates the design of the clarifier for
average flow.
7. Detention period (Para 12.4.2.2 of CPHEEO Manual)
The rate of removal of BOD and SS is maximum during the first 2 to 2½ hours of settling
and thereafter decreases appreciably. Hence, increase in the detention time beyond 2 to 2½ hours
will not increase the percentage removal of BOD or SS proportionately. Longer detention period
may affect the tank performance adversely due to setting in of septic conditions, particularly in
tropical climate. Experience has shown that a detention period of 2 to 2½ hours for primary
settling tanks and 1½ to 2 hours for secondary settling tanks will produce the optimum results.
Longer detention periods in secondary settling tanks may result in denitrification which
adversely affects the settling efficiency.

8. Sludge removal (12.4.2.06 of CPHEEO Manual)
Sludge can be removed manually, hydrostatically or mechanically from the sedimentation

tanks. Mechanical cleaning of sludge should be preferred to manual cleaning even in small plants,
to prevent exposure of workers to health hazards.
9. Sludge digestion & production of gas (para 17.4 of CPHEEO manual)
The principal purposes of sludge digestion are to reduce its offensive odour, pathogenic
contents and to improve its dewatering characteristics. This can be achieved through any of the
following biological process (i) anaerobic digestion & (ii) aerobic digestion. During the process
of sludge digestion, sludge gas is emanated. Sludge gas is normally composed of about 60 to 70%
methane and 25 to 35% carbon dioxide by volume with smaller quantities of other gases like
hydrogen sulphide, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen. The combustible constituent in the gas is
primarily the methane. Hydrogen sulphide in addition to its corrosive properties causes nuisance
during the burning of the gas. In term of solids digested, the average gas production is about
0.9m3/kg. of volatile solids destroyed at a normal operating pressure of 150 to 200mm of water.
Minimum or maximum rates of gas production will however depend upon the mode of
feeding of raw sludge into the digester. The minimum and maximum gas production rates may
vary from 45% to more than 200%. In the continuous feeding system, the difference between the
maximum and the minimum is considerably reduced. Intermittent mixing of digester contents is
also responsible for wide fluctuations in gas production rates.
Sludge gas should be collected under positive pressure in the gas holder from the primary
and the secondary units besides from the sludge digester. A gas dome above the digester roof
should be used for gas take off.
A distance of atleast 30m should be kept between a waste gas burner and a digestion tank
or gas holder to avoid the possibility of igniting the gas mixture. Waste gas burners should be
located in the open for easy observation. Where the gas is to be used as domestic fuel or for
power generation, additional equipments like compressor, etc. may have to be used.
Carbon credits :
The “United Nations Frame Work Convention on Climate Change” based in Bonn,
Germany created the concepts of issuing certificates of Carbon credits to countries that reduce
their emissions by implementing environment – friendly projects. In sewage treatment methane
gas (bio gas) generates during the process of sludge digestion and the bio gas can be used for
generating electricity there by avoiding the bio gas being let into air. Carbon credit is given for
utilizing the bio gas by the United Nation body.
Note : Chennai Metro Water is set to receive Rs.4 crore annually from United Nation
body for using bio gas in sewage Treatment (The Hindu dated 3.6.2007)

Audit Approaches
1. Whether the treatment plant was designed and constructed to the norms prescribed.
Extra capacity of various components of treatment unit may be commented.
2. Cases of failure of treatment units leading for non treatment of sewage and resultant
impact in public health, pollution etc. has to be analysed and commented.
3. Table 12.1 of CPHEEO Manual prescribes design paramateres for settling tank or
clarifier (Primary & Secondary) para 12.4.2.2 of CPHEEO Manual prescribes the
detection time. Longer detention time may affect adversely the performance of the tank
and setttling efficiency. Longer duration of detention time would if adopted in the
design parameters would increase the volume of the clarifier involving extra cost. The
correctness of design parameters adopted has to be analyzed and commented.
4. Para 10.4 of CPHEEO Manual stipulates the design of clarifier for average flow. But in
case where design of clarifier for peak flow has to be analysed which involves increase
in capacity of clarifier. The excess capacity of clarifier has to be commented.
5. The guidelines of National River Conservation Project provided to utilize the gas
produced from sewage treatment for operation and maintenance of the sewage treatment
plant. Para 17.4 of CPHEEO Manual also prescribes various parameters on gas
generation and utility. Failure to design the sewage treatment for storing the gas and
utilizing it may be commented.

6. STABILIZATION PONDS
(Chapter 15 of CHPEEO manual)
Stabilization ponds are open, flow-through earthen basins specifically designed and
constructed to treat sewage and biodegradable industrial wastes. Stabilization ponds provide
comparatively long detention periods extending from a few to several days. During this period
organic matter in the waste is stabilized in the pond. Pond systems in which oxygen is provided
through mechanical aeration are called aerated lagoons. Lightly loaded ponds used as tertiary
step in waste treatment for polishing of secondary effluents and removal of bacteria are called
maturation ponds.
Under many situations in warm climate countries pond systems are cheaper to construct
and operate compared to conventional methods. The only disadvantage of pond systems is the
relatively large land that they require. Pond systems must be considered as an alternative when
treatment of waste water or upgrading of existing facilities are planned and the life time costs of
various other treatment system should be calculated and compared.
CLASSIFICATION
1. Aerobic
Aerobic ponds are designed to maintain completely aerobic conditions. They are used for
primary effluent which allow penetration of light throughout the liquid depth. The ponds are kept
shallow with depth less than 0.5m and BOD loadings of 40 – 120 kg/ha.d. The pond contents may
be periodically mixed. Such ponds develop intense algal growth and have been used on
experimental basis only.
2. Anaerobic
Completely anaerobic ponds are used as pretreatment for high strength industrial wastes
and sometimes for municipal wastewaters. They are also used for digestion of municipal sludges.
Depending on temperature and waste characteristics, BOD load of 400 – 3000 kg/ha.d and 5-50
day detention period would result in 50-85 percent BOD reduction. Such ponds are constructed
with a depth of 2.5 – 5m to conserve heat and minimize land area requirement. Usually they have
an odour problem.
3. Faculative
The facultative pond functions aerobically at the surface while anaerobic conditions
prevail at the bottom. The aerobic layer acts as a good check against odour evolution from the
pond. The treatment effected by this type of pond is comparable to that of conventional secondary
treatment processes. The facultative pond is hence best suited and most commonly used for
treatment of sewage.

7. WASTE STABILIZATION PONDS

(Design Manual for waste stabilization ponds in India by Duncan Mara)
Introduction
Waste stabilization ponds (WSP) are shallow man made basins into which wastewater
flows and from which after a retention time of several days (rather than several hours in
conventional treatment processes), a well-treated effluent is discharged. WSP systems comprise a
series of ponds – anaerobic, facultative and several maturation. The different functions and modes
of operation of these three different types of pond are described in Section 3 of this manual. The
WSP are low cost, high efficiency low energy, low maintenance and above all a sustainable
method of waste water treatment. They are highly appropriate under many conditions in India.
Type of WSP and their function (Chapter 3)

WSP systems comprise a single series of anaerobic, facultative nd maturation ponds, or
several such series in parallel. In essence, anaerobic and facultative ponds are designed for BOD
removal and maturation ponds for pathogen removal, although some BOD removal occurs in
maturation ponds and some pathogen removal in anaerobic and facultative pond. Designers are
after reluctant to use anaerobic ponds because of the fear of significant level of odous nuisance.
Effluent quality requirements (Chapter 4)

In India general standards for the discharge of treated waste waters into inland surface
waters are given in the Environment (Protection) Rules 1986 (see CPCB. 1996). The more
important of these for WSP design are as follows.
BOD (Bio oxygen Demand 30mg/I

Suspended solids 100 mg/I
Total N (Nitrogen) 100mg/N/I
Total ammonia 50mg N/I
Free ammonia 5 mg N/I
Sulphide 2mg/I
PH 5.5. 9.0
Design Parameters (Chapter 4)
The four most important parameters for WSP design are temperature, net evaporation ,
flow and BOD. Faecal coliform and helminth egg numbers are also important if the final effluent
is to be used in agriculture or aquaculture.
1. Anaerobic Ponds
No advice is given on the design of anaerobic ponds in the Government of India’s Manual
on Sewerage and Sewerage Treatment (Ministry of Urban Development 1995). However they can
be satisfactorily designed on the basis of volumetric BOD loading
2. Facultative Pond
The Indian Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment (Ministry of Urban Development
1995) gives two methods of selecting the permissible design value of BOD loading: one based on
latitude and one based on temperature.
The Manual on Sewerage and sewage Treatment (Ministry of Urban Development. 1995)
permit only 65-70% of the calculated area to be used for the facultative pond with the remaining
30-35% to be used for a maturation pond. This increases the BOD surface loading on the
facultative pond by 43-54% and resulting higher loading.

3. Maturation Ponds
Maturation ponds may be single pond or series of ponds constructed for removal of faecal
coliform, Helminth egg ponds require careful design to ensure that their faecal coliform removal.
BOD loading on the first maturation pond must not be higher than that on the preceding
facultative pond and it is preferable that is significantly lower. The maximum permissible BOD
loading or the first maturation pond is taken as 75 percent of that on the preceding facultative
pond. The loading on the first maturation pond is calculated on the assumption that 80 percent of
the BOD has been removed in the proceeding anaerobic and facultative ponds ( or 70% for
temperature below 200C, The maturation pond area is calculated from the equation.
Am = 2 Qi Om/(2D+0.001e Om)
Where Am = Area of maturation pond
Qi = mean flow m3/day
Om = Retention time in days
D = Pond depth in metric usually 1.5m
e = Net evaporation rate mm/day
Note:
In the past waste stabilisation pond technology was used for establishing sewage treatment
plant in some areas. For treating one million litres of sewage a day 2.5-3 acres land was required.
Now new technologies requiring less land such as fluid aerobic bio-reactor, sequencing batch
reactor and modified activated sludge process have emerged. They are cost effective. In 2006
Govt. of Tamil Nadu constituted Experts Committee with the task of identifying and
recommending technology options on urban local bodies. Depending upon the requirement and
suitability, the expert committee gives its advice to each local body (Source : The Hindu
27.4.2007)
Thus the concept of WSP system may not be of much need in Tamilnadu.

8.EFFLUENT DISPOSAL AND UTILISATION

• Treatment effluent conforming to prescribed standards may be disposed into a stream course
or into sea or a stagnant body of water. Since the treated waste water may still have a
coliform density before disposal of water into the water body.
• Disposal of waste in a river causes organic chemical and microbial problem. Organic
Pollution not only depletes the oxygen content in the river resulting in fish kill but also leads
to heavy algal growth down stream. The waste water discharge into the river is to be
regulated in such a manner that it does not exceed its waste assimilating capacity and the
options in this respect include waste water treatment waste water reduction alternate waste
disposal points and methods and increase of the quantity of the available dilution water
where possible.
• Disposal into Ocean: To prevent backing up and spreading of waste water on the sea shore
and consideration of marine echo system, the waste water should be taken to a distance of
about 1 ½ km into the sea from shoreline and discharged in deep sea at a point 3 to 5 m
below water level.
• Disposal to land: Sewage farming—The nutrients in sewage like nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium along with micro-nutrients as well as organic matter present in it could be
advantageously employed for sewage farming to add to the fertility and improve the drainage
characteristics of the soil along with the irrigation potential of the water extent. However,
use of raw sewage or night soil or sullage is fraught with public health damages. Even
application of treated effluent to land has to be carried out with certain precaution, as it is not
completely free from risk. A good sewage farm should be run on scientific lines with
efficient supervision with the primary objective of disposal of sewage combined with its
utilisation to the disposal extent in a sanitary manner without polluting the soil, open water
courses or artesian waters or contaminating crops raised on the sewage farm or imparting the
productivity of soil. Effluent from properly designed waste stabilisation ponds is also
suitable for application on land. Under no conditions, application of raw sewage on sewage
farm should be permitted.
• Treated sewage water is being used in Industrial unit for various purpose (viz. Cooling
purpose etc.,) Treated sewage water is sold to the Industries by Water Agency.
Note : The Parameter prescribed by National Pollution Control Board and Tamil Nadu
Pollution Control Board for letting the treated sewage water in the land, water course sea
etc., has been prescribed by those agencies and treated effluent should conform to the
prescribed standard parameter.
Audit Approaches
1. The utility of treated sewage water to industrial purpose and agreement entered with
industrial unit concerned may be analysed to comment loss of revenue.
2. Sewage Farms are properly maintained and revenue on sale of grass etc. may be
analysed.
9. PROCESS OF SEWAGE TREATMENT
( Chapter – Part –III of Data – Matrix for Public Health Engineers compiled by TWAD
Board Engineers)
i. Preliminary Treatment

a) Screening :
Coarse Screens : made of bars with opening of 7.5 to 15 cm
Bar screens : made of bars with openings of 5 to 10 cm
Amount of materials removed by Screens : 3 to 180 cum/million cum of sewage
screened
b) Grit Removal:
Velocity in grit channels : 30 cm/sec
Size of grit particles removed : 0.15 mm to 0.20 mm grains of sp.gr. 2.30 to
2.65
Amount of grit removed : 6 to 72 cum/million cum of sewage treated.
ii. Primary Treatment:
Plain settling of sewage to remove organic matter to the extent possible
Usual efficiencies : 30% COD removal and 50% suspended solids removal
iii. Secondary Treatment
a) Intermittent sand filters
b) Trickling filters or
c) Activated sludge units
Involves complete removal of organic matter.

iv) Low Cost Treatment:
By a) Waste stabilization ponds (aerobic, anaerobic and facultative)
b) Aerated lagoons
c) Oxidation ditches
Design Features
1. Screens:
Velocity through screens : (i) 0.30 m/sec (at average rate of flow) for hand
raked bar screen.
ii) 0.75 m/sec. (max velocity during wet weather
periods) for mechanically cleaned screens.
Submerged area of the screen 200 to 300 per cent of the cross sectional area of the
surface including bars and openings : approach sewer.
1) Net submerged screen area : notless than 0.04 to 0.06 sq.m/mld

2) Head loss through the screens : upto 0.75 m
3) Drop of floor level below the screen:
a) For mechanically operated screens: 75 mm (min)
b)For manually operated screens : 150 mm (min)
4) Top of screen : 300 mm (min) above highest flow level
5) Minimum free board : 300 mm

2. Grit Chambers:
Horizontal velocity of flow : 0.15 to 0.30 m/sec
Detention time : 60 sec. (for 3 DWF)
Surface loading rate : 40 m3/m2/hour
Grit collection : 12 to 27 cum/million cum.
3. Settling Tanks: (Plain sedimentation)
Detention time : 2.0 to 2.5 hours
Overflow rate : 27 to 45 m3/day/m2
Depth of tank : 3.0 to 4.0 m
Velocity of flow : 0.30 to 1.50 m/min
Solids loading :30 kg/m2/day
4. Intermittent Sand Filters:
Design loading on filters million litres/hectare/day
1) For raw sewage : 0.5
2) For presettled sewage (after screen and grit removal): 1.0
3) Primary treatment complete (after settling) : 3.0
5. Dosing Tanks:
Enough flow to flood one unit of filter to a depth of 5 to 10 cm.
Each filter bed should receive 1 or 2 doses per day .
Average rate of dosage : 30 litres/sec for 500 m2(
(with intermittent dosing and resting of sand beds)
6. Trickling filters : Low rate High rate
i) Hydraulic loading
(in million litres/hectare metre/day) 10 to 40 100 to 400
ii) Organic loading
(in tonne BOD/hectare metre/day) 1.1 to 3.5 3.5 to 17.5
iii) Depth in m 1.8 to 3.0 1.0 to 2.4
Recirculation None 1:1 to 1:4
Filter volume 5 to 10 times 1
iv) Power requirements
(kw/million litres) None 30 to 180
Dosing interval 5 min. 15 sec.
Nature of dosing Intermittent Continuous
7. Activated Sludge Units
Design Parameters for activated sludges aeration tank capacities and permissible loadings
Process Plant Design Aeration Plant Design Aerator Kg
flow (mld) Retention kg/BOD5/day loading BOD5/day
Period kg/BOD5/m3 Kg MLSS
(hours)
Conventional Upto 2.25 7.57.5 to Upto 450 0.50 0.50 to 0.25
2.25 to 6.06.0 up 450 to 1350 0.50 to 0.65
6.756.75 up 1350 up 0.65 up
Modified or High rate All 2.5 up 900 up 1.60 1 or less
Step Aeration 2.50 to 6.75 7.5 to 5.0 450 to 1350 0.50 to 0.80 0.5 to 0.2
6.75 up 5.0 up 1350 up 0.80
Contact stabilization Upto 2.25 3.0* Upto 450 0.50 0.5 to 0.2
2.25to 6.75 3.0to 2.0* 450 to 1350 0.50 to 0.80
6.75 up 1.5 to2.0* 1350 up 0.80 up
Extended aeration All 24 All 0.20 0.10 to 0.05
* Detention time in contact zone which is 30 to 35% of total aeration capacity.
Re-aeration zone comprises the balance of the aeration capacity.

8. Design parameters for Secondary or Final Settling Tanks of Activated Sludge Plants
Type of Process Average Design flow (mld) Detention time Surface settling
(hours) rates (m3/m2/day
Conventional, Upto 2.25 3.0 27
modified or High 2.25 to 6.75 2.5 32
rate & Step aeration 6.75 up 2.0 37
Contact stabilisation Upto 2.25 3.6 23
2.25to 6.75 3.0 27
6.75 up 2.5 32
Extended aeration Upto 0.23 4.0 14
0.23 to 0.69 3.6 14
0.69 up 3.0 27
9. Relative Efficiencies of Sewage Treatment Processes

Percent reduction
Type of treatment or process Suspended
BOD Bacteria
matter
Coarse screens - - 0-5
Fine screens 5-10 5-10 10-20
Grit chambers 5-10 5-10 10-20
Plain sedimentation 35-65 25-40 25-75
Chemical precipitation 70-90 60-85 40-80
Low-rate trickling filter, including presedimentation and 70-90 75-90 80-90
final sedimentation
High rate trickling filter including presedimentation and 70-90 65-95 70-95
final sedimentation
Conventional activated sludge, including pre- 80-95 80-95 90-95
sedimentation and final sedimentation
High rate activated sludge, including pre-sedimentation 70-90 70-95 80-98
and final sedimentation
Contact aeration, including pre-sedimentation and final 80-95 80-95 90-95
sedimentation
Intermittent sand filtration, including pre-sedimentation 85-95 85-95 95-98
Chlorination
Raw or settled sewage - * 90-95
Biologically treated sewage - * 98-99
*Reduction is dependent upon dosage
10. Digester Capacity requirements:
A digester capacity of 1 cu.ft. per capita (including sludge storage) may be adopted, since the
conditions in Tamil Nadu in respect of sludge digestion are more favourable. The following
values may be adopted for the area of drying beds required for digested sludge.
Type of Treatment Area of sludge drying beds in sq.m per
capita (for open beds)
Primary 0.10
Activated sludge 0.15
11.Disinfection of sewage
Chlorine dosages required inmg/1
Raw sewage : 20 to 25
Primary settling tank effluent : 20
Trickling filter effluent : 15
Activated sludge effluent :8
Sand filter effluent :6

12. Waste stabilization ponds

a.) For small schemes, a single facultative pond suffices and is designed as below:
BOD loading = 220 kg/hectare/day
Water depth =not more than 1.5 to 1.7 m
Detention period = 18 to 24 days obtained by adjusting surface area
BOD removal = 80 to 90%
b) For large schemes where minimum clearance of 0.5 to 1 km from habitation is
available, anaerobic pond followed by facultative pond is preferable to save land area and
is designed as below:
13.Anaerobic Pond:
BOD loading = 880kg/hectare/day
Water depth = not less than 2.5 m - not more than 3.0 m
Detention period = 4 days
BOD removal = 50 to 60%
Facultative Pond
Same design criteria as in (a) but influent BOD would be less.
c) for hospitals, educational institutions, small colonies, etc. even chance odours must be absent
and single facultative pond is designed as below:
BOD loading = 110 kg/hectare/day
Water depth = not more than 1.5 to 1.7 m
Detention period = 35 to 40 day
14. Fish Ponds:

Where practicable fish ponds can be used for facultative pond effluents with the following
design criteria:
Water depth = 1.5 m
Detention period = 5 days
Cyprinus carpio (Carp) is the most profitable variety of fish with yields of 4 tonne/hectare/year.
15. Grass Farm

The facultative pond effluent or the fish farm effluent can be used for grass cultivation for cattle
feed. The following criteria will apply:
Application rate : 60 to 120 m3/hectare/day (clay to gravelly soils)
For clayey soils, under drains system must not be recommended and only peripheral collection
channels are to be provided.
Grass variety : Para Grass
Grass yield : 370-400 tonne/hectare/year in 11 cuttings
16. Aerated lagoon

Where land cost exceeds Rs.200,000/hectare, facultative waste stabilisation ponds would
be uneconomical for a flat adoption and aerated lagoons can be used for pretreatment
economically with the following design criteria:
Detention time : 1 day
Water depth : 2.5 m
Oxygen required : 1 kg/each kg BOD removal
BOD removal : 60% : Aerator sizing :0.8 kg 02/kw/h

HAND BOOK
ON
WORKS AUDIT-SEWERAGE AND SEWAGE

TREATMENT
Office of the
Principal Accountant General (Civil Audit)
Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry
Chennai

HAND BOOK
ON
WORKS AUDIT- SEWERAGE AND SEWAGE

TREATMENT
Office of the
Principal Accountant General (Civil Audit)
Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry
Chennai
FOR INTERNAL CIRCULATION AND

USE ONLY Shri.C.Sreedharan . SAO
Shri.E.Jayaraman .AAO
The information given in this handbook has Shri.S.Ravichandran .AAO
been gathered from various sources.For Smt.Chandra Seetharaman .AAO
Reporting,the originals have to be referred Smt.Sreelakshmi Sridhar .AAO
And not provisions of this handbook.
This handbook is only to educate the
Officials engaged in works audit .

SEWERAGE AND SEWAGE TREATMENT
Contents Page No.
Preamble 01
Planning, Design, Survey & Investigation 01
Design of Sewer and Sewer Appurtenant 11
Sewage and Storm Water Pumping Station 24
Sewage Treatment 27
Stabilisation Pond 33
Waste Water Stabilisation Pond 34
Effluent Disposal and Utilisation 36
Process of Sewage Treatment 37
Flow chart on Sewage Treatment Plan

SCREENI RETURN CHLORINE CONTACT TANK

or MATURATION POND
GRIT PARSHALL
FLUME
RA
SCREEN
GRIT PRIMARY
AERATION TREATED
CLARIFIER SECONDARY
CHAMBER SEWAGE
TANK CLARIFIER
S
IN
SL
EXCESS
SLU
SL DIG CEN
EST
GAS
GAS
EXCESS GAS
G
FOR PO
Flow diagram of Sewage Treatment Plat – (Activated Sludge Process)

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Works Audit – Sewerage and Sewage Treatment 1

Office of the Principal Accountant General (Civil Audit) Chennai

SEWERAGE AND SEWAGE TREATMENT

Office of the Principal Accountant General (Civil Audit) Chennai

Office of the Principal Accountant General (Civil Audit) Chennai

d) Cost Considerations: ( Para 1.3.4 of CPHEEO Manual)

Office of the Principal Accountant General (Civil Audit) Chennai

d) Geometrical increase Method

Size of town Density of population

5,000 to 20,000 150 –250

20,000 to 50,000 250 –300

50,000 to 1,00,000 300 – 350

Above 1,00,000 350 – 1000

Office of the Principal Accountant General (Civil Audit) Chennai

Schools (including play grounds) 5%

Hospital and Dispensary 2%

Area available for Residential Development (100 – 44) = 56 %

Office of the Principal Accountant General (Civil Audit) Chennai

Contributory population Peak factor

20,000 to 50,000 2.50

50,000 to 7,50,000 2.25

Above 7,50,000 2.00

Units Minimum Maximum

Litres/Ha.d 5,000 50,000

Litres/Km.d 500 5,000

Lpd/manhole 250 500

Office of the Principal Accountant General (Civil Audit) Chennai

With improved standards of workmanship and availability of various construction

Office of the Principal Accountant General (Civil Audit) Chennai

It includes collection of datas relating to physical aspects (viz., topography, selection of

ii) Detailed project surveys

Office of the Principal Accountant General (Civil Audit) Chennai

Office of the Principal Accountant General (Civil Audit) Chennai

(ii) Cases of shifting the alignment due to various reasons

3. DESIGN OF SEWER AND APPURTENANTS

Office of the Principal Accountant General (Civil Audit) Chennai

i. A self cleansing velocity is maintained at present peak flow

Office of the Principal Accountant General (Civil Audit) Chennai

Office of the Principal Accountant General (Civil Audit) Chennai

• Maximum Permissible Velocity:

1. Manhole: (Para 4.2 of CPHEEO Manual)

i) For depth above 0.90 m up to 1.65 m - 900 mm dia.

Office of the Principal Accountant General (Civil Audit) Chennai

Office of the Principal Accountant General (Civil Audit) Chennai

3 Materials for Sewer Construction (Chapter 5 of CPHEEO Manual)

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Size of Pipe internal diameter Wall thickness of

Office of the Principal Accountant General (Civil Audit) Chennai

4. STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF BURIED SEWERS

Loads on conduits due to backfill: (Para 6.3 of CPHEEO Manual)

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Ordinary (Damp sand) 1840

Wet sand 1920

Damp clay 1920

Saturated clay 2080

Saturated top soil 1840

Sand and Damp soil 1600

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Minimum Maximum for Completely Ordinary Extreme

H- Depth of refill to top of pipe in metre

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Office of the Principal Accountant General (Civil Audit) Chennai

Load factors (Para 6.5.3.2 of CPHEEO Manual)