chapter2

LITERATURE REVIEW
 CHAPTER 2

2.0 STRESS ANALYSIS

Stress analysis is used to determine the stresses in material and structures subjected to forces.
Stress analysis used to describe analysis of resultant quantities of the stress around openings.
The purpose of stress analysis of underground mine structures is essentially two folds (1) to
obtain a concept of the effect of the size and shape of a single mine openings upon the stresses
existing initially with in the surrounding rock
(2) To determine the effect of a group of mine openings upon the stresses within the rock as
their size,shape,number,and relate positions are varied. The ultimate purpose is to apply the
result of these analysis to achieve more economical mine operations.stress analysis is applied to
mine openings ranges from the completely empirical to the completely theoretical.stress
analysis of underground mine openings for many Simple cases have been performed by
mathematical analysis and an analysis of models in the laboratory. The results of these analysis
cannot be applied directly to obtain quantitative results for the underground mining problem
because these are solution which were chosen for the simplicity of the concepts and
mathematically involved .There are specific cases, and their field of application is limited. It is
the aspect of Stress analysis which necessitates the development of mode in which the
theoretical and model studies are checked by field studies and experimental laboratory work.In
these manner, the fullest benefits of the laboratory work as well as the field work maybe
obtained.

2.1 EARLY UNDERGROUND STRESS ANALYSIS

With early investigators the rock surrounding mine openings was assumed to approximate
some solvable fundamental, structural unit, primarily because of the manner in which failure
was observed to occur of the opening.Many early investigations were centered upon the
observation that dome Shaped space forms around certain collapsing underground openings.
The Rock in the top of the original opening fails, leaving a dome shaped opening which
established equilibrium

In the year 1898, Kirsch had first derived an analytical solution of stresses and Displacement
around circular opening in plane strain condition.During the period to two
Investigators Fayol and Rizha, proposed theories with similar content. These theories were the
forerunners of the Dome theories. The mine opening was assumed to be surrounded by a
Roughly spherical shell within the rock loaded by its own weight. In The dome theory
was extended in an article by Dinsdale. He shows in a Simple static analysis, that the height of
the dome increases with depth .In similar manner, various other theories have been presented
which Treat layers of rock immediately overlying the mine opening as beam loaded by their
own weight.Theoretical research upon the problem of underground mine structures has
Advanced rapidly in the last fifteen years,

2.2 STRESSES AROUND UNDERGROUND OPENING

Stresses and displacements around an underground opening are required to be known for
design of tunnels ,underground spaces for civil and mine openings. Analytical solutions for
estimating stresses and displacement have been derived by considering material
properties,constitutive relationship and far-field boundary condition. The analytical solutions
are useful to understand the effect of individual parameter on the geometry of underground
opening. It has been noticed that different shapes and sizes of the opening such as

 Circular
 Eliptical
 Rectangular

Then the efffect of different shapes and sizes are discussed mainly focusing the changes in
stress region around the tunnel boundary .In underground mining , single and multiple parallel
openings are frequently developed to extract coal or minerals.

( A ) . CIRCULAR OPENING
Circular or semi-circular openings are preferred due to symmetry, stability and possibility for
faster excavation by sophisticated tunnel boring machines . Circular shape is always preferred
in squeezing / loose grounds. an analytical relationship for displacement distribution around
along circular tunnel was developed in an ideal rock mass by a German engineer Kirsch(1898).
Prediction of stresses and displacements around a circular opening in the rock mass at great
depth is an important problem in geotechnical, petroleum and mining engineering such as the
design of tunnels, boreholes and mine shafts,

Figure 1. stress distribution around a circular opening.

( B ) . ELLIPTICAL OPENING
Elliptical opening is one of the opening of the mine shaft. The size and shape of an opening
depends primarily (i) the purpose it is supposed to serve, (ii) the depth of its location below
thwe ground surface, and (iii) the condition of rock mass. In general, D-shape or horseshoe
shape tunnel is adopted in relatively non-squeezing grounds for railways and roadways.
Narrow elliptical shape is chosen in case the vertical stress is much larger than the horizontal
stress if the opening will be located at greater depth. Wider elliptical shape tunnel is preferred
when horizontal stress is much larger than the vertical stress. It may be noted that stress
concentration around an elliptical opening is relatively less te major axis aligned in the major
principal stress direction. Utility of the solution of elliptical opening is more than circular
opening because this provides a first approximation to a wide range of engineering geometrics,
especially with high width/height ratio, for example, mine stopes in underground metalliferrous
mines and caverns in underground power house.
Figure 2 . Stress distribution around elliptical excavation in a biaxial stress field

( C ) RECTANGULAR OPENING

A perfectly rectangular opening tends to produce very large stress concentration at

the right angled corners,therefore, rounded or filleted corners are assumed. The near
infinite stress eventually reduces to finite stress due to rounded or filtered corners
specified by radius of curvature. Normal mining conditions probably produce
approximately rounded corners in a rectangular opening. The greater the rounding,
the smaller is the stress concentration .The maximum corner radius possible is one-
half the last dimensions of the section and results in an ovaloid. Stress distribution
around a rectangular opening in an underground mine drive soon after excavation-
mark 5 influence zones created around a rectangular opening [6] Zone 1-Bed
separation due to differential sag or bucking Zone 2-Layers sag without separation.
Gravity acts to develop sags in Zone 1 and 2Zone 3-Horizontal and Vertical pressure
build to their undistributed values Zone 4-Floor heave occurs without bed separation
Zone 5-Seam expands towards excavation because of release of horizontal stress.

Figure 3 . . stress distribution around a rectangular opening

 2.3 STRESS DISTRIBUTION AROUND SINGLE OPENING
The rockmass in which these underground openings are located, may be treated as homogeneous
from the stand point of analysing the response of mass caused by making an underground opening.
The response may be adequately evaluated by using any of the closed from solutions for the
openings of simple shape in which there are no corners.However, for openings, other than the
simple one. The distribution of the stresses around a single underground opening in massive rock
can be determined either analytically or from laboratory model studies, provided simplifying
assumptions are made regarding the properties of the rock, the shape of the openings, and the state
of stress before mining the opening. The effect of making openings of different shapes upon
stresses exsisting in rock masses before the openings are made is of fundamental interest. A series
of geometrical shapes has been chosen by various investigators which are relatively simple to
solve mathematically and which also approximate certain typical underground openings.
Horizontal cylindrical mine openings, with circular, elliptical and rectangular are considered in
that order.

 CIRCULAR OPENINGS

The stresses around a circular opening infinitely far fron the boundaries of a plane subjected to a
uniformly two dimensional stress field have been

 sh  2 a 2 3a 4 
r   s 1  2  4 sin2
 2  r r 
Where :
sh  horizontal applied stress,
s  vertical applied stress,
  radial stress,
  tangential stress,
r  shear stress,
a  hole radius,
r  radial distance between centre of hole,
θ  polar co - ordinate;
horizontal axis represents   0.
The stress are concentrated on or near the boundary of the opening and are independent of the
elastic constants of the material and the radius if the hole. The radius a appears inn these equations
a
only in the dimensionless ratio which specifies the distance from the boundary of the hole. The
r
magnitude of the stress near an opening is expressed as a ratio of the stress at a certain point to the
average applied stress outside the zone of disturbance. This ratio is referred to as the stress
concentration.
Figure 4 : stress distribution around cicular opening

 ELLIPTICAL OPENINGS
An elliptical opening can be defined by the following parametric equations :

x  p cos 
y  q sin  .

Where p and q are the parameters of ellipse,  is the angle, and x and y are rectangle
coordinates. The boundary tangential stress for an elliptical opening in an infinitely wide plate,
subjected to a uniform two-directional stress field.

s  s   p  q 2 sin 2   q 2  2 pq s

h

t
 p 2  q 2  sin 2   q 2
 

Where t is the boundary tangential stress, Sh is the applied stress in x direction (horizontal),
and S is the applied stress in y direction (vertical).the above equation has been used to calculate
the boundary stresses around ellipses for four width-to-height ratios. For the unidirectional stress
field M=0, the maximum stress concentration at the end of the horizontal axis increases as the
width-to-height ratio increases , where as the stress concentration at the top and bottom of the
opening remains constant at a value of minus one,signifying tension when applied stress is
compression.

Figure 5 : stress distribution around elliptical opening

 RECTANGULAR OPENIINGS

Perfect rectangular openings would produce infinitely larger stress concentration at the right-angle
corner; therefore rounded or filtered corners are assumed. Normal mining conditions usually willl
produce a corner in a rectangular opening. The stress distribution around a rectangular opening
with rounded corners. A study has been made of the influence of a rectangular opening- with a
short distance w and a small fillet of radius of curvature r at the corners-upon the stresses in a
plate subjected to the threes above mentioned states of initial stress. The stress concentrations
exsisting around rectangles with side dimensions of varying proportion. Primarily interest lies in
the effect upon maximum stress concentrations of varying the long-to-short dimension ratio w / h  ,
the radius of curvature-to-short dimension ratio r / h  or the angle  which is the long dimension
w makes with the horizontal.

Figure 6 : Stress distribution around rectangular opening

2.4 STRESS DISTRIBUTION AROUND MULTIPLE OPENINGS

In case of underground activities, there are many instances when two or more are sufficiently close
together and he introduction of one opening affects the stress concentration around the other. This
condition is of primary importance, because increase in stress concentration around multiple
opening will affect ground stability around the openings. Hence, in situations, we are interested to
find the maximum stress concentration as well as stress distribution in rock mass formed between
two or more openings. Distribution of stresses around multiple openings is more complicated than
for a single opening. A single opening in a uniform stress field disturbs the stress field for a
distance of approximately twice the diameter from the opening . Thus when two openings are less
than two diameters apart, the stress distribution around one opening affects the stress distribution
around the other. The stress distribution around multiple openings such as circular.

 CIRCULAR OPENINGS

The stress distribution around an infinite row of equal-size circular holes equally spaced in an
infinitely wide plate, subjected to either a uniform stress normal or parallel to the line of holes, has
been studied theoretically by Howland   . the result of this work are summarized. The given
figure shows the stress concentration around the opening and through the centre of the pillar for an
applied stress normal to a line through the centers of the holes when the width of the pillar is equal
to the width of the opening . Comparing the results given , the maximum stress concentration has
increased from 3 to 3.26 owing to the presence of the adjacent holes. This increase is
comparatively small considering the fact that the average stress on the line of centers is twice that
for a single hole in an infinite plate. Thus one can infer that the average stress in the pillar will
approach the maximum stress for large stress concentrations.

Figure 7: stress distribution around multie openings(circular)

2.5 NUMERICAL MODELLING APPROACH

Numerical modelling may be considered s a viable alternative method to define pillar strength.
This approach will have the advantage of duly accounting for the in situ stresses as well as roof
and floor strata properties. The empirical analytical formulae do not posses this advantage. In
addition, they disregard the fact that roof and floor rocks may themselves be in state of failure at
the time of pillar failure(Mohan et al, 2001). Large number of parameters can be incorporated in
modelling so that it will give more realistic results.
The best way for estimation of stress and strain behavior of a coal pillar is to conduct an in-situ
test .In-situ test on full scale coal are very difficult, expensive and cumbersome, and also results of
field and laboratory investigation are different in terms of stress-strain behavior due to inherent
discontinuities within the coal mass. Hence laboratory testing for coal specimens are not suitable
for determination of complete stress-strain behaviour. Thus, the other methods, such as numerical
methods have been evolved to analyze the pillar behavior. Numerical methods are popular and
acceptable in pillar designing. They are very flexible and can quickly analyze the numerous
geometric and geotechnical variable of material (Jaiswal & shrivastva.2008).

 Steps involved in numerical modelling

These are the following steps involved in Numerical Modelling

1. Defining element types and real constants.

2. Defining material properties
3. Creating and modelling geometry.
4. Meshing and modelling geometry
5. Applying boundary conditions or Loads and Constraint.
6. Solution.
7. Analysis of results.
Step 1: Defining element types and real constants

The ANSYS element library contains more than 100 different element types. Each element type
has a unique number and a prefix that identifies the element category.

Step 2: Defining material properties

Material properties are required for most element types. Depending on the application, material
properties may be linear or non linear, isotropic, orthotropic or anisotropic, constant temperature
or temperature dependent.As with element types and real constants, each set of material properties
has a material to be used in the analysis into appropriate field. Here we use young modulus,
poisons ratio, density.

Step 3: Creating the model geometry

Once material properties are defined, the next step in an analysis is to generate model geometry.
Geometry may be line, area or volume. After creating model we can add or glue two models,
subtract one model from the other or delete some geometry from the model.

Step 4: Meshing and model geometry

Mesh the whole model to create the finite element model-nodes and element adequately describing
the model geometry . Use ANSYS Main Menu and select
Preprocessor  Meshing  Mesh Tool  Select Model.

Step 5: Applying boundary conditions or loads and constraint

Load can be applied to the model in the form of force or pressure; it may be constant or varying in
nature. Constraint is applied to the model to restrict the model movement.The analysis type to be
used is based on the loading conditions and the response which wished to calculate . For example,
if natural frequencies and mode shapes are to be calculated, then a modal analysis ought to be
chosen . the ANSYS program offers the following analysis types: static (or steady-state), transient,
harmonic, modal, spectrum, buckling and sub structuring. Not all analysis types are valid for all
disciplines. In order to define the analysis type and analysis options .

Step 6: Solution

To initiate solution calculations, use ANSYS Man menu selecting Solution  Solve. After
reviewing the summary information about the model, click SOLVE button to start the solution.
When this command is issued, the ANSYS program takes model and loading information from the
database and calculates the results. Results are written to the results file and also to the database.
The only dissimilarity is that only one set of results can reside in the database at one time, while a
number of result sets can be written to the results file.

Step 7: Analysis of results

Once the solution has been calculated , the ANSYS postprocessors can be use to review the results.
The general post processors is used to review results at one substep (time step) over the entire
model or selected portion of the model. Using this postprocessor contour displays, deformed
shapes, and tabular listing to assess and interpret the results of the analysis can be obtained.
2.6 STUDIES UNDERTAKEN
The openings of various shapes are most common features of river valley projects particularly
hydroelectric project which involves the design and construction of underground power house
cavities, tunnels and shafts etc. The very significant part of the design is stress analysis around
these cavities, which can be dealt either by numerical methods or by experimental techniques. The
experimental stress analysis technique may be used in finding out stresses developed around the
excavation of any shape. The underground openings in rock subjected to in-situ stress may be
approximately simulated in the two dimensional homogeneous by applying certain known stresses
in horizontal and vertical directions. The induced stresses around these openings under uniaxial
and biaxial stress may be determined. A preknowledge of the stress distribution at points of high
stress concentration zone helps the engineers in safe and economical design of costly underground
structures. In present study, the opening of common interest have been considered for the analysis.
These include circular, rectangular elliptical which are generally adopted for underground
excavations in civil and mining.

2.7 EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE

When a stress free photoelastic resin plate having opening of any shape is subjected to a known
stress and seen through circularly polarised light, with the help of an analyser it exhibits
instantaneous formation of black fringes known as isochromatics which help in determination of
principal stresses around the opening represented in model plate. Assuming the model to be in a
semi-infinite plate, two dimensional models with suitable scale were made out of cold set 6mm
thick stress free Araldite plates simulating the geometry of the opening. The models were
subjected to uniform stress in vertical and horizontal directions separately by means of a loading
frame. The isochromatics observations were taken in diffused light polariscope by Tardy’s
compensation method. The boundary stress distribution around the opening under biaxial stress
field was determined by superimposition using the horizontal to vertical stress ratio (k).