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Using fiber and liquid polymer to improve the behaviour of cement-

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DOI: 10.1016/j.geotexmem.2017.05.005

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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Geotextiles and Geomembranes

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journal homepage: www.elsevier.com

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Using fiber and liquid polymer to improve the behaviour of cement-stabilized soft
clay
Mohamed Ayeldeena, ∗, Masaki Kitazumeb

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a
Structural Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt
b
Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history: This work studies the effect of using two types of polymer (fibers and liquid) to enhance the strength of ce-
Received 1 April 2017 mented soft clay. Four polymer contents were used (0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5 and 1% by dry weight of the soil) to inves-
Received in revised form 2 May 2017

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tigate the unconfined compressive strength, qun of soft clay mixed with three cement contents (5, 10 and 15%).
Accepted 30 May 2017
For wide understanding to the polymer/cemented soil behaviour several factors were considered in this study
Available online xxx
such as curing time, dry unit weight, the mixture workability and the behaviour after disturbance. This investi-
gation revealed that both fibers and liquid polymers can improve the cemented soft clay strength, however the
Keywords:
Geosynthetics
Stabilized soft clay
Unconfined compressive strength
Fibers polymer
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fiber mechanism in improving the mixture is totally different than the liquid. Increasing the fiber content shall
increase qun till a peak point at fiber content of 0.5%, where the strength started to reduce after. The mixture
workability has been improved with increasing the liquid polymer content, and reduced with increasing the
fiber content. Fibers can be used to raise up the strength of disturbed cemented soft clay up to 240% by using
fiber content of 0.5%. Both fibers and liquid polymers showed a remarkable mechanically, economically and
Liquid polymer
environmentally dominance to be used as additive to cement in improving the soft clay.
© 2017.
EC
1. Introduction function in cement ratio and curing time (Horpibulsuk et al., 2003).
In spite of the advantage of ordinary Portland cement in soil improve-
Soft soil is existing all over the world, which is recognize with ment, several shortcomings can be considered, particularly from envi-
its high water content, high compressibility and low shear strength. ronmentally point of view. CO2, NOx (nitrogen oxides) and particulate
Therefore, there is always an essential need to improve soft soils be- air suspensions are the most significant problems from using cement.
RR

haviour before construction. Many techniques are available in the lit-
erature about improving the soft soil for land reclamation, where pneu-
matic flow mixing method is one of the new promising techniques.
Pneumatic flow mixing depends on adding cement to the dredged soft
soil during transporting the soft clay/cement mixture through pipes
to the construction site (T. F. D. P. C. B. Ministry of Transport;
Kitazume and Hayano, 2007; Kitazume and Satoh, 2003, 2005). At
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Cement is considered as one of the major causes for CO2 emissions.
Almost one ton of CO2 is released with every ton of cement produc-
tion, this carbon dioxide is coming from the calcination of limestone
and the heat energy required in the cement production. For that rea-
son, cement alone is responsible for 5% of annual worldwide CO2 pro-
duction (Huntzinger and Eatmon, 2009), (Worrell et al., 2001). NOx is
another byproduct cement production along with CO2, which is pro-

the initial stage of mixing the clay with cement, the natural bonds
inside the clay matrixes is destroyed, while new bonds will be cre-
ated due to the cement effect. Many studies have been focused on
the behaviour of cemented clay with including several governing fac-
tors such as water content wc, cement ratio aw, and curing time t
(Horpibulsuk et al., 2003, 2004, 2010a, 2010b, 2013, 2014, 2011,
2012a, 2012b; Askarani and Pakbaz, 2016; Pakbaz and Alipour, 2012;
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duced in the cement kiln (2.3 kg per ton of clinker produced (Bremner,
2001)). An additional severe environmental problem that may arise
from cement production is particulate air emission in the form of ce-
ment dust. Cement dust could be released into the air through sev-
eral activities such as demolitions or earthquakes (Meo, 2004). In the
Great Hanshin Earthquake (1995; Hyogo, Japan), a total of 150 μg/
m3 of suspended particulates from cement dust was released into the

Pakbaz and Farzi, 2015; Boroumandzadeh and Pakbaz, 2012). From air (Gotoh et al., 2002). Therefore, finding new sustainable materials
the literature, it was clear that cement/clay mixture stiffness is mainly which can totally or at least partially replace cement is important chal-
depending on the combination behaviour between cement and clay. lenge nowadays.
The stiffness of cemented clay samples can be increased by improv- Polymer is one of the promising materials recently applied to soil
ing the bond between the particles which is stabilization, consists of long chain of monomers which are con-
nected to each other by sufficiently strong and flexible Van der Waals
forces. Polymers have several applications in geotechnical engineer-
∗ ing and can be used in liquid or fibers forms. The liquid polymer
Corresponding author.
stabilizer can create microstructure elements coating around the
Email addresses: ayeldeen@f-eng.tanta.edu.eg (M. Ayeldeen); kitazume.m.aa@
m.titech.ac.jp (M. Kitazume)

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geotexmem.2017.05.005
0266-1144/© 2017.
2 Geotextiles and Geomembranes xxx (2017) xxx-xxx

soil particle which eventually connects soil particle with each other
by flexible bonds (Tingle et al., 2007). Thus, the formed soil polymer
matrix can potentially resist high intensity loads. From the literature,
it was found that polymer can act as filling-inert material, which it is
preferred to be used in conjunction with any binding agents such as

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cement or lime to enhance its reaction with soil. Since polymer stabi-
lizes the soil by coating soil particles, thus for fine soil its efficiency
reduced (Tingle et al., 2007). Various studies have been investigated

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the effect of fibers polymer on the behaviour of stabilized soils, based
on the results of unconfined compressive strength tests (Kaniraj and
Havanaji, 2001; Cai et al., 2006; Khattak and Alrashidi, 2006; Tang
et al., 2007; Consoli et al., 2010, 2011a, 2012, 2013a, 2013b, 2013c;
Park, 2009; Park, 2011; Estabragh et al., 2012; Olgun, 2013; Abdi
and Mirzaeifar, 2016; Chen et al., 2015; Abdel Hadi, 2016) and ten-
sile strength tests (Khattak and Alrashidi, 2006), (Consoli et al., 2012,

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2013a, 2013b, 2013c), (Olgun, 2013), (Consoli et al., 2011b; Correia
et al., 2015; Tang et al., 2016). A few studies have been performed
based on triaxial tests (Consoli et al., 2009), (Hamidi and Hooresfand,
2013), direct shear tests (Cai et al., 2006), (Tang et al., 2007), flex-
ural tests (Sukontasukkul and Jamsawang, 2012), isotropic compres-
sion tests (Santos et al., 2010) and cyclic shear tests (Chauhan et al., Fig. 1. Photograph showing the used Kaolin clay.
2008), (Festugato et al., 2013). These studies were done with sandy
or clayey soils stabilized with low cement content (less than 10%), Table 1

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and it was found that increasing the fiber content would increase both Chemical properties of the used Portland cement.
compressive and tensile strength of the cemented soil, reduce the soil
stiffness and change the behaviour of the cemented soil from brittle to Composition (%) Portland cement
more ductile.

workability of the mixture and the behaviour after disturbance. Liq-

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The main objective of this study is to evaluate the efficiency of us-
ing polymer to improve the behaviour of cemented soft clay, study the

uid and fibers polymers were mixed in different concentrations (0, 0.1,
CaO
Al2O3
SiO2
Na2O
Fe2O3
65
5
20
0.5
1.7
MgO 4
0.2, 0.5 and 1%) with cemented soft clay, where the cement content K2O 0.8
was varying from 5 to 15%. Unconfined compressive test was per- SO3 3
EC
formed after different curing periods. A developed method was cre- Gs 3.15
ated to investigate the workability of the polymer cemented soil by
changing the tapping energy and measuring the corresponding unit Table 2
weight. More investigations were done to study the effect of polymer Chemical and physical properties of the Kaolin clay.
on the disturbed cemented samples.
Composition (%) Portland cement
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2. Materials and test procedure CaO 0.02

Al2O3 38.8
2.1. Material properties and specimen preparation SiO2 45.2
Na2O 0.3
Fe2O3 0.9
In order to have a clear understanding of the effect of polymer on MgO 0.03
the mechanical properties of cement-stabilized soft Kaolin clay and K2O 0.2
ordinary Portland cement were used in this study as clear in Fig. 1. The TiO2 1.7
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main chemical and physical properties of the used cement and clay are LL 77.5
PL 30.3
listed in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. Kaolin clay was mixed with tap PI 47.2
water for 1 h in a mechanical mixer at water content of 120% as shown emin 36.2
in Fig. 2. The cement was added after to the slurry at cement content emax 64.4
varying from 5 to 15%, and both clay slurry and cement were mixed Gs 2.63
for 10 min. Cement content, aw can be defined as the ratio between the
weight of cement and the weight of clay in dry case. The cement/clay
environmentally accepted. The polymer was delivered in a dissolv-
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mixture was then split in two parts, one part was mixed immediately
with polymer fibers and the other was mixed with the liquid polymer
for 10 min mixing time for each case.
The used polypropylene fibers have length and diameter of 12 mm
and 30 μm, respectively, specific surface of 140 m2/kg, unit weight
of 8.95 kN/m3, tensile strength of 270 N/mm2 and Young's modulus
of 3700 N/mm2 as shown in Fig. 3. The liquid polymer used in this
study is a polypropylene homopolymer, commercially available and
ing liquid state and the general properties were: Amorphous density at
25 °C: 875 kg/m3 and crystalline density at 25 °C: 910 kg/m3.
The cement/clay mixture was used immediately after mixing with
polymer for 5 min in the mixer and molded by tapping in a plastic
mold, 50 mm diameter and 100 mm height at three layers (Society,
2009). Each layer was tapped 100 times to grantee the homogeneity of
the specimens. The specimens were kept in humidity curing chamber
and were tested after 7, 14, 28 and 35 days from mixing the paste at a
constant temperature (25 ± 2 °C).
 Geotextiles and Geomembranes xxx (2017) xxx-xxx 3

2.2. Test procedure

Unconfined compressive strength was obtained using a strain rate

of approximately 1%/min according to ASTM D2166-06 (ASTM,
2003). The load and deformation values were recorded as needed for

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obtaining load-deformation curve. Machined load cell attached to a
readout unit with an accuracy of 0.03% strain was used to record the
load. A linear digital displacement transducers provide a digital out-

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put related to the displacement with a repeatability of 0.002 mm had
also been used to measure the deformation. The test should be con-
tinuo until failure surfaces have clearly developed or until an axial
strain of 20% is reached. Corrections to the cross-sectional area were
made prior to calculating the compressive stress on the specimen ren-
dering to the standard. All tests were accomplished three times at least
for each case. Modulus of deformation, E50 was also calculated as

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E50 = strain at 50% stress level of the unconfined compressive strength
value (the peak value). Curing time was a fundamental parameter for
understanding the behaviour of polymer cemented-soft clay; therefore
experimental schedule was arranged to perform the tests at different
time periods (7, 14, 28, and 35 days) from mixing the clay with the
cement.

Fig. 2. Photograph showing the cement/clay mixing process. 3. Results and discussion

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3.1. Effect of polymer on the dry unit weight

The plot of fiber/liquid content against dry unit weight for the
TE three-used cement contents is shown in Fig. 4. A continuous reduc-
tion in the dry unit weight is observed with increasing the fiber/liquid
content, however the effect of fibers in reducing the dry unit weight
is higher than liquid effect. At cement content of 5%, the dry unit
weight reduced from 0.75 to 0.56 and 0.63 kN/m3 for fibers and liq-
uid, respectively by increasing the fiber/liquid content from 0 to 1%.
EC
The reduction in dry unit weight can be attributed to replacing the
clay particles with polymer particles which have lighter specific grav-
ity comparing to the clay (Correia et al., 2015), (Mirzababaei et al.,
2013). Meanwhile, the noticeable higher effect of fiber in reducing
the dry unit weight than liquid can be explained due to the physical
properties of the fiber/paste mixing, where during mixing the fibers
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with the soil tiny air gaps trapped close to fiber surface. Increasing
the fiber content shall increase these air gaps and increase the reduc-
tion in unit weight as well. From Fig. 4 it can be seen also that, in
Fig. 3. Photograph showing the used polypropylene fibers.
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Fig. 4. Variation in dry unit weight with cement content after 28 days of cemented soft clay mixed with: (a) polymer fibers; (b) polymer liquid.
4 Geotextiles and Geomembranes xxx (2017) xxx-xxx
creasing the cement content increases the dry unit weight due to a pro-
duction of a greater amount of cementitious products.
3.2. Effect of polymer on the stress strain behaviour
Fig. 5 shows the difference in behaviour between cemented soft
clay mixed with polymer fibers and liquid for cement ratio, aw of 10%
tested after curing period, t of 28 days. It can be seen from Fig. 5 (a)
the effect of mixing the cemented soft clay with several percentages
of fibers (0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5 and 1). It is clearly observed that the un-
confined compressive strength described by the peak axial stress has
been increased with increasing the fiber content, Fc with an increasing
in the ductile behaviour followed by sudden strength reduction next
to the observed peak. The peak axial stress increased from 155 kPa at
fiber content, Fc of 0%–650 kPa at Fc of 0.5%, with increasing the
axial strain at the peak stress from 0.74% to 1.10%. Furthermore, this
behaviour started to change with increasing the fiber content (more
than 0.5%), where the peak axial stress reduced again to the value of
310 kPa at Fc of 1.0%. Fig. 5(b) presents the increasing in the peak
axial stress after mixing the cemented soft clay with polymer liquid,
where the peak axial stress increased to 600 and 650 kPa at liquid con-
tent, Lc of 0.5 and 1.0%, respectively.
The same behaviour of both polymer fibers and liquid can be still
notice with different cement ratios as shown in Fig. 6. The uncon
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EC
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Fig. 5. Stress strain curve for cemented soft clay (aw = 10%, 28 curing days) mixed with: (a) polymer fibers; (b) polymer liquid.
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Fig. 6. Variation in unconfined compressive strength with cement content after 28 days of cemented soft clay mixed with: (a) polymer fibers; (b) polymer liquid.
fined compressive strength, qun increased with increasing the fiber
content until reaching its peak content of 0.5%, where qun started to
reduce after that content for the three cement contents as shown in Fig.
6(a). Meanwhile, for liquid mixed soil, qun has been increased with
increasing liquid content without peak point for all cement contents
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tested as shown in Fig. 6(b).
Despite the notice improvement in both fiber and liquid improved
soil, the reason and the mechanism behind that improvement are
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totally different for both polymer fibers and liquid. For fiber-rein-
forced soil, the random distribution of fibers forms a three-dimen-
sional network, which can link the soil particles together to build a
coherent unit and restrict the particles movement. Shearing force is
creating a long the fiber surface due to friction, interlocking force
and bond strength as shown in Fig. 7. This force will prevent the
fiber from being slide out from the soil, which will increase the
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formed soil/fiber mixture tensile capacity (Tang et al., 2007), (Correia
et al., 2015). When the fiber reinforced soil is loaded, the fibers
can hinder the developed tension cracks and reduce the deformation,
which can also explain the ductile behaviour of fiber reinforced soil.
Many researchers clarified that the efficiency of fiber reinforced soil
is depending on two main factors, fiber properties (material, surface
roughness, length and content), and the surface shearing force which
is depending on the soil cohesion and the particle size distribution
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(Tang et al., 2007), (Shah, 1991; Tagnit-Hamou et al., 2005; Frost
 Geotextiles and Geomembranes xxx (2017) xxx-xxx
Fig. 7. Sketch of interaction mechanism between fiber and soil (Tang et al., 2007).
and Han, 1999). This can explain both the noticed increasing in qun
and the noticed ductile behaviour with increasing the fiber content
in Fig. 5(a). Consequently, the fiber efficiency of cemented soil with
high aw is much higher than cemented soil with low aw. This can ex-
plain the observed behaviour in Fig. 6(a), where increasing the cement
content shall increase the mobilized cohesion between fibers and the
soil matrix, improving the fibers efficiency and raising up the mix-
ture strength. However, at higher amount of fibers, it will be diffi-
cult to have a uniform distribution for the fibers inside the soil, which
will reduce bonding force between fibers and soil. This will lead to
an obvious decrease in the fiber efficiency, decline in the mixture unit
weight and sequently reduction in qun (Correia et al., 2015), (Jiang et
al., 2010), (Oliveira et al., 2017).
The mechanism of cemented soft clay mixed with polymer liq-
uid is a combination between two chemical interactions; the interac-
tion between polymer and cement and the interaction between poly-
mer and clay particles (Sakai and Sugita, 1995). For the interaction
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between polymer and cement, polymer particles formed microstruc-
tures at the cement particles surface. An interfacial layer was built
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from polymer/hydrate cement particles inside the soil matrix, which
will improve cohesion of the interfacial surface formed around the ce-
ment particle and aggregate, the strength and crack resistance of the
mixture are increased as shown in Fig. 8. Moreover, the polymer has
the ability to disperse the cement particles, with beneficial effects on
the cement/soil strength. The good dispersion of the cement particles
will thus lead to a better filling of free spaces between soil particles,
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building a solid matrix even more resistant (Sakai and Sugita, 1995),
(Figueiredo et al., 2015). However, for the interaction between poly-
mer and clay particles, polymer particles spread inside the clay ma-
trix as bonding particles, change the clay microstructure and produce
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Fig. 8. Model of composite mechanism of polymer/cemented mortar (Sakai and Sugita, 1995).
5
nanocomposites which were chemically explained by organic onium
(a cation formally obtained by the protonation of mononuclear parent)
and ion change process (Ahmad et al., 2009). The existence of such
nanocomposites can significantly increase the clay stiffness and re-
duce the compression index as shown in Fig. 9 (Azzam, 2014). The in-
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duced nanocomposites have also great effect on reducing the inter-as-
sembling pores and increasing the vertical effective yield stress and
decreasing the compressibility characteristics of the stabilized samples
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(Azzam, 2014).
Fig. 10 shows the variation in modulus of deformation, E50 for dif-
ferent cement ratios after 28 days curing period. It can be noticed that,
the effect of fibers/liquid polymer on the modulus of elasticity is fol-
lowing the same trend as qun. Increasing the fiber content shall in-
crease E50 till a peak point at FC of 0.5% as seen in Fig. 10(a), while
the polymer content peak point is not existing in case of liquid poly-
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mer as cleared in Fig. 10 (b).
To figure out the percentage of the increment in qun due to polymer
content regardless the cement content, the terms qun,(fiber/liquid)/qun,pure
and E50,(fiber/liquid)/E50,pure have been introduced, where qun,(fiber/liquid)
and qun,pure are unconfined compressive strength at the same cement
content and curing time for cemented soft clay mixed with and with-
out fiber/liquid, respectively, which are exactly the same meaning of
E50,(fiber/liquid) and E50,pure. It can be seen from Fig. 11(a) that adding Fc
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of 0.2% increases qun by 300% at cement ratio of 15%, while increas-
ing Fc to 0.5% will just increase qun by 380%. This can be interpreted
due to the reduction in unit weight with increasing the fiber content as
well as the increasing in the micro-voids inside the mixture matrix as
mentioned previously with increasing the fiber content. However, at
the same fiber content, the efficiency of fiber improved with increas-
ing the cement content. At Fc of 0.5%, qun improved by 300, 360 and
380% at aw of 5, 10 and 15%, which can be attributed to increasing
the bonding force around the fiber surface with increasing the cement
content. This trend was changed in case of liquid polymer, where at
the same fiber content, the higher cement content leads to lower ef-
ficiency in qun improvement. From Fig. 11(b), at Lc of 0.5%, qun im-
proved by 400, 350 and 300% at aw of 5, 10 and 15%, which means
that increasing the cement content can reduce the liquid polymer ef-
ficiency, where the polymer ability to disperse the cement particles
can be more effective in case of low cement content (Figueiredo et al.,
2015).
According to previous studies (T. F. D. P. C. B. Ministry of
Transport) (Lorenzo and Bergado, 2006), for unreinforced cemented
Japanese clays and Bangkok clay, it was found that E50 can be taken
6 Geotextiles and Geomembranes xxx (2017) xxx-xxx

3.3. Effect of curing time on the polymer cemented soil strength

For cemented soil, it is well known that increasing the curing

time shall reflect to a direct increasing in the soil strength, hence
the chemical reaction of cement is a time function. However, to un-

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derstand the effect of curing time on both fibers and liquid polymer
mixed cemented soft clay due to the polymer interaction, the terms
qun,(fiber/liquid)/qun,pure and E50,(fiber/liquid)/E50,pure have been used again.

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Using fibers in Fc of 0.1 and 0.5% improved qun by 120 and 280%
respectively after 7 days curing time, while these percentages in-
creased with time to be almost consistent at 160 and 340% after 14
days curing time as shown in Fig. 13(a). Meanwhile, qun improved
by percentage of 260 and 380% with using liquid polymer with Lc
of 0.1 and 0.5% respectively after 7 days curing time as shown in
Fig. 13(a). Unlike fibers behaviour, increasing the curing time re-

Fig. 9. Sketch of clay/polymer interaction and produced nanocomposites (Azzam,
2014).
as approximate value of 50–300 × qun. For fiber-mixed cemented soil,
E50 can be considered approximately about 95 of the corresponding
qun, while it can be taken about 145 of the corresponding qun for liq-
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duced the liquid efficiency to improve qun. The improvement of qun
reduced from 260 and 380% to be almost constant at 200 and 300%
after 14 days for Lc of 0.1 and 0.5% respectively. For polymer con-
tent of 0.5%, although liquid polymer showed higher improvement at
the early curing time over fibers, with time the fibers showed better
performance than liquid polymer, however the percentage of improve-
ment is still closed to each other. The same trend can be observed
for E50, where the improvement in E50 increased with curing time for

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uid-mixed cemented soil, as shown in Fig. 12(a) and (b), respectively. fibers mixed soil from 120 and 200% to 140 and 240% for Fc of 0.1

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Fig. 10. Variation in modulus of deformation with cement content after 28 days of cemented soft clay mixed with: (a) polymer fibers; (b) polymer liquid.
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Fig. 11. Variation of qun,(fiber/liquid)/qun,pure of cemented soft clay mixed at 28 curing days with: (a) polymer fibers; (b) polymer liquid.
 Geotextiles and Geomembranes xxx (2017) xxx-xxx
Fig. 12. Modulus of deformation versus unconfined compressive strength of cemented soft clay mixed with: (a) polymer fibers; (b) polymer liquid.
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Fig. 13. Effect of curing time on the soil strength for both liquid and fibers where:(a) effect of time on qun; (b) effect of time on E50.
and 0.5% respectively, while it reduced with time for liquid mixed soil
from 220 and 360% to 180 and 300 for Lc of 0.1 and 0.5% respec-
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tively, Fig. 13(b). Increasing the improvement for fiber mixed soil can
be interpreted due to increasing the cement strength with time which
shall enhance the friction force over fibers surface with the surround-
ing media, and raising up the fibers efficiency. Furthermore, the hard-
ening rate for liquid polymer is much faster than Portland cement,
where polymer can gain its final strength in hours according to the
polymer types and concentration, while cement hardening last days/
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months (Rafalko et al., 2008), (Rafalko, 2006). Therefore, at early age
of 7 days the rapid hardening of liquid polymer shall raise the effi-
ciency of the improvement in soil strength, nevertheless with increas-
ing the curing time, cement stiffness becomes higher with the stability
in polymer stiffness, which leading to an apparent reduction in liquid
polymer efficiency.
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3.4. Effect of polymer on the mixture workability
Despite the noticed improvement in soft clay strength after using
either liquid or fibers polymer, the workability of the produced mix-
ture is an important factor in cement stabilized soils. As pneumatic
flow mixing is a self-mixing technique, it is essential to study the ef-
fect of adding fiber or liquid polymer on the produced mixture work-
ability. Workability is representing the required energy to place the
mixture in its final place to reach a certain voids ratio and targeted
unit weight-higher mixture workability means less compaction en
7
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ergy needed, less voids ratio and higher unit weight. The worka-
bility of cemented clay/polymer mixture can be studied by compar-
ing the executed compaction energy (number of taps during mold-
ing the samples) with the obtained unit weight after 28 days. Three
sets of the samples were prepared using three different tapping en-
ergies (compaction energies). All the samples were tapped in three
layers inside the plastic molds, while the number of tapping of each
layer is different from set to other. The first set was tapped 100 times/
layer, which represent the case of fully tapped samples. The second
and third sets were tapped 20 and 50 times/layer, respectively. This
technique has been used with all fiber and liquid polymer contents,
and the dry unit weight has been calculated for all samples, three
times for each case and the average value was considered and plot-
ted against fiber/liquid content in Fig. 14 γ20, γ50 and γ100 are the dry
unit weight for samples prepared by tapping 20, 50 and 100 times/
layer. For fiber reinforced cemented soft clay, increasing the fiber con-
tent was followed by a reduction in the dry unit weight. After increas-
ing the Fc from 0% to 1%, the dry unit weight was reduced from
84.7% to 74% and from 92.6% to 86% from its fully tapped value as
the same fiber/liquid content when the samples were tapped 20 and
50 times/layer, respectively. This behaviour shall demonstrate the re-
duction in the mixture workability with increasing the fiber content,
which can explain due to the fiber surface roughness. The fiber sur-
face is rough enough to improve the interlock between the fibers and
the mortal, therefore increasing the roughness inside the matrix will
8 Geotextiles and Geomembranes xxx (2017) xxx-xxx
Fig. 14. Variation between tapped dry unit weight/fully tapped dry unit weight verses
Fiber/Liquid content, for cement content of 10% and curing time of 28 days.
reduce the soil workability. For liquid polymer, the percentage of
γ20/γ100 was increased from 84.7% to 94.5% by raising the liquid con-
tent to 1%, where γ50/γ100 was increased as well from 92.6% to 96.2%
by increasing Lc to 1%. This can reflect the improving in the worka-
bility by increasing the liquid content, which can be attributed to the
high viscosity of the polymer that lubricate the mixture, smooth the
particles sliding and improve the workability.
3.5. Effect of polymer on the disturbance behaviour
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For some construction aspects, sometimes the cemented soft clay
has to be kept in some other places away from the original construc-
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tion site, then it shall be disturbed, transported and compacted in
the required place (Ayeldeen et al., 2016). This essential disturbance
process will strongly affect the cemented soft clay strength, where it
reduces the unconfined compressive strength of the cemented soil to
10% from its value before disturbance (Ayeldeen et al., 2016). There-
fore, it was important to go further in the research to figure out the
effect of polymer on disturbed soft clay strength.
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To prepare the disturbed samples, polymer improved cemented
soft clay which have aw of 10% was mixed and kept airtight in plas-
tic bag for 7 days before it fully disturbed for 5 min in the mechan-
ical mixer. Specimens were molded in the same plastic molds as in
the non-disturbed case at three layers, and the tapping was 100 times/
layer. The samples were tested later after 28, 35 and 42 days from the
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Fig. 15. Unconfined compressive strength versus time for disturbed cemented soft clay with cement ratio of 10% mixed with: (a) polymer fibers; (b) polymer liquid.
initial mixing date. Fig. 15(a) presents the variation in qun with time
for disturbed soil reinforced with fibers, where it is clear that increas-
ing the fiber content reflects with increasing qun. The unconfined com-
pressive strength has been increased from 27 kPa at Fc of 0%–50 and
65 kPa at Fc of 0.2 and 0.5% respectively after 42 curing days. How-
F
ever, for samples mixed with liquid polymer as in Fig. 15(b), in-
creasing Lc will reflect to decreasing in the unconfined compressive
strength. Raising the liquid content up from 0% to 0.5% reduces qun
OO
from 27 to 20 kPa after 42 curing days. Increasing the fiber reinforced
soil strength after disturbance with increasing the fiber content can
be interpreted as the fibers can still have its function even after dis-
turbing the soil. The attached tiny cement particles on the fiber sur-
face can increase the friction between the fibers and the mixture af-
ter disturbance, furthermore the fibers still have the ability to form a
net inside the soil matrix, connect the soil particles, reduce the strain
PR
and increase the strength even after disturbance. However, for the ce-
mented soil mixed with liquid polymer, the polymer chemical reac-
tion appears to be stopped during the 7 days before disturbance, which
formed non-reacted particles, spread inside the soil, impedes the ac-
tive cement particles from connecting the sample together and reduce
the overall stiffness. Moreover, increasing the liquid content leads to
increasing the amount of non-reacted polymer particles and increase
the reduction in unconfined compressive strength.
D
3.6. Feasibility study of using polymer
Although polymer has proven its remarkable effect on improving
the strength of cemented soft clay as fibers or liquid, both economic
and environmental aspects have to be discussed carefully to complete
the study. From Table 3 it can be seen that, using cement content of
10% with Fc or Lc of 0.1% can have almost the same qun and E50 of
using cement content of 15% without polymer content. However, the
direct economic saving from replacing 5% cement with 0.1% poly-
mer is not sufficient enough, many others aspects have to be con-
sidered beside the direct economic calculations. Replacing 5% of ce-
ment from total amount of 15% means reducing the cement trans-
portation cost by about 30%. In case of using liquid polymer, re-
ducing the cement content with using liquid polymer shall increase
the mixture workability, which means less needed energy for mix-
ing the materials together. Although the behaviour of disturbed fiber
cemented soil needs more investigations, the primary results indicate
that using fibers can increase the disturbed soil strength and can re-
duce the needed cement ratio, and reducing the cost. Other aspect has
to consider as well that; further researches are still going about re-
ducing the production cost of polymer by using recycled polymers or
 Geotextiles and Geomembranes xxx (2017) xxx-xxx
Table 3
qun and E50 for soil mixed with and without polymer.
Polymer Cement Curing time, qun,
Soil case content, % content, % days kPa
Without 0 15 28 336
polymer
With fibers 0.1 10 28 320
polymer
With liquid 0.1 10 28 370
polymer
sustainable resources especially from waste materials and agricul-
ture byproducts (Mirzababaei et al., 2013), (Soroudi and Jakubowicz,
2013; Fatahi et al., 2012; Ali et al., 2002; Isaacs and Gupta, 1997;
Hopewell et al., 2009; Burilloet al, 2002), which will reduce the di-
rect economic savings. From environmental point of view, using poly-
mer to reduce the needed cement is a green effective tool consider-
ing the huge amount of carbon dioxide that released from cement pro-
duction comparing with polymer production (Worrell et al., 2001),
(Darensbourg, 2007). The amount of emissions that can be saved by
reducing the cement transportation after reducing the needed cement
quantity also can consider as a prove of polymer advantage environ-
mentally. Meanwhile, considering the requirements of the United Na-
tions Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Ky-
oto Protocol (1997) and the EU nations carbon tax on high carbon
emitting industries, the indirect environmental effect (CO2 emission
in kg) can be costly estimated by recent rate for CO2 emission trade
is $22/ton CO2 (Grubb and Neuhoff, 2006), (Chang and Cho, 2012).
Therefore, the economic advantage for polymer can be expressed by
calculating the total economical price (direct material cost + indirect
CO2 emission expense) for replacing 5% cement with 0.1% polymer.
However further research has to be directed to study the life cycle as-
sessment of emerging polymer in cemented soil industry.
4. Conclusions
This study has proved the ability of polymer in either cases fibers
or liquid to be used in improving the behaviour of cemented soft clay.
Two types of polymer have been used in four contents (0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5
RR
and 1%) and mixed with cemented soft clay in three cement ratios.
From the experimental work, the following conclusions can be drawn:
- Increasing the polymer content shall increase the corresponding un-
confined compressive strength up to 430 and 380% with increasing
polymer content to 0.5% for fibers and liquid, respectively. How-
ever, for fiber content higher than 0.5%, a reduction in qun was ob-
CO
served.
- For fiber treated soil, the higher cement content leads to higher poly-
mer efficiency, where with increasing the matrix stiffness, the bond
between the fibers and the mixture increases as well.
- The mixture dry unit weight reduces with increasing the polymer
content, however the reduction is higher in case of fibers than liquid.
This can be explained due to the mechanical properties of the fibers
UN
which shall impedes the mixing and increase the air gaps inside the
matrix.
- The efficiency of fibers raises up with increasing the curing time,
unlike liquid polymer, the highest efficiency of samples mixed with
liquid polymer was observed at early curing time. For both fibers
and liquid, the efficiency becomes constant after 14 curing days.
- Liquid polymer increases the fresh mixture workability, unlike
fibers which decrease the workability.
9
- For disturbed cemented soft clay, using fibers can improve the soil
strength, where using fiber content of 0.5% can improve qun up to
E50, 240%.
kPa - Both fibers and liquid have proved wide success in improving ce-
mented soft clay behaviour, however some aspects have to be con-
F
45000
sidered. The hardening time for liquid polymer is much less the ce-
47500 ment, therefore the time required from mixing the liquid till placing
the mixture in the construction site has to considered. The using of
OO
64100 polymer fibers with cemented soil is much easier then liquid, how-
ever the mixture workability has to be considered.
- The authors suggest fiber content up to 0.2% to ensure both the tar-
get strength and the workability, and liquid content up to 0.5%.
- Polymer has proven a mechanically, economically and environmen-
tally dominance. Moreover, the future research in the production of
sustainable cost effectively polymer and in using polymer in geot-
PR
echnical engineering will be promising.
Acknowledgements
The first author wishes to express his gratitude to Tokyo Insti-
tute of Technology for providing the needed materials and apparatuses
where this work would not have been possible without that valuable
support.
D
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