CHAPTER 6

CONSTtiUCTlON - FABRICATION
OF FERROCEMENT

Summary: The four most commonly encountered methods of ferrocement construction are
described and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed. Some special
manufacturing techniques are also presented. Noteworthy suggestions about good
construction practice are provided. A brief section addresses the composition, quality, and
workability of the mortar matrix followed by a description of protective surface treatments after
hardening. Currently known daring ferrocement structures using forward ideas and extending
the concept of ferrocement are briefly reviewed.

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The materials used in ferrocement production and their selection have already
been discussed in Chapters 1 and 2. This chapter discusses construction details
that directly affect planning, mixing, placing, handling, and the quality of the
finished ferrocement product. Much of the information found in Section 6.3 of this
chapter is taken from the ACI Guide for the Design, Construction, and Repair of
Ferrocement, which was developed by ACI Committee 549 while the author was
Chair of the committee.

The ranges of mix proportions recommended for common ferrocement

applications are (Table 1.1): sand-cement ratio by weight 1.5 to 2.5, water-cement
ratio by weight 0.35 to 0.6. Typical mix proportions and corresponding compressive
strengths are given in Table 1.2. The higher the sand content, the higher the
required water content to maintain equal workability. Fineness modulus of the
sand, water-cement ratio, and sand-cement ratio should be carefully balanced to
maintain the quality of the matrix. The addition of fly ash, such as about 20 percent
replacement of cement, is beneficial in improving the consistency of the fresh mix
and reducing porosity. The fineness of the sand particles in the mortar should be
evaluated in terms of the ferrocement reinforcing cage to be encapsulated.
Clearly, a large number of mesh layers of small openings in the section is much
harder to fully penetrate and encapsulate than a section with only two layers of
mesh. Shrinkage is not a problem in ferrocement because of the high
reinforcement content and because the large surface area of the aggregates
demands high cement factors. Instead, in mortars for ferrocement it is most
important to maintain plasticity as a mix design criterion. The moisture content of
the aggregate should be considered in the calculation of the required water.
Quantities of material should preferably be determined by weight.

The mix should be as stiff as possible (except when closed molds are used),
provided it does not prevent full penetration of the mesh. Normally the slump of
fresh mortar should not exceed 50 mm (2 in.). For most applications with normal
weight concrete and steel meshes, the 28-day compression strength of 75 x 150 m-n
181
182 Naaman- FERROCEMENT AND LAMINATED CEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITES

(3 by 6 in.) moist cured cylinders should be not less than 35 MPa (5000 psi).

The reinforcement should be clean and free from deleterious materials such as
dust, loose rust, coating of paint, oil or similar substances.

Wire mesh with closely spaced wires is the most commonly used reinforcement
in ferrocement. Expanded metal, welded wire fabric, reinforcing wires or rods,
prestressing tendons, and discontinuous fibers are also used in special
applications or for reasons of performance or economy. Figure 6.1 shows typical
sections of ferrocement with different configurations such as with a number of
layers of mesh only, with a combination of mesh and skeletal steel, and with a
combination of mesh and discontinuous fibers. The type of section to be built will
influence to a certain extent the selection of the construction method and the
composition of the mortar mix.

\
\ No Skeletal Steel \ Skeletal Steel in One Direction ’

-I
Skeletal Steel in Two Directions

Combination of Mesh and Discontinuous Fibers

Figure 6.1 Typical cross sections of ferrocement (see also hybrid composites in
Chapter 10).

6.2 MORTAR PLACEMENT

Mortar is generally placed by hand plastering. In this process, the mortar is forced
through the mesh. Alternatively the mortar may be shot through a spray gun device
(shot-creting). A proprietary technique, called the lay-up technique (or laminating
 Chapter 6 -CONSTRUCTION - FABRICATION OF FERROCEMENT 183

process) was developed by Martin lorns of California. It involves placing the mesh
in the mortar rather than the mortar in the mesh. In this technique, successive
layers of mesh are placed in layers of freshly sprayed, or manually placed, mortar.
To assure that mesh layers do not pop out, a thin mortar cover layer is placed first
and allowed to set, but not dry completely, prior to application of a second mortar
layer and the first mesh layer. This first mortar layer is generally about 3 mm (l/8
in.) thick. The process can use any type of mesh; however, lorns recommends
expanded metal plaster lath weighing 3.4 pounds per square yard as the most cost
effective. A major advantage of the lay-up technique is that each layer of mesh is
placed under full visual control; any gap in the mortar is immediately apparent and
instantly corrected. This technique was shown to provide excellent mesh
encapsulation.

From a modern perspective, it is possible to assume that industrialized

techniques of production, such as utilized for extruded or pultruded sheets, are
applicable to ferrocement. In the case of extrusion, for instance, the mortar matrix
will be very stiff (zero slump), but high vibration and compaction in the production
process would take care of full penetration.

6.3 CONSTRUCTION METHODS

There are several means of producing ferrocement. All methods (except the lay-up
method described in Section 6.2) require high level quality control criteria to
achieve the complete encapsulation of several layers of reinforcing mesh with a
well compacted mortar or concrete matrix with a minimum of entrapped air. Indeed,
air voids trapped within the ferrocement during the plastering process can be
sources of leaks, especially serious in water retaining or water-tight structures.

Four methods of fabrication are described next: 1) the skeletal armature

method, 2) the closed mold method, 3) the integral mold method, and 4) the open
mold method. These methods have been successfully used in the construction of
ferrocement structures, the vast majority in marine applications, that is, boats,
barges, bulkheads, piers, and docks. In these four generic ferrocement molding
methods, mortar may be applied by a variety of techniques, including direct
plastering and wet shotcreting. Variations of these basic methods may be
engineered to incorporate factory production techniques, such as flat-bed vibro-
casting and vacuum extraction. Extrusion and pultrusion of simple linear shapes,
or the use of a closed mold system where the matrix is poured as in conventional
reinforced concrete, are other possible alternatives which require a higher initial
investment in set-up and equipment.

In most ferrocement fabrication, the mesh layers should be staggered, or the

ends lap-spliced at least four mesh openings to insure continuity of the
reinforcement. For design, alternating the direction of the principal axis of
successive mesh layers by 900 to achieve continuity and isotropy may be
desirable, especially in shell type structures subjected to biaxial loading.

Each of the generic fabrication methods listed above is discussed separately.

In all, besides construction requirements, structural design controls the number of
layers of wire mesh and skeletal reinforcement used.
184 Naaman- FERROCEMENT AND LAMINATED CEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITES

6.3.1 Skeletal Armature Method

The armature method is a framework of tied reinforcing bars (skeletal steel), wires
or strands, to which layers of reinforcing mesh are attached on each side (Fig. 6.2).
Mortar is then applied, preferably from one side, and forced through the mesh
layers until a slight excess appears on the other side. This excess is then pressed
back through the armature and struck off.

(W)
,
/. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ..... ... .. .. ............ ........... .. .. .. ... .. .. .. ..

. ................................................. ............................................

Construction Notes:
1. Skeletal steel must be tied together at intersections unless a
welded fabric is used.
2. Layers of mesh must be tied to skeletal steel and/or together.
3. Force plaster, preferably from one side, to fully encapsualte armature;
4. Finishing preferably from both sides.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. No forms. 1. Time consuming.
2. Good penetration. 2. Skeletal steel not as performant
3. Easy to patch up all areas as mesh.
from both sides. 3. Possible galvanic corrosion
between galvanized mesh and
non-galvanized skeletal steel.

Figure 6.2 Skeletal armature method of ferrocement construction.

The skeletal steel framework can assume any shape. The diameter of the steel
bars depends on the size of the structure. It is generally recommended that the
skeletal reinforcement, if used, not occupy more than 50 percent of the depth of the
section. Skeletal steel is cut to specified lengths and bent to proper profiles; it is
tied in proper sequence to represent as precisely as possible the shape of the
structure. If too few bars or rods are used and are not tied at a sufficient number of
intersections, bulging may later occur due to plastering pressures or simply the
weight of the mortar. The weight of the framework and wet mortar can cause
sufficient local and general distortion from the desired geometry to warrant some
shoring. Bulging may result in thick, unreinforced mesh sections which may later
crack and spall, especially in applications involving temperature or moisture
variations, fatigue, impact or dynamic loading.
 Chapter 6 - CONSTRUCTION - FABRICATION OF FERROCEMENT 185

Sufficient splice lengths should be provided to ensure continuity of steel. For

bar sizes commonly used in ferrocement (less than about 6 mm (0.25 in.) in
diameter), lap lengths from 230 to 300 mm (9 to 12 in.) seem to be sufficient. Local
codes for reinforced concrete could also be used to insure proper lap lengths.

The main advantages of the skeletal armature method are: 1) no form material
is required other than that needed to support the armature; 2) encapsulation is
generally good if mortar is pushed through the mesh; and 3) repairs may proceed
from both sides, and areas requiring touch-up are visible.

Disadvantages include: 1) time-consuming tying and bracing are required to

stabilize skeletal steel and mesh layers in view of the pressures of plastering and
the weight of mortar; 2) application of mortar from one side may be difficult for thick
or dense mesh systems, resulting in internal air voids; 3) galvanic corrosion
between galvanized mesh and skeletal steel may develop; 4) the embedment of
skeletal reinforcement near the center of the section leads to a reduced
performance in bending; and 5) two or more layers of mesh may be required on
each side of the skeletal steel framework.

If strength to weight ratio is an issue, the performance of the structure may

suffer from replacing the mesh by skeletal reinforcement. This is due to the double
thickness of relatively large diameter (compared to mesh wires) skeletal bars that
must form a grid and be tied together. However, the opening between the main
bars of the skeletal reinforcement may be filled by a lightweight core (polystyrene
or similar material) allowing the section to act as a sandwich panel. In such cases,
care should be taken to insure proper shear transfer between the two skin layers of
the panel (see also integral mold method).

Figure 6.3 illustrates the application of the skeletal armature mold method of
construction in building a ferrocement hyperbolic paraboloid shell.

6.3.2 Closed Mold Method

In this method, several layers of mesh or mesh and rod combinations are stapled or
held in position against the surface of a closed mold; that is, a male mold or a
female mold (Fig. 6.4). The mortar is then applied from one side. The mold may
either remain as a permanent part of the finished ferrocement structure, or be
removed for future use. However, if the mold is to be removed, pre-treatment with
release agents may be necessary prior to laying the reinforcing mesh.

The selection of a closed mold tends to eliminate the use of skeletal rods or
bars, thus permitting an essentially all-mesh reinforcement; it requires that
plastering be done from one side.

The closed mold method has several advantages, namely: 1) it is ideal for
factory production, since it permits reusable molds; and 2) the molds reinforce the
structure sufficiently to allow moving it or reorienting it for curing. The closed mold
method is especially well suited to the lay-up technique of mortar application that
was developed by Martin lorns of California and used extensively with expanded
metal mesh for marine applications in the US [Refs. 6.11 to 6.14 in Appendix C]. In
the lay-up technique, a thin layer of mortar is first placed in the mold and allowed to
settle; then a layer of mesh is pushed in the mortar and fully encapsulated; a
Figure 6.3 Hyperbolic paraboloid ferrocement shell built by the skeletal armature
mold method of construction.

A ferrocement hyperbolic paraboloid shell was started in 1976 by the student chapter of the American
Society of Civil Engineers at the University of Illinois in Chicago to commemorate the bicentennial
anniversary of the United States. The author served as the ASCE Student Chapter Faculty Advisor.
The structure was meant to serve as a site for information on campus activities. It was completed in
1977. It is made of four connected hyperbolic paraboloid shells covering an area of about 40 square
meters and rising 7 meters above ground. ‘The construction procedure followed was the armature
method of construction. A skeleton of the structure was formed using square steel tubes; steel
strands, l/8 inch in diameter (3 mm), were attached between the sides of the tubes in two opposite
directions forming agrid with openings of about 300x300 mm. This grid represented the skeletal
steel Two layers of l/4 inch opening wire mesh (6.3 mm opening and 0.62 mm in diameter) were then
successively attached on each side of the skeletal structure. The mortar was placed by shotcreting.
Although the design thickness of the shell was supposed to be around 20 mm, actual thickness
could not be controlled during shotcreting. The structure is still in excellent condition after more than
20 years in the harsh Chicago weather.
Figure 6.3 (continued) Hyperbolic paraboloid ferrocement shell built by the skeletal
armature mold method of construction.

Counter-clockwise from top left: placing the skeletal steel; attaching the mesh; applying the mortar
matrix by shotcreting; and finishing the surface.
188 Naaman- FERROCEMENT AND LAMINATED CEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITES

second layer of mortar is then placed and the procedure is repeated until the
desired number of layers is placed. The procedure is also suitable for wet-mix
shotcreting (dry-mix shotcrete, commonly called gunite, is more difficult to control),
thus allowing increased efficiency and savings on labor cost.

The closed mold method also has some disadvantages, namely: 1) large and
costly molds are not economical for one-time application; 2) depending on the
mold material, it may be difficult to keep the mesh layers together and close to the
mold unless the mesh can be stapled to the mold; and 3) in plastering onto and
through the mesh reinforcement, internal voids, and incomplete penetration of the
mesh cannot be detected.

Mortar from this side

I

I
/Bond Breaker at Interface (optional)

Construction Notes:
1. In one method, plastering can be applied from one side while mesh
layers are stapled to or held in position against the mold.
2. In another method, mesh layers are successively layed into a
preplaced mortar bed.
3. The mold may remain as a permanent part of the ferrocement
structure.

Advantages:
1. Molds may be reused.
2. No skeletal reinforcement.
3. Suitable for patented
layup method.
Disadvantages:
1. Mold is costly for one time use.
2. Internal voids more difficult to
avoid and detect.
3. Complete penetration from one
side more difficult to guarantee.

Figure 6.4 Closed mold method ,of ferrocement construction.

6.3.3 Integral Mold Method

An integral mold is first constructed by application of mortar from one or two sides
onto a semi-rigid framework made with a minimum number of mesh layers, or a
coarser mesh. This forms, after mortar setting, a rigid but low quality ferrocement
mold onto which further application of reinforcing mesh and mortar are applied on
both sides. Lightweight mortar may be used. Alternatively, the integral mold may
be formed using rigid foam insulation materials, such as polystyrene or
polyurethane, as the core. A schematic description of this method is shown in Fig.
6.5.
 Chapter 6 -CONSTRUCTION - FABRICATION OF FERROCEMENT 189

The integral mold method implies primarily that the mold is left inside the
ferrocement. It could also imply that the mold is left permanently in contact (on one
side) with the ferrocement, such as to obtain an interior wood finish. In that case,
the method becomes similar to the closed mold method except that the integral
mold is designed to remain as part of the finished structure.

Advantages of the integral mold method include: 1) excellent rigidity and

insulating properties when an insulating core is used, and 2) if rods must be used
to form or reinforce the core, their thickness can be filled with lightweight mortar, or
rigid foam insulating materials.

The main disadvantage is that special details are required for adequate shear
connections between rigid ferrocement layers, especially across insulating cores.

The integral mold method can be ideal for field operations. The possible
variations are unlimited provided adequate attention is paid to structural detailing
requirements to guarantee that the final structure will function as a true composite.

~ (ii&z&E)
Mortar
I I

CJ v 0 0 0 0 v 0 0 0 0 0 I
1
u 0 0 0 0 0 u 0 0 0 0 0
. . . . . ..*.......................*.......................................... . ............. ..........

Mortar f

Construction Notes:
1. Plastering or lay-up from both sides to penetrate layers of mesh
stapled or held against permanent mold.
2. The integral mold may be made of ferrocement or other material.
3. Generally the skin layer on each side of the mold is thinner and
easier to penetrate than other methods.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. Integral mold may be designed 1. Special detailing is needed
to provide good insulation. for bonding to and shear
2. Integral mold provides good transfer across the core.
rigidity. 2. Finishing is needed on
3. May provide good water both sides.
tightness.

Figure 6.5 Integral mold method of ferrocement construction.

190 Naaman - FERROCEMENT AND LAMINATED CEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITES

6.3.4 Open Mold Method

The open mold method is a traditional boat-building construction method. An open

mold is made of a lattice of wood strips or other suitable material and stiffened by
framing ribs or by shoring (Fig. 6.6). Mortar is applied from one side through layers
of mesh or mesh and rods attached to the open mold. To facilitate mold removal,
the mold is coated with a release agent and/or entirely covered with polyethylene
sheeting, thereby forming a closed, transparent, but non-rigid surface. The
transparent sheeting permits observation and fixing during the mortar application
process. It also catches excess mortar that must be pushed back and struck off on
the outside.

Plaster or lay-up from this side

I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

/ Polyethylene Sheet (or equivalent)

(wood strips or equivalent)

Construction Notes:
1. Plastering is applied from one side while mesh layers are stapled to
or held in position against the ribbands or framing.
2. The polyethylene sheeting allows observation to facilitate full
mortar penetration and patch up.
3. The mold may remain as a permanent part of the ferrocement
structure.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. Better control of finish than 1. Framing and shoring systems
closed mold method. are costly.
2. No skeletal reinforcement 2. Finishing may be needed on
needed. both sides.
3. Uses traditional boat building 3. Complete penetration from one
methods. side more difficult to guarantee.

Figure 6.6 Open mold method of ferrocement construction.

The open mold method is similar to the closed mold method, in which the
mortar is also applied from one side, at least until the mold can be removed.
However, it enables part of the underside of the mold to be viewed and repaired,
where necessary, to assure complete and thorough impregnation of the mesh.
 Chapter 6 -CONSTRUCTION - FABRICATION OF FERROCEMENT 191

Advantages of the open mold method are similar to those of the closed mold
method but with far better control of the quality of the resulting ferrocement product.
Disadvantages include: 1) it requires finishing both sides, that is, including mold
side, after removal of open mold elements, and 2) it requires construction of an
extensive mold and shoring system which may or may not be reusable. In boat
building, the open mold is often designed to remain part of the structure. Leaving
the mold in place provides space for insulation and a means for attaching the
interior finish material.

Figure 6.7 illustrates the application of the open mold method of construction in
building a ferrocement boat.

6.4 SPECIAL MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES

There are other construction methods for ferrocement that do not fit exactly into the
above mentioned categories. For instance, in forming the shape of a ferrocement
element, the armature system can be preshaped using different techniques such as
described above, or by lifting (to create a funicular shape), or by pressing such as
in pressure molding, or by explosion to give a three-dimensional spherical like
shape.

Raichvarger and Tatsa [Ref. 6.20 in Appendix C] described several

manufacturing technologies for fabricating singly and doubly curved ferrocement
elements from flat ferrocement sheets. In one method, a ferrocement sheet is
initially cast on a flat mold and then bent to produce a U-shaped section (Fig. 6.8a).
The bending must be done while the mortar matrix is still plastic and not yet
hardened. Also the mold must be properly designed to allow a smooth operation.
In another method, a flat ferrocement panel is cast while having at its periphery a
rigid frame (Fig. 6.8b). The frame is later lifted slightly, while the matrix is still
plastic; as the panel tends to deform under its own weight, it forms a curved shell
like element. Different panel shapes can be obtained such as square, rectangular,
triangular or round. These panels will generally have a double curvature. The
same principle can be applied to develop panels with single curvature, including
shallow cylindrical sections. A similar technique was used by Douglas Alexander
[Refs. 6.1 and 6.2 in Appendix C] in New Zealand to produce the walls of cylindrical
water tanks (Fig. 6.8~). In that technique, a freshly made ferrocement sheet is
rolled over a cylindrical drum or a large roller. While, during bending, some cracks
form in the plastic matrix, they tend to heal upon curing. For all the above
mentioned techniques to be successful, the cementitious matrix mixture must be
properly designed and carefully tested to determine the proper timing of forming.

Figure 6.9 describes another manufacturing technique for mass production of

small elements. In that technique a strong molding press is used to shape the
element into the desired form. The mesh reinforcement could be prepared either
flat as for flat sheets, or roughly preshaped for the final product. Here also, it is
essential to have good control of the matrix composition in order to insure
penetration of the mesh.

Wainshtok Rivas [Ref. 6.21 in Appendix C] describes a technique for producing

U-shaped, V-shaped, or W-shaped roofing panels from flat panels (Fig. 6.10). The
technique involves pouring the mortar matrix over a series of parallel flat panels,
Figure 6.7 Ferrocement boat built by the open mold method of construction
(courtesy Alain Dupuis and Renee Lepee, France).

The sequence of photos shown on this page and the following two pages illustrates: a) inside and outside
view of open mold framing; b) attaching the mesh; c) applying the mortar matrix to the deck; d) completed
hull; and e) finished boat in sea water. The boat described was built by Alain Dupuis and Renee Lepee
from France. A detailed account of their work can be found in the French publication: ‘Tout ce que vous
devez savoir sur la construction des bateaux en Ferrociment,” Loisirs Naufiques, Numero Hors Serie 17,
December 1983.289 oaoes.
 w

Figure 6.7 (continued).

 Chapter 6 - CONSTRUCTION - FABRICATION OF FERROCEMENT 1%

Ferrocement plate
k

Shaping plate prior to hardening

_ Ferrocement
Plastic

rame

‘Inside mold not Lifting the

connected to frame frame before

(c)

Figure 6.8 Production of different shapes of ferrocement elements using flat

sheets: a) U-shaped section; b) shell shaped elements; and c) cylindrical element.
196 Naaman - FERROCEMENT AND LAMINATED CEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITES

leaving strips of mesh between them without mortar. These strips act as joints
traversed by mesh reinforcement. After hardening of the mortar, the panels are
lifted to proper position and the joints are filled with new fresh mortar. This
technique is essentially inspired by the origami concept of paper folding and
should be applicable, in principle, to many other shapes.

I Vibrating Tayi

Figure 6.9 Pressing technique for mass production of small ferrocement elements.

(b) /

Figure 6.10 Typical production of ferrocement W-shaped elements from flat

sheets.

Today the mortar matrix can be made very stiff or very fluid or more plastic in
the fresh state, to be better adapted to a particular application. Conceptually, thin
ferrocement panels could be built like reinforced concrete panels, that is, where the
armature reinforcement is encased in molds, then encapsulated by a cement
matrix, in this case a very fluid matrix similar to a cement slurry. It is also
conceivable, for instance, to apply extrusion or pultrusion techniques to build
ferrocement sheets or shapes for which a very stiff matrix is needed. Extrusion has
been applied to prestressed concrete hollow cored slabs, and to thin fiber
reinforced plastic sheets. Pultrusion has been applied to all types of structural
shapes using fiber reinforced plastics such as glass fibers and polymeric matrices.
It is likely that such techniques will be applied to ferrocement production in the
future, especially when fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) meshes become more readily
available (see Chapter 10).
 Chapter 6 -CONSTRUCTION - FABRICATION OF FERROCEMENT 197

Vibrator
Compactor

Glass fiber
Cutter

Figure 6.11 Manufacturing techniques for large scale production of cement

sheets: a) process adaptable to extrusion or pultrusion, b) the Reticem process,
and c) process developed by USG corporation.

Figure 6.11 illustrates three different techniques currently used for the production of
cement composite sheets. These were developed as alternatives to the Hatscheck
process, which was widely utilized for asbestos cement products until the mid-
198 A’aaman - FERROCEMENT AND LAMINATED CEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITES

1980’s. Figure 6.1 la shows a very simple technique requiring little investment. It
can be adapted to extrusion or pultrusion. Either a belt can be used to move the
sheet as produced, or the entire set-up can move with respect to a long bed. This
method can be adapted to small or large scale production. Figure 6.11 b illustrates
the Reticem process (developed in England and used in Italy), in which the
reinforcement consists of a large number of layers of polypropylene slit film (PP
network). This process suggests that a ferrocement type composite can indeed be
manufactured provided the reinforcement is flexible enough (such as FRP
meshes). Figure 6.11~ describes a technique used by USG (US Gypsum)
Corporation to produce continuous surface reinforced cement based sheets, trade-
named Durock, used as cement boards for interior, exterior or underlayment
applications.

Sandwich panels have been built with a lightweight core, made from
polystyrene or other lightweight material, sandwiched between two ferrocement
skins, Ties or shear connectors are generally necessary between the two skins to
insure shear transfer and composite action. The method of construction of
sandwich panels is similar to the integral mold system but can also be
mechanized. Sandwich construction offers numerous advantages including
improved isolation from noise and temperature and better structural efficiency (see
Section 9.4).

6.5 FERROCEMENT ELEMENT VERSUS STRUCTURE

The methods described in the preceding sections apply primarily to manufacturing

ferrocement composite material elements from which a structure is to be built. In
the case of a boat, the shell element becomes the boat hull itself, although it can be
argued that the boat is made of different components such as the hull, the deck, the
keel, etc. Generally, methods used in building reinforced concrete structures apply
to ferrocement as well. They include cast in place construction, prefabrication, and
in some instances prestressing. In any case, joining the different elements of
ferrocement together, either by cast in place joints or by other jointing techniques,
such as bolting (see Chapter 9), is an important part of the construction process.
The reader is referred to specialized publications where these subjects are
covered in more details.

6.6 PROTECTIVE SURFACE TREATMENTS

Like other concrete materials, ferrocement can be made to perform satisfactorily

when exposed to severe weather conditions, to water and soil containing
chemicals, and to many common chemicals. The ACI Guide for Design,
Construction, and Repair of Ferrocement (AC1549.1 R) [Ref. 5.2 in Appendix C] has
an excellent chapter on “Maintenance and Repair” and an Appendix on Surface
Treatments. Most of the following information is taken from that document.

Protective coatings, when used, must bond well, be alkali tolerant, thermally
compatible, and resistant to environmental pollutants and ultraviolet radiation, if
exposed.

Generally, good quality mortar has excellent resistance to weathering. For

 Chapter 6 -CONSTRUCTION - FABRICATION OF FERROCEMENT 199

general construction purposes it does not require any protective surface treatment.
However, the application of protective surface treatments can improve the
performance of ferrocement and extend its service life. Surface treatments can be
used to improve appearance, harden the surface, and reduce permeability, thus
guarding against the corrosive action of acids, alkaline salts and organic
substances. Protective surface treatments take the form of hardeners, polymeric
coatings, oils, or sheathing.

The most commonly available hardener is sodium silicate, also called

waterglass. It is quite viscous and must be diluted with water to achieve
penetration. A stronger solution can be used for succeeding coats. Each coat must
be thoroughly dry before the next coat is applied. Other hardeners, which seal and
prepare the surface for application of oil based paints, are magnesium fluosilicate
and zinc fluosilicate. The treatment consists of two or more applications.

Epoxy and polyurethane compounds are the most widely mentioned protective
coatings for concrete. They have excellent adhesion to ferrocement mortar and are
alkali-resistant; however, some degrade under exposure to ultraviolet (UV) rays,
become brittle with age, and have a much higher coefficient of thermal expansion
than concrete. It should be noted that because hardened epoxy is brittle, has a
coefficient of thermal expansion different from ferrocement, and is generally
stronger than the mortar substrate, multiple coats (or a thick coat) should not be
used on a surface subjected to large diurnal changes in temperature such as a
boat deck. The difference in thermal expansion creates large interlaminar shear
stresses between the coating and the mortar. In comparison, acrylic coatings retain
their flexibility longer than epoxy coatings and are highly resistant to ultraviolet
rays.

Bituminous based compounds, in the form of coatings, emulsions, tar, enamel,

and plastics, applied in plain layers, or reinforced, provide good resistance against
strong acids, oxidizing solutions, or salt solutions. Acrylic paints and coatings
including chlorinated rubber, or varnishes using china wood oil, phenolic resins,
and the like, give good protection against acetic, lactic, and carbonic acids, caustic
soda, fluorides, light oils, gasoline, phenols, grains, milk, molasses, and vinegar.

Diluted, raw, or boiled oils, such as wood oil, tung oil, soybean oil, and linseed
oil, if applied with brushes, penetrate in concrete and ferrocement and provide,
upon drying, good protection for acid waters, phosphoric acid, chlorides, fluorides,
sulfates, gasoline, and heavier oils.

Fiberglass laminates have been often used on boat hulls to seal the surface
against leakage and improve impact resistance; epoxy resins are preferred for
such application. Several factors such as temperature when sheathing, soiled
mortar surface, and thermal incompatibility must be considered to develop
successful sheathing.

6.7 CURRENT REACHES WITH AND NOTABLE STRUCTURES OF

FERROCEMENT

As with any other structural materials, the design of ferrocement structures is

controlled by a number of design criteria, which may test the limits of the material.
200 Naaman- FERROCEMENT AND LAMINATED CEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITES

So it may be informative to review, in addition to what has been covered so far in

this and other chapters, the size and type of some structures or structural elements
built with ferrocement in order to provide an idea of what can be achieved.
Following are some examples:

1. Boats of up to 33 meters in length (China, New Zealand); boats using

combined ferrocement and reinforced concrete of up to 90 meters in China.

2. Double cantilever V shaped roofing beams spanning 33 m and having a

thickness of only 50 mm (reported by de Hanai in Brazil).

3. Structural shell elements spanning 16 m, such as for the group of “coupolas”

built by V. Barberio, to house a fish farm in Abruzzo, Italy.

4. A 55 meter long by 15.9 m wide oil tanker to carry up to 1100 tons of fuel
(Pertaminal Fuel Oil Barge) built in Indonesia by Douglas Alexander of New
Zealand (Fig. 1.7).

5. A series of domes built for the mausoleum of Queen Alia in Amman, Jordan, the
largest having a diameter of 16 m with a 10 m height (Fig. 6.12) as reported by
Jennings.

6. Ribbed precast ferrocement coffers (3.6 x 3.6 m and 50 mm thick) used as

permanent formwork for the reinforced concrete roof of the Schlumberger
laboratories in Cambridge, England.

7. Lining for an Olympic size swimming pool in Cuba, reported by Wainshtok

Rivas.

8. Thinnest ferrocement shell built at the University of Sidney for their ferrocement
canoe (Aurora Australis); it had a thickness of about 2 mm and used the
concept of an origami folded structure.

9. A six meters span hollow cored box section bridge built for one way traffic and
light trucks weighting up to 8 tons in Mexico, reported by Fernandez.

10. A 150 ms elevated water tank in Brazil, reported by de Hanai.

11. Prefabricated water tanks, 3.6 m in diameter and 16 ms in capacity, developed

in Singapore by Paramasivam (Fig. 9.21).

12. Sunscreen L shaped elements 5 m long and 40 mm thick also developed in

Singapore by Paramasivam and Mansur (Fig. 9.22).

Some of the most daring structures using ferrocement were built by D.

Alexander in New Zealand. He combined the concepts of ferrocement, fiber
reinforced concrete, and prestressing with high strength wires to build relatively
large scale oil barges and wharves at competitive cost (Fig. 1.7). In particular, he
combined the use of high tensile wires and fibers with wire mesh reinforcement to
improve crack distribution, crack width, and overall mechanical properties. In a
similar manner, another engineer from Hong Kong and Australia, Peter Allen, built
Figure 6.12 Queen Alia’s Mausoleum near Amman in Jordan used ferrocement
domes built by the skeletal armature method of construction; the lower left photo
shows the armature of the dome during construction and the lower right photo
shows the details of the ribbed interior surface (courtesy P. Jennings, U.K.).
202 Naaman - FERROCEMENT AND LAMINATED CEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITES

large scale roofing elements (hangars) of up to 30 m in span, using ferrocement,

high strength steel wires, and prestressing. He also built a 22 m long ocean racing
yacht, the He/s&, using ferrocement and post-tensioning. Helsal received several
line honors and held several records in Australia. Curved wing like external wall
panels, 9 m long and 3 m wide, were built as part of the Technical Building for the
Yambu Cement Company in Saudi Arabia (Fig. 6.13). Martin lorns designed an
integral ferrocement floating mold, estimated to cost about $20 per square yard
(1998), which can be used to build any size concrete platform directly on the water.
Also, in US Patent No. 5,024,557 of June 18, 1991, lorns describes a method for
forming a hollow column of ferrocement on a floating offshore platform by applying
successive layers of mortar and reinforcing mesh to a single surface slip-form
which outlines the inner or outer contour of the column. The column is lowered by
means of gravity under the control of embedded (skeletal) cables, and can reach
great depths to the seabed. Primary applications include cold water pipes for
Ocean Energy Thermal Conversion (OTEC), access tunnels to undersea habitat, or
to gas and oil well equipment.

A new generation of engineers and architects is discovering the benefits,

versatility, and unique characteristics of ferrocement in special applications. A
case in point is the main gate to the Yambu Cement Company, which resembles a
piece of fabric blowing in the wind, to form the roofing structure, which finishes at
one end by a ribbon-like ferrocement that undergoes a steep rotation and becomes
the tower of the structure as if to provide a veil for it (Fig. 6.14). Another recent
example reported by R. Alexander is the use of ferrocement for building a 7.3 m
diameter prototype diffuser augmented wind turbine for generating electricity from
wind (see photo at end of Chapter 11). These accomplishments should be
considered at the boundaries of today’s ferrocement technology. It is hoped that
they will become widely utilized in the future, while new daring frontiers will be
attained.

%ngineering is the art andscience offinding solutions, even ifthat seems

impossibk ”
Figure 6.13 Main gate (ferrocement shell) and technical building (ferrocement sunshade
panels) of the Yambu Cement Company in Saudi Arabia (courtesy D. Angelotti, Studio 65,
Italy).
Figure 6.14 Main gate to the Yambu Cement Company in Saudi Arabia showing the
ferrocement ribbon like roof that ends wrapping around the tower (courtesy D. Angelotti,
Studio 65, Italy).