1- Compare and contrast Functional and Formal approach to grammar

Grammar : A grammar is a powerful tool for describing and analyzing languages. It is a set of rules by
which valid sentences in a language are constructed.
The functional approach differs from the formal approach in that the formal approach seeks to define
the different structures of language and the way they relate to each other a set of  formal rules, whereas
the functional approach defines the functions performed by language and then relates those functions
to the structures that carry them out. In other words, the formal approach focuses on the little technical
components that build a language and the functional approach focuses on what the components do as
a whole.

Formal Approach to grammar

A formal grammar is a set of rules for rewriting strings, along with a "start symbol" from which
rewriting starts. Therefore, a grammar is usually thought of as a language generator. To describe such
recognizers, formal language theory uses separate formalisms, known as automata theory.
In formal language theory, a grammar describes how to form strings from a language's alphabet that
are valid according to the language's syntax. A grammar does not describe the meaning of the
strings or what can be done with them in whatever context but only their form. A formal grammar is
defined as a set of production rules for strings in a formal language.
Formal language theory, the discipline that studies formal grammars and languages, is a branch
of applied mathematics. Its applications are found in theoretical computer science, theoretical
linguistics, formal semantics, mathematical logic, and other areas.
A formal grammar is a set of rules for rewriting strings, along with a start symbol from which
rewriting starts. Therefore, a grammar is usually thought of as a language generator. However, it can
also sometimes be used as the basis for a recognizer a function in computing that determines whether
a given string belongs to the language or is grammatically incorrect. To describe such recognizers,
formal language theory uses separate formalisms, known as automata theory. One of the interesting
results of automata theory is that it is not possible to design a recognizer for certain formal languages.
Parsing is the process of recognizing an utterance by breaking it down to a set of symbols and
analyzing each one against the grammar of the language. Most languages have the meanings of their
utterances structured according to their syntax, a practice known as compositional semantics. As a
result, the first step to describing the meaning of an utterance in language is to break it down part by
part and look at its analyzed form.
Formal grammar is used to generate all possible strings over the alphabet that is syntactically correct
in the language. Formal grammar is used mostly in the syntactic analysis phase (parsing) particularly
during the compilation.
Formal grammar is written as follows,

G = <V, N, P, S>  
Where
 N describes a finite set of non terminal symbols
 V describes a finite set of terminal symbols
 P describe a set of production rules
 S is the start symbol
Functional approach to grammar

The functional approach focuses on the appropriateness of the form for a communicative process and
does not dwell on the distinction between "grammatical" and "ungrammatical" forms. Functional
grammar allows linguists to analyze, compare, and parse the grammars of all human languages.
Functional theories of grammar are those approaches to the study of language that see functionality of
language and its elements to be the key to understanding linguistic processes and structures.
Functional theories of language propose that since language is fundamentally a tool, it is reasonable to
assume that its structures are best analyzed and understood with reference to the functions they carry
out. Functional theories of grammar belong to structural and humanistic linguistics. They take into
account the context where linguistic elements are used and study the way they are instrumentally
useful or functional in the given environment. This means that functional theories of grammar tend to
pay attention to the way language is actually used in communicative context. The formal relations
between linguistic elements are assumed to be functionally-motivated.
In the functional paradigm a language is in the first place conceptualized as an instrument of social
interaction among human beings, used with the intention of establishing communicative relationships.
Within this paradigm one attempts to reveal the instrumentality of language with respect to what
people do and achieve with it in social interaction.
Functions exist on all levels of grammar, even in phonology, where the phoneme has the function of
distinguishing between lexical material.

 Semantic function, describing the role of participants in states of affairs or actions expressed.
 Syntactic functions, defining different perspectives in the presentation of a linguistic
expression.
 Pragmatic functions, defining the informational status of constituents, determined by the
pragmatic context of the verbal interaction.

A grammar that puts together the patterns of the language and the things you can do with them is
called a functional grammar; that is, it is based on the relation between the structure of a language and
the various functions that the language performs.

Functional grammar is all about language use. It’s about communicative grammar that learners can
use in the typical situations that they find themselves in as they go about their daily lives. Moreover,
it’s an approach in which grammar is not seen as a set of rules, but rather as a communicative
resource.

As Halliday himself says, A functional grammar is essentially a natural grammar, in the sense that
everything in it can be explained by reference to how language is used.

Formalism and Functionalism

 The terms 'Formalism' and 'Functionalism,' although generally accepted as designations of

two different approaches within linguistics, are not entirely adequate, since they embody two
different kinds of opposition.
 The first opposition concerns the basic view of language adopted by linguistic theories,
where, roughly speaking, one either views grammar as an autonomous structural system or
views grammar primarily as an instrument of social interaction. Theories taking these two
views of grammar may be called 'autonomous' and 'functional,' respectively.
  The second opposition is of a quite different nature. Some linguistic theories have the explicit
aim of constructing a formal representational system, whereas other approaches do not.
Theories of these two types may be called 'formalizing' and 'non-formalizing,' respectively.

The contrast

Formal Functional
How is this sentence be structured? How is the meaning of this text realized
sentences Whole texts
syntax Semantics
Is something we know, as a set of rules for Is something we know, as a resource for
sentence structure making meaning

2- Differentiate Prescriptive and Descriptive grammar

The main difference between descriptive and prescriptive grammar is that descriptive grammar
describes how the language is used whereas the prescriptive grammar explains how the language
should be used by the speakers.

Descriptive grammar: the systematic study and description of a language. Descriptive grammar
refers to the structure of a language as it is actually used by speakers and writers.

Prescriptive grammar: a set of rules and examples dealing with the syntax and word structures of a
language, usually intended as an aid to the learning of that language. Prescriptive grammar refers to
the structure of a language as certain people think it should be used.

English is taught with specific rules such as: sentence structures, proper formatting, proper words, and
improper words. The set a rules and a language has and the way it should be used is known as
prescriptive grammar and is taught in this manner because it allows people to be understood clearly in
their writings and speeches. The opposite of prescriptive grammar is known as descriptive grammar and
is concerned with how a language is used. Bill Bryson, a novelists on English, history, and science
describes the difference and usefulness of prescriptive grammar and descriptive grammar in his article
titled, “Good English and Bad”. Prescriptive grammar is important to learn because it has specific rules
we follow; therefore, we are able to communicate ideas, news, and information in a universal english
language that is understood by everyone. The education I received for English was not advanced;
however, it did teach me the importance of standardized writing to show meaning. At a young age, I was
told there was a proper way to write and speak English. I was taught the many rules such as: the
difference between singular verbs, plural verbs, “may,” “can,” “well” “good” and when to properly use
them. Prescriptive grammar rules seemed meaningless when I first learned them; however, as I grew
older I realized the importance of properly speaking or writing English. I discovered, when I applied
prescriptive grammar my thoughts and intentions became more clear. For example, “may I use the
restroom” is used to indicate I want to be excused from a situation so I take care of my body. When I
say, “can I use the restroom” it implies something is either wrong with the restroom or something is
wrong with my body. It is awkward that one word is capable of affecting a sentence so greatly; however,
according to descriptive grammar a person will be able to understand my intentions regardless of which
sentence I use. My point is not that we should ignore descriptive grammar, but we should all learn
grammar with specific rules so we are able to derive a greater meaning. If everyone is taught English in
a particular way with specific rules then there would be less misinterpretations and we would be able to
explain ourselves.

Both kinds of grammar are concerned with rules--but in different ways. Specialists in descriptive
grammar (called linguists) study the rules or patterns that underlie our use of words, phrases, clauses,
and sentences. On the other hand, prescriptive grammarians (such as most editors and teachers) lay
out rules about what they believe to be the “correct” or “incorrect” use of language.

A key contrast is to be found between these two approaches. A descriptive grammarian would say that
a sentence is “grammatical” if a native speaker of the language would produce that sentence in
speaking. The descriptive grammarian would then try to describe how that sentence is produced
through theorizing about the mental processes that lead up to the surface form. A prescriptive
grammarian, on the other hand, would say that something is grammatical only  if the surface form
conforms to a set of rules that the grammarian believes should be followed in order for a certain
grammar style is achieved. (Note that I have tried to emphasize that the descriptive grammarian hears
a form and tries to describe the mental processes underneath the produced (spoken) form, while a
prescriptive grammarian does not hypothesize about the mental grammar at all, but is merely
concerned with ‘editing’ the surface form.)

DESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR PRESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR

Approach to grammar that is concerned with
describing the use of language by native or non
native speakers without reference t proposed
norms correcteness or advocacy of rules based
on such norms.
Takes the principle that the language usage can
vary according to varied speakers. Thus it does
not consider what is correct .
Rules are made according to the daily usage of
the language by the speakers.
Approach to grammar that is concerned with
establishing norms of correct or incorrect usage
and formulating rules based on these norms to
be followed by users of the language.
Takes the principle that the long existed
grammar rules created by the native speakers
are the correct and the variations are incorrect.
There are specified and standard set or grammar
rules.