This document discusses human adaptation to high altitudes by examining changes in hemoglobin-oxygen affinity, as measured by the P50 value. While many animals adapted to altitude show a decreased P50, past human studies found increased or unchanged P50 values. However, these studies measured P50 in-vitro, which may not reflect in-vivo responses. The authors aim to re-examine P50 changes in high-altitude humans using new in-vivo measurement techniques to better understand human adaptation mechanisms.
This document discusses human adaptation to high altitudes by examining changes in hemoglobin-oxygen affinity, as measured by the P50 value. While many animals adapted to altitude show a decreased P50, past human studies found increased or unchanged P50 values. However, these studies measured P50 in-vitro, which may not reflect in-vivo responses. The authors aim to re-examine P50 changes in high-altitude humans using new in-vivo measurement techniques to better understand human adaptation mechanisms.
This document discusses human adaptation to high altitudes by examining changes in hemoglobin-oxygen affinity, as measured by the P50 value. While many animals adapted to altitude show a decreased P50, past human studies found increased or unchanged P50 values. However, these studies measured P50 in-vitro, which may not reflect in-vivo responses. The authors aim to re-examine P50 changes in high-altitude humans using new in-vivo measurement techniques to better understand human adaptation mechanisms.
Many animals have adapted to hypoxic environments by increasing their
haemoglobin-oxygen (Hb-O2) affinity. This affinity is usually expressed in relation to the oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve (ODC) as the partial pressure of O2 (PO2) at which Hb is 50% saturated (P50). The direction of shift of the ODC, if any, is germane to the mechanism of acclimatization of humans to altitude. A decreased P50 favours O2 loading at the lung while an increased P50 favours O2 off-loading at the tissues (Lenfant et al., 1971; Winslow, 2007). Investigators have argued the advantage of both changes (Barcroft, 1923; Lenfant and Sullivan, 1971), but animals that have adapted to altitude, such as rats, camillae, geese, and frogs among others, have lower P50s than their low altitude cousins (Banchero et al., 1971; Lenfant et al., 1971; Reynafarje et al., 1975; Johansen et al., 1976). P50 can be determined in-vitro by drawing blood at the upper (most oxygenated) end of the ODC and measuring oxyhaemoglobin concentration while progressively reducing PO2 at constant partial pressure of CO2 (PCO2) in the sample (Astrup et al., 1965; Edwards and Martin, 1966; Duvelleroy et al., 1970). Since P50 is also influenced by pH and PCO2 due to the Bohr effect, the P50 is usually determined at a standard pH 7.4 and PCO 2 - 40 mmHg (standard P50). In some studies the same pH and PCO 2 as measured at the time the blood sample is drawn are used to determine the P 50; in this case it is referred to as physiological P50. A brief historical survey of investigations of the P50 at altitude is provided by Winslow (2007). In 1923 Barcroft (1923) observed that Peruvian natives had lower P50 when dwelling at 4300 m than at sea level. An expedition in 1964 to confirm these findings found instead that the in-vitro standard P50 of Peruvian highlanders was shifted to the right (Hurtado, 1964). The in-vitro standard P50 in acutely acclimatizing lowlanders was reported as increased, accompanied by a measured increase in 2,3-DPG (Benesch and Benesch, 1967; Chanutin and Curnish, 1967). Later both Morpurgo et al. (1970) and Torrance et al. (1970) reported a higher standard in-vitro P50 in Andean highlanders compared to lowlanders. Lenfant et al. (1968, 1971) argued that the increase in 2,3-DPG serves as metabolic compensation forthe respiratory alkalosis resulting from the acute hypoxic ventilatory response. In 1981 Winslow et al. (1981) revisited the Andes and repeated the measure of the ODC using methods that could be performed on freshly drawn blood on location (Winslow et al., 1978), thereby avoiding the degradation of 2,3-DPG that occurs when blood is stored. They found that indeed, the standard in-vitro assay showed that the P50 was slightly increased and related to the increase in the concentration of 2,3-DPG. Their analysis of blood, maintaining the PCO2 and pH at the time the blood was drawn, showed that the compensatory respiratory alkalosis of altitude offsets the effect of 2,3-DPG, resulting in P50 being unchanged from that in natives living at sea level. However, Winslow et al. (1984) found that on ascent to over 6300 m there was a reduction in the physiological P50 due to the effect of the enhanced respiratory alkalosis at this altitude dominating over the effect of increases in 2,3-DPG. Mairbaurl et al. (1990) and Wagner et al. (2007) studied lowlanders during progressive ascent to altitude and found the initial decrease in physiological in-vitro P50 was followed by a return to the sea-level value within a few days despite continued exposure to altitude. Again these changes were attributed to the establishment of a physiologic balance between respiratory alkalosis and 2,3-DPG, while standard in-vitro P50 increased in tandem with 2,3-DPG (Mairbaurl et al.,1993). It is somewhat surprising that animals have adopted a reduction in P50 as part of their adaptation to altitude yet humans have not been shown to exhibit this reduction as either acclimatization or adaptation, despite some populating the high altitudes for over 25,000 years (Beall, 2007a). We therefore considered the possibility that measurement biases arise from methods of measuring P50 invitro because they exclude the possibility of any in- vivo responses affecting the Hb-O2 affinity. In the past, measurements of P50 have been performed exclusively in-vitro because of the technical difficulties of reliably providing suitable conditions for in-vivo measures. However, such capability has recently become available with the development of means of accurately controlling arterial PO2 and PCO2 (PaO2 and PaCO2) independently of each other and of minute ventilation (Slessarev et al., 2007). Maintaining PaCO2 at a constant value during measurement of the ODC is required to fix the position of the ODC, which varies with pH; then the imposition of a range of hypoxic arterial blood gas tensions provides a description of the ODC at that pH. With such means at hand, we set out to re- examine the question of whether there are changes in the in-vivo ODC in lowlanders and Andean highlanders as a result of acute and chronic exposure to hypoxia. We hypothesized that, if a difference from the in-vitro data is detected, it would be in the direction of a reduction in the P50, as in adapted animals. 1. Pendahuluan
Banyak hewan telah beradaptasi dengan lingkungan hipoksia dengan meningkatkan
afinitas hemoglobin-oksigen (Hb-O2) mereka. Afinitas ini biasanya dinyatakan dalam kurva oksihemoglobin disosiasi (ODC) sebagai tekanan parsial O2 (PO2) di mana Hb adalah 50% jenuh (P50). Arah pergeseran dari ODC, jika ada, erat dengan mekanisme aklimatisasi manusia untuk ketinggian. Sebuah P50 menurun nikmat O2 proses pada paru- paru sementara P50 meningkat nikmat O2 pada jaringan (Lenfant et al, 1971;. Winslow, 2007). Peneliti berpendapat keuntungan dari kedua perubahan itu (Barcroft 1923; Lenfant dan Sullivan, 1971), tetapi hewan yang telah beradaptasi dengan ketinggian, seperti tikus, camillae, angsa, dan katak antara lain, memiliki P50s lebih rendah dari sepupu ketinggian rendah ( Banchero et al, 1971;. Lenfant et al, 1971;.. Reynafarje et al, 1975;. Johansen et al, 1976). P50 dapat ditentukan in-vitro dengan menggambar darah di atas (paling teroksigenasi) akhir ODC dan mengukur oksihemoglobin konsentrasi sementara progresif mengurangi PO2 pada tekanan parsial konstan CO2 (PCO2) dalam sampel (Astrup et al, 1965;. Edwards dan Martin, 1966;. Duvelleroy et al, 1970). Sejak P 50 juga dipengaruhi oleh pH dan PCO2 karena efek Bohr, P50 biasanya ditentukan pada standar pH 7.4 dan PCO 2 = 40 mmHg (P50 standar). Dalam beberapa studi pH dan PCO 2 yang sama yang diukur pada saat sampel darah diambil digunakan untuk menentukan P50 tersebut; dalam hal ini disebut P50 sebagai fisiologis. Sebuah survei sejarah singkat investigasi dari P50 di ketinggian disediakan oleh Winslow (2007). Pada tahun 1923 Barcroft (1923) mengamati bahwa penduduk asli Peru memiliki P50 lebih rendah ketika tinggal di 4300 m dari pada permukaan laut. Sebuah ekspedisi pada tahun 1964 untuk mengkonfirmasi temuan ini ditemukan bukan bahwa in- vitro standar P50 dari dataran tinggi Peru telah bergeser ke kanan (Hurtado, 1964). In-vitro standar P50 di akut dari dataran rendah dan dilaporkan meningkat, disertai dengan peningkatan terukur dalam 2,3-DPG (Benesch dan Benesch, 1967; Chanutin dan Curnish, 1967). Kemudian Morpurgo kedua et al. (1970) dan Torrance et al. (1970) melaporkan standar yang lebih tinggi di-vitro P50 di dataran tinggi Andes dibandingkan dengan dataran rendah. Lenfant et al. (1968, 1971) berpendapat bahwa peningkatan 2,3-DPG berfungsi sebagai kompensasi metabolik forthe alkalosis pernapasan yang dihasilkan dari respon ventilasi hipoksia akut. Pada tahun 1981 Winslow et al. (1981) ditinjau kembali Andes dan mengulangi ukuran dari ODC menggunakan metode yang dapat dilakukan pada darah segar yang diambil dari lokasi (Winslow et al., 1978), sehingga menghindari degradasi 2,3-DPG yang terjadi ketika darah disimpan . Mereka menemukan bahwa memang, standar in-vitro menunjukkan bahwa P50 itu sedikit meningkat dan berhubungan dengan peningkatan konsentrasi 2,3-DPG. Analisis mereka darah, menjaga PCO 2 dan pH pada saat darah diambil, menunjukkan bahwa alkalosis pernapasan kompensasi dari ketinggian mengimbangi efek dari 2,3-DPG, sehingga P 50 menjadi tidak berubah dari yang di pribumi yang tinggal di permukaan laut. Namun, Winslow et al. (1984) menemukan bahwa pada pendakian ke lebih dari 6300 m ada pengurangan P50 fisiologis karena efek dari alkalosis pernapasan ditingkatkan di ketinggian ini mendominasi atas efek dari kenaikan 2,3-DPG. Mairbaurl et al. (1990) dan Wagner et al. (2007) mempelajari dataran rendah selama pendakian progresif untuk ketinggian dan menemukan penurunan awal dalam fisiologis in-vitro P50 diikuti dengan kembali ke nilai permukaan laut dalam beberapa hari meskipun paparan lanjutan untuk ketinggian. Sekali lagi perubahan ini dikaitkan dengan pembentukan keseimbangan fisiologis antara alkalosis pernapasan dan 2,3-DPG, sementara standar in-vitro P50 meningkat seiring dengan 2,3-DPG (Mairbaurl et al., 1993). Hal ini agak mengherankan bahwa hewan telah mengadopsi pengurangan P50 sebagai bagian dari adaptasi mereka untuk ketinggian manusia belum ditampilkan untuk menunjukkan pengurangan ini baik sebagai aklimatisasi atau adaptasi, meskipun beberapa mengisi ketinggian tinggi selama lebih dari 25.000 tahun (Beall, 2007a) . Oleh karena itu kami mempertimbangkan kemungkinan bahwa bias pengukuran timbul dari metode pengukuran P50 invitro karena mereka mengesampingkan kemungkinan ada tanggapan di- vivo mempengaruhi afinitas Hb-O2. Di masa lalu, pengukuran P50 telah dilakukan secara eksklusif di-vitro karena kesulitan teknis andal menyediakan kondisi yang cocok untuk tindakan in-vivo. Namun, kemampuan tersebut baru-baru ini menjadi tersedia dengan pengembangan sarana PO 2 mengendalikan akurat arteri dan PCO2 (PaO2 dan PaCO2) secara independen satu sama lain dan ventilasi menit (Slessarev et al., 2007). Mempertahankan PaCO 2 pada nilai konstan selama pengukuran dari ODC diperlukan untuk memperbaiki posisi ODC, yang bervariasi dengan pH; maka pengenaan berbagai hipoksia ketegangan gas darah arteri memberikan gambaran dari ODC pada pH itu. Dengan cara seperti di tangan, kami berangkat untuk memeriksa kembali pertanyaan apakah ada perubahan dalam ODC in- vivo di dataran rendah dan dataran tinggi Andes sebagai akibat akut dan kronis hipoksia. Kami berhipotesis bahwa, jika perbedaan dari data in-vitro terdeteksi, akan ke arah pengurangan P50, seperti pada hewan disesuaikan.