Phase 6. Collect information on all group activities and generate a final document.

Presentation of the project

General characteristics of packaging

materials for the food system
J. López

National Open and Distance University UNAD phase 1

The types of materials used for packaging electrolytic method, metallic aluminum is
are: obtained.
Aluminum.
Corrugated cardboard. Aluminum foil containers
Tin. The extensive use of aluminum foil as a
Wood. packaging material is mainly due to two
Paper. characteristics: It is a highly visible (eye-
Plastic. catching) and attractive material. It prolongs
Glass. the "shelf life" of the products because it is
completely waterproof, preventing oxidation,
thermal shock, as well as the action of other
similar factors that contribute to product
deterioration. Aluminum foil is compatible
with most food, drugs, chemicals, hard and
soft goods. Few products could corrode this
material since it has a wide variety of plastic
or paper coatings and laminates. The success
and increasing use of aluminum foil for all
types of packaging, either as a structural part
or as an identification element of it,

Properties of aluminum foil

Appearance:There is no other flexible

packaging material that has the eye appeal of
ordinary aluminum foil. Depending on the
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packaging designer's goal, the appearance of
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the foil can be further enhanced by use in any
of a range of packaging decorating processes,
Aluminum
such as embossing, printing, varnishing, or
coloring.
Primary or metallic aluminum is obtained
from mineral compounds existing in the
Water vapor resistance:Because it is a
earth's crust that contain it in great
waterproof metal, aluminum foil does not
proportion.
truly have a Water Vapor Transmission Index
(ITVA). If this transmission exists, it is due to
In general, Bauxite is used, which is an
unavoidable microscopic breaks or accidental
impure alumina hydrate, from which alumina
foil punctures.
(aluminum oxide) is obtained. From this, by

Gas resistance:At higher thicknesses, the
aluminum foil offers an absolute barrier
against oxygen and other harmful gases. At
low thicknesses (10 m) the foil imparts an
extremely low degree of gas permeability to
plastic films or paper, thereby reducing the
tendency of the packaged product to oxidize
or become rancid.
Types of aluminum foil used for packaging
Of the various aluminum alloys used to
produce the foil, the most widespread for
flexible packaging applications is 1145 alloy,
which has a minimum aluminum content of
99.45%. For rigid trays made entirely of foil,
alloy 3003 is preferred, because it offers
greater resistance.
Due to the complexity of the requirements
imposed by the end use, particularly with
regard to packaging, almost never only one of
the properties or characteristics is used for a
given application.
In what is supposed to be a simple butter
wrap, for example, the aluminum foil fulfills
several functional objectives, including the
following:
Provides sufficient “self-sealing” to the
product (even in equipment that automatically
wraps) due to its total folding.
Protects it against contamination caused by
the mold or dirt.
Prevents discoloration of butter due to light
rays.
Slows rancidity.
Prevents the product from absorbing strange
tastes and odors.
Avoid loss of flavor.
Avoid shrinkage and change of product
texture.
It is impervious to grease, it does not absorb
butter.
It does not absorb moisture from the
refrigerator or substances that may have
spilled into it.
It is non-toxic, does not contain fibers or
loose particles.
Classification of aluminum containers
Semi-rigid packaging
The thin leaf or foil also generates this
family. The semi-rigid are the result of the
shaping that will aim to give a spatial shape
to the foil sheet. The tray is a semi-rigid
container, which maintains a primary
classification. Corrugated walls (without
deformation of material), and smooth walls
(with deformation) are considered. Regarding
their degree of complexity, they range from
simple (aluminum only) and corrugated walls
for portions of rotisserie lined with
polypropylene, smooth walls, printed, painted
and suitable for sterilization, for industrially
prepared meals. As for size, we find them
from the small for individual portion of
sweets or jellies; to the large partitioned tray
containing lunch or dinner. Rigid packaging
They are those that do not deform easily
under moderate manual pressure, even when
empty. We include here:
- Beverage cans.
- Food cans.
- Aerosol sprays. Let's start with the analysis
of the cans, differentiating two processes
whose use is determined by the height /
diameter ratio of the container and its
capacity:
- Draw and Ironing D&I.
- Double sausage (Drawing and Redrawing)
D&R. Both processes start from a common
sequence, which is the cutting of discs from
material in rolls (large productions) or plates.
The thickness of the starting material is
variable according to the producing country;
in Europe it starts from 0.31 mm and in the
USA 0.28 mm.
Sausages
The sausage is a container. Aluminum plays a
structural role that it does not have in flexible
packaging and is of little relevance in semi-
rigid ones. It forces the use of various alloys,
which, depending on the case, provide the
most suitable and economic solutions.

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Paperboard
Flat corrugated cardboard is a known material
in the manufacture of various types of
packaging for various products. Like: fruits,
vegetables, manufactured products, industrial
machines, it is also used for the bulk transport
of goods in large boxes or containers.
Cardboard is also suitable for different modes
of transport, including maritime and air.
This wide range of use is due, to a large
extent, to the possibility of combining
different types of paper as raw materials,
which allows a specific quality to be adapted
to each requirement of the distribution
system.
Raw materials for the manufacture of
corrugated, flat and folding cardboard
The main source of cellulose for the
manufacture of the paper pulp used in
cardboard is wood, which constitutes, with
great advantage, the main raw material used.
Used paper, waste from textile waste, various
vegetables and, especially, cereal straw,
bamboo and sugar cane are also used.
Not all varieties of wood are suitable, the
most used are softwoods (fir, white fir, pine,
poplar, larch, birch, aspen, chestnut,
eucalyptus, willow and some hardwoods such
as beech and oak).
These various varieties of wood are chosen
according to the length of the cellulosic
fibers, their resistance and also their chemical
composition. Corrugated or flat cardboard
box papers tend to be heavier and do not
require such a finished surface. All cartons
for packaging must possess certain properties
and, in particular, great resistance to rupture,
tearing, wrinkling and compression.
Manufacture of flat cardboard and
corrugated cardboard
Cardboard is a felted material made up of the
superposition of small cellulose fibers. The
principle of its manufacture is very simple: it
is essentially based on the fact that the
cellulose swells due to the effect of water and
thus acquires the ability to agglomerate with
great ease.
Cellulose and paper pulps are obtained using
procedures that allow cellulose fibers to be
extracted with the best performance and
without altering their properties. Depending
on the procedure used, mechanical, semi-
chemical or chemical pastes are obtained.
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Flute or wave types
There are also four main types of settings for
corrugated corrugated paper. These types are
designated by the letters A, B, C, and E. Their
characteristics are indicated in the table
below. The most common flute is the “C”
type, which has largely replaced the “A” type
because it requires less paper (approximately
15% less).
The “A” flute gives superior resistance to
vertical compression, the “C” type is
approximately 15% less, and the “B” type is
25% less.

The "B" flute has greater resistance to flat
compression (50% greater than the "A" flute
and 25% greater than the "C" flute). The “B”
type flute is first used to make curd shapes as
a special shape for packing fruit and
vegetables, for example.
The “E” type flute, which is very thin, finds
applications as a material for unit packaging
or for display purposes. It is often given a
white exterior wall with color printing.
The most common combination of double-
double-sided corrugated cardboard is B + C.
The double-double face cardboard box, which
is determined as B + C will have the type B
flute on the outside and the type C flute inside
the box.
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Uses of corrugated cardboard
Boxes: Fruits, edible oil, footwear, biscuit /
waffle soaps, noodles, ceramics, liqueurs,
phosphorous, dairy products, confections,
beer, fish preserves, medicines, ice cream,
snacks.
Cardboard cylinder: Solids, liquids,
granules.
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Tin
Tinplate is a thin layer of tin coated low
carbon (mild) steel. The coating is applied by
means of electro-deposition.
There are other components, such as the tin
iron alloy located adjacent to the base steel,
and on the tin layer oxide and hydroxide
films and tin salts. Finally there is the
protective lubricating oil. The thicknesses of
the cited layers are approximately 200 to 300
u for the base steel, 0.5 to 2 u for the tin layer
and 0.5 to 1u for the alloy.
Conventional or "single reduction" tinplate is
the most widely used. The thickness of the
base steel is reduced in cold to the desired
thickness, in a rolling mill and with
subsequent annealing. Tinplate "double
reduced" is that which undergoes a second
reduction after annealing.
Fabrication process
It begins by rolling steel ingots obtained
through the continuous casting process in an
oven, going from 60 cm thick to between 16
and 20 cm.
Fabrication process
It begins by rolling steel ingots obtained
through the continuous casting process in an
oven, going from 60 cm thick to between 16
and 20 cm. Pickling A continuous pickling
system is used in order to remove the oxide
and the surface scale using a hot SO4H2 or
CIH solution (sulfuric or hydrochloric acid),
then a hot and cold water wash is performed;
it is dried and coated with a thin layer of oil
to prevent oxidation and to assist with this
lubrication in the subsequent cold rolling
process.
Cold reduction
The 2mm thick black sheet is reduced to 0.2-
0.4mm cold, either by oil dripping by
dripping directly onto the strip. The rollers
must also be cooled with water or the same
lubricant.
Electrolytic cleaning
Before annealing, it is necessary to remove
contaminating products that adhere to the
steel surface during the previous processes
(mainly: oil). The band is cleaned by passing
it through hot alkaline solution baths aided by
electrolytic action. The clean steel is then
dried with hot air.
Annealing
The cold rolled strip is hard and brittle.
Annealing is necessary to decrease its
stiffness and make it malleable.
Temper laminate
At this stage the strip is rolled in a roller train
to improve flatness as well as the required
metallurgical properties such as the required
hardness and level of finish.
Coil Preparation
In this step the uneven edges of the coil are
cut and joined together to form larger coils.
Electrolytic tin platingTo perform
electrolytic tinning, coils are worked that are
joined to each other at their ends. Thorough
cleaning, pickling and washing are also
carried out at this stage, essential steps for the
preparation of a totally clean surface for the
electro-deposition of tin.
Passivated
This process is carried out to prevent the
reaction of tin with sulfur (present in some
foods such as meat derivatives). Black tin
sulfide is generated and the phenomenon is
known as “sulfide staining”.
Tinplate container definition
It is the container destined to contain products
to preserve, transport and market them. Its
component parts:
Body: It is the part of the container between
the bottoms or between the bottom and the
lid.
Top and / or bottom: It is the part of the
container mechanically attached to the body
in such a way that only by destroying the
container can it be separated.
Inlaid body: It is the body built in such a
way that it constitutes a single piece with the
bottom, it does not have any union or joint.
Body with seam: It is the body built by
bending or bending and whose ends are
joined by seams.
Rivet: It is the union that is obtained by
bending the edge of the sheets, linking and
tightening so that they join.
Welding: It is the union of the parts,
conveniently prepared, which is carried out
by welding.
Classification
Two pieces (Sausages): Made only with
cover and body.
Three pieces (Soldiers in the body):
Constituted by cover, bottom and body.
Tinplate Packaging Uses
Foods:
- Juices, fruits, soups, legumes, fish, meats.
- Edible oils.
Paints.
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Wood
Wood is defined as the material of anisotropic
character of complex structure that deforms
the woody tissue or subcortical part of the
physiologically inactive felled tree.
After debarking the logs, the transformation
into elements with square or rectangular
sections is carried out in a sawmill.
Depending on the species, the final
destination and the demands of the users, the
logs are cut according to dimensions that
reduce their percentage of humidity by
stacking them in columns, keeping the
ventilation of quality wood relatively low.
Since the manufacture of packaging and
pallets requires large quantities of relatively
low-quality wood, it would be unrealistic to
apply sawing techniques that would improve
quality at the expense of volume. In addition,
wood intended for packaging attempts to
obtain the highest volume performance
without losing sight of the inevitable
deformations. With many species, high
humidity is combated by chemical treatments,
such as immersion in pentachlorophenol,
which is preferred to chemical treatments in
the open air or heating to the 20% humidity
safety limit.
Wood suitable for packaging
In choosing suitable species for the
manufacture of packaging, various factors
must be taken into account. These include
density, ease of nailing, market availability,
nature of content, strength, stiffness, and
material availability in the required sections
and lengths.
The choice is further complicated by the need
to take into account the market situation; for
example, a species may be ideal for
packaging use, but is most appreciated in
high-quality carpentry or veneer, the demand
for which justifies higher prices than ordinary
packaging manufacturing.
Technical factors related to wood
In principle, there are no particular
regulations on the species that must be used
for certain packaging. The choice of species
will depend on the quantities available and
their price. However, the mechanical
resistance characteristics of a package are
directly related to the type of wood used, its
quality, its thickness, the design of the box
and the way in which the construction and
assembly of the packages has been carried
out. . In this regard, different woods often
have very different properties, such as:
- Ease of preparation (aptitude for working).
- Density or unit weight or specific weight (in
kg / m3).
- Flexural strength (N / mm2).
- Stiffness (N / rmm2).
- Compressive strength (N / mm2).
- Resistance of nails to breakage (depth nailed
to the support in N / mm).
- Crack resistance (width, in N / mm).
- Abrasion resistance.
- Resistance to putrefaction, etc.
- Aptitude of wood for working.
All species have their characteristic
properties. Those who are accustomed to
working with a given species are well aware
of its nailing, tilling, and even irritating
characteristics of sawdust, to the extent that,
in several countries, these issues have been
scientifically studied, each species being
classified according to its positive and
negative characteristics. If you want to carry
out rigorous tests, you must measure:
- The crossing of the veins (difficulty of
brushing).
- The danger of blunting tools due to the
presence of silica or any other abrasive
substance. - The best cutting angles for motor
saws.
- The ease of nailing (thin nails twist when
starting their penetration).
- The tendency to crack (during nailing or
during drying).
- The ability to glue (some hard woods have
difficulties).
Advantages and disadvantages of this type
of packaging
Advantage
A readily available material is used.
Its construction is easy and for this no special
machinery is needed.
They can be used repeatedly.
They have high resistance to different types
of stress to the action of water and humidity.
They do not have construction limitations in
terms of volume and shape.
The high resistance to impact and flexibility
of wood give this type of packaging a high
damping ability.
Disadvantages
Compared with other types of containers,
they can be more expensive, given the
volume of wood they require, and are also
heavier.
The resistance does not turn out to be uniform
since the wood is not a homogeneous
material.
Although they can be reusable, this requires
more work and space to be stored.
Wood always contains a small amount of
moisture, which can adversely affect the
content and, when removed, produces
contractions and deformations in the pieces.
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Plastic
Plastics currently represent one of the main
materials for packaging, used mainly in the
form of bags, bottles, jars, tubes and boxes.
Plastics also have other applications in
packaging and transport packaging. In
addition, plastic films are used to keep
palletized loads away, making them more
secure, by means of retractable and
stretchable films. Plastics are synthetic
products made from petroleum, coal, or
natural gas. Despite fluctuations in the price
of oil and, consequently, in the raw materials
made from it, which serve as the basis for the
conversion of plastics, there will be other
openings to the future, in terms of packaging
and packaging.
Thanks to their flexibility, folding,
adaptability and ease of handling, plastics
will continue to expand on the market. There
is no doubt that new plastic materials will
continue to be developed, as well as new
combinations of natural and synthetic
materials, in the form of products for
packaging and packaging, copolymerized,
laminated or coextruded, in order to respond
to all the needs of the market.
The term plastic in its most general meaning,
is applied to substances of different structures
and natures that lack a fixed boiling point and
possess elasticity and flexibility properties
during a temperature range that allow them to
be molded and adapted to different shapes
and applications.
However, in a restricted sense, it denotes
certain types of synthetic materials obtained
by phenomena of polymerization or artificial
multiplication of carbon atoms in the long
molecular chains of organic compounds
derived from petroleum and other natural
substances.
Main plastic materials for packaging and
packaging
Polyethylene
Polyethylene, ethylene polymer, is the most
important plastic used in containers and
packaging. It is classified into three main
groups:
- LDPE (low density polyethylene): 0.910 to
0.925 g / cm3.
- PEMD (medium density polyethylene):
0.926 to 0.940 g / cm3.
- HDPE (high density polyethylene): 0.941 to
0.965 g / cm3.
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is the type
of PE most used in packaging, in the form of
films, especially for the production of bags.
The LDPE easily supports heat sealing. The
range of LDPEs is made up of various
materials that contain slip or anti-slip agents,
depending on the requirements of the
packaging according to the stability in the
stowage. Bags for packaging perishable
goods, which contain slip agents, represent
another application of the LDPE. In short,
LDPE is a strong and flexible packaging
material with multiple uses.
Medium Density Polyethylene (PEMD),
unlike LDPE, is a material used in
applications that require greater rigidity or a
higher softening point. However, PEMD is
somewhat more expensive than LDPE.
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) is a stiffer
material than the previous two. It can be
subjected to temperatures that reach 120
degrees Celsius, which allows it to be used as
a sterilizable vapor packaging. HDPE, in the
form of tapes, can be used to make woven
bags. However, for the latter application,
polypropylene is more common.
Polypropylene
Polypropylene (PP) is another type of olefinic
plastic. Stiffer than PE, offers greater
resistance to breakage. It is also more
transparent and less permeable than PE. The
softening temperature of PP, especially due to
its high crystallinity, can reach 150 degrees
Celsius, which allows pharmaceutical uses
that require autoclave sterilization. PP is also
used for the packaging of snacks that can be
heated or even boiled inside it. Finally, PP is
used in the manufacture of injection-molded
closures. The density of PP can reach 0.90 g /
m3 and competes strongly with PE in special
uses, because it can be made very thin.
Cellophane has also been replaced, for
example, in the packaging of cigar packs.
However,
Polystyrene
Polystyrene (PS) is a petroleum-based plastic,
produced by polymerization of styrene. This
perfectly transparent material is highly
permeable to water vapor and gases. Due to
its low impact resistance, this rigid plastic is
often covered with synthetic rubber or
butadiene to give it greater resistance. The
addition of butadiene, however, removes the
transparency of the PS and gives it a whitish
appearance. The PS allows easy conversion
for packaging applications. It is suitable for
blowing, injection, extrusion, thermoforming,
etc., but its applications are limited,
especially due to its low density. It is
generally used for trays and jars, used for
example for vegetables and fresh meats,
yogurt and other dairy products. The PS also
serves as a film for wrapping fruits and
vegetables such as tomatoes and lettuces. The
biaxial orientation of the PS gives it greater
resistance, thus renewing the name of
oriented polystyrene (PSO).
Polyesters
Polyesters, or linear ester plastics, are made
by condensation, just like polyamides. In
many cases they are extruded to form
biaxially oriented films. Polyester has great
mechanical resistance and withstands
temperatures that can reach 300 degrees
Celsius. Polyester film is a good barrier
against water vapor and is resistant to organic
solvents, but it is difficult to seal, so it is
often co-extruded or laminated with
polyethylene. The polyester film can be
reversed from PVDC to reduce its
permeability to gases and odors. In
combination with aluminum and PE, it offers
an excellent material for vacuum packaging
of coffee or meat products, etc. Sometimes it
is used for products that can be boiled with its
container (bag), especially for its resistance to
high temperatures. Polyester films are
thermoformable. There are also retractable
versions of these films.
Polyamide
Polyamide (PA), of which nylon is a
registered version, has excellent heat and
mechanical resistance. There are several
types of polyamides, some with a melting
point that can reach 250º C. PA is used in
some multi-layer containers, especially those
for vacuum packaging, for cutting fresh meat
or cheese, in thermoforming machines fed by
coils. Polyamide is frequently coextruded
with different PE films of different
thicknesses, therefore it can be heat sealed.
PA is widely used for packaging sterile items
for hospitals.
Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC)
There are two kinds of polyvinyl chloride:
rigid PVC and plasticized PVC. The first is
impermeable to water vapor and gases, it is
resistant to fats. It is used for thermoformed
containers for butter and margarine. Its
transparency allows it to be used in the
manufacture of bottles for mineral water or
table oils and fruit juices, as well as
containers for cosmetics. Some varieties are
resistant to gas pressure and have been used
for the packaging of beer and carbonated
beverages. Plasticized PVC is used for the
packaging of meats and fish in good
condition, fruits, vegetables and other fresh
products. It can also be used for strapping
palletized loads. There are also other
plasticized PVC films that serve to pack
discs, for example,
Uses of plastic packaging
Carbonated drinks.
Edible oils.
Yogurt, cheeses.
Sausages.
Cleaning articles.
Beauty items.
Balanced food.
Rice
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Glass
The use of glass as packaging material for
food dates back at least two millennia.
Container glass comprises bottles, jars, jugs,
jars, and glasses. The application sectors are
diverse and cover a wide range of edible
products: liquids, preserves, etc. In many
sectors, competition from other materials,
especially paper and plastics, is evident.
Glass Container Manufacturing
Glass for packaging is produced following an
integrated and continuous process, which
allows the finished product to be obtained
directly from raw materials.
This situation differs from what happens with
metal, plastic and cardboard containers, in
which the material is produced in the first
place in the form of ingots, granules, powders
or sheets to later be transformed into
containers. This glass manufacturing
procedure currently comprises the following
stages:
- Preparation of the glass in the melting
furnace.
- Chemical treatment of the glass that has
been distributed to the machines through the
work hopper and the distribution channels
(known as feeders).
- Manufacture of the item in the machines.
- Application of a protective treatment to the
surface.
- Reheating (annealing) in order to eliminate
the stresses generated during molding in the
machine.
- Packed in boxes or on pallets.
Numerous innovations have been made in
each of these spheres that allow glass
materials to maintain an exceptional quality /
price ratio, compared to other packaging
materials.
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Properties
Glass mechanical resistance:The most
critical property of glass is, without a doubt,
its mechanical resistance, especially with the
evolution of the lightening of containers.
Actually, this property is highly controversial,
since glass is notorious for its fragility. Its
theoretical breaking stress is around 14,000
MN (meganewtons) / m2, which makes it one
of the strongest materials available. This high
resistance corresponds to a great rigidity of
the vitreous network. However, the high
rigidity prevents a local elasticity that would
allow the glass to react flexibly to mechanical
demands and partly explains its basic
brittleness. In practice, industrial glass has
imperfections and especially surface defects
(microscopic cracks) that act as stress
concentration factors. Therefore,
Thermal properties:During certain
packaging procedures, the glass undergoes
more or less sudden heating or cooling, so it
is necessary to know its thermal properties.
The glass material expands under the effect of
heat, like all solids, and the specific heat of
glass. (at constant pressure it is comparable to
that of metals). Glass is a better thermal
insulator than metals and has a certain
thermal inertia considering its heat capacity,
which can be used to keep a cold liquid or a
hot food product. Glass bottles and jars are
sometimes subjected, during packaging
operations, to thermal changes due to rapid
cooling or heating.
Optical properties:The transmission of light
from the visible spectrum represents a
fundamental characteristic of glass, and its
transparency is certainly the most attractive
property of this material widely used in the
packaging industry to improve the
presentation of food products. The so-called
"white" glasses are made of only silica and
transmit almost all the light in the visible
spectrum. In practice, due to the impurities
contained in the raw materials, such as iron or
chromium, it is necessary to carry out a
bleaching operation to achieve truly colorless
or “extra white” glass.
Ultraviolet ray transmission:Ultraviolet
rays are a form of radiant energy, harmful to
organic molecules. A high dose of these rays
could affect the taste of groceries. Glaziers
have successfully produced industrial glass
with high filtering power without dulling the
material or even changing its color in the
visible light spectrum. This is done in
glassmaking, under high reduction
conditions, or conversely, under high
oxidation conditions.
Infrared ray transmission:The glasses have
an important absorption band associated with
the presence of iron. This band plays an
important role in that it modifies the
absorption and emission properties of thermal
radiation. For the fusion and thermal
conditioning of the glass it is convenient to
have low absorption and stable materials. The
main glass containers can be classified
according to their infrared ray transmission,
that is, their suitability for thermal transfer by
radiation.
Chemical inertia:Glass has great chemical
stability in the presence of any normal or
edible liquid that can be considered an inert
substance. In contact with an aqueous
solution, it can give rise to a very weak
migration and in no way toxic; their reaction
to oils and solid products is even less and
migration is practically undetectable. Glass
can be considered the reference material for
stability in case of contact with edibles.
Types of packaging
Packaging for asparagus
Juice and nectars containers
Containers for vegetables, tubers and sauces.

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a) Containers for Asparagus Wide-mouth
containers that are sterilizable and that have a
closure system (together with the lid) that
guarantees the tightness of the product. The
lids must also be sterilizable, with total
gumming and optionally can have a safety
button to confirm the vacuum. Regarding the
shapes of the containers, they serve technical
and commercial reasons. They generally have
rings to avoid contact between the lids. Most
of the jars are generic in design, which are
marketed in the target markets. The heights of
the containers are associated with the
commercial sizes of the asparagus.
b) Containers for juices and nectars: Narrow-
mouth and pasteurizable, they have a closing
system (together with the lid) that guarantees
the tightness of the product. You can have
several types of caps, among the most
common are the 28mm plastic and 38mm
twist off metal.
c) Containers for vegetables, tubers and
sauces: Wide-mouth, sterilizable and have a
closure system (together with the lid) that
guarantees the tightness of the product. The
lids must also be sterilizable, with total
gumming and optionally have a safety button
to confirm the vacuum.
NORMATIVITY
RESOLUTION 683 OF 2012 (March 28)
DO 48.388, March 30 of 2012
by means of which the Technical Regulation
is issued on the sanitary requirements that
must be met by materials, objects, packaging
and equipment intended to come into contact
with food and beverages for human
consumption. Note: Developed by Resolution
834 of 2013, by Resolution 4143 of 2012 and
by Resolution 4142 of 2012.
TITLE II
TECHNICAL CONTENT
CHAPTER I
Classification
Article 4. Classification. Taking into account
the groups of materials, objects, containers
and equipment, these are classified:
1. Plastic materials, including their additives.
2. Elastomers and rubbers, including their
additives.
3. Cellulosics and their additives.
4. Papers, cardboard and cardboard, including
their additives.
5. Glass and ceramics.
6. Metals and alloys, including their coatings
such as varnishes, enamels and lacquers.
Paragraph. Specific regulations for groups of
materials, objects, containers and equipment
will be established by the Ministry of Health
and Social Protection. (Note: Paragraph
developed by Resolution 834 of 2013, by
Resolution 4143 of 2012 and by
Resolution 4142 of 2012.).
Article 5. Requirements for smart and active
materials and articles intended to come into
contact with food or beverages for human
consumption. Active and intelligent materials
and articles intended to come into contact
with food for human consumption must meet
the following requirements:
1. Substances that modify the composition or
sensory characteristics of food must comply
with the regulations issued by the Ministry of
Health and Social Protection for food
additives.
2. Components that transmit substances to or
around packaged foods or that absorb
substances from or around packaged foods
must comply with the provisions of these
technical regulations.
3. Active materials and articles must not
cause changes in the composition or sensory
characteristics of foods that may mislead
consumers.
4. Smart materials and objects must not
contain information on the state of food that
could mislead consumers.
5. Active and intelligent materials and objects
intended to enter
In contact with food, they must carry on the
label information that
allow the consumer to identify the inedible
parts.
6. Active and intelligent materials and objects
must indicate on the label that they are active
or intelligent, or both.
CHAPTER II
Prohibitions
Article 6. Prohibitions. The materials that are
prohibited to come into contact with food and
beverages are:
1. Natural or synthetic fiber bags, not of first
use.
2. Wooden containers (guacales) that are not
of first use.
3. Cork stoppers and other objects (seals or
garnishes), not of first use.
4. The use of recovered materials post-
consumer or industrial waste as raw material
for the manufacture of materials, objects,
containers and equipment intended to come
into contact with food and beverages that may
alter their safety.
Paragraph. The use and use of containers,
containers and packaging that have legends
and marks corresponding to other products
that circulate in commerce or that have
previously served as containers, containers or
packaging of other types of products that are
not owned by the manufacturer or is
prohibited. merchant who uses them.
CHAPTER III
Recycling and reuse
Article 7. Recycled and reused materials. For
the use of recycled and reused materials, the
following requirements must be met:
1. The use of recycled plastic materials is
allowed when the container, object or
multilayer equipment manufactured with
them, has a functional barrier that limits the
migration of contaminants to food and drink.
2. The functional barrier must be sanitary
suitable; Its efficacy must be quantified by
means of migration tests for contaminants or
other compounds.
3. The recycled materials used to manufacture
containers, equipment or mono or multilayer
objects, must be previously subjected to a
decontamination or ultra cleaning process, the
recovered material must be food grade.
4. The reuse of glass or plastic containers will
be allowed only if there are packaging return
technologies, which include the logistics of
recovering them, the detection of present
contaminants, their cleaning and sanitation, as
well as the evaluation of their suitability.
health and safety.
5. The use of recycled cellulosic fibers is
allowed for the manufacture of primary
containers for fruits and vegetables in shell
and those established in the Technical
Regulation of cellulosic materials, articles,
containers and equipment and their additives
intended to come into contact with food and
beverages. for human consumption issued by
the Ministry of Health and Social Protection.
Requirements
Article 13 Requirements for the manufacture
of materials, objects, containers and
equipment intended to come into contact with
food and beverages.
The manufacture of materials, objects,
packaging and equipment intended to come
into contact with food and beverages, must
meet the following requirements:
1. Raw materials will meet the following
requirements:
1.1. All substances to be used in the
manufacture of objects, containers, materials
and equipment, intended to come into contact
with food and beverages, must be on the
positive lists of the FDA (Food and Drug
Administration), United States (EU) ; CE
(European Union or Member States of the
European Union) or Mercosur.
1.2. The raw materials must be of good
technical quality according to the purity
criteria.
1.3. Verify the sanitary conditions of the raw
materials before entering the process.
1.4. Materials that do not meet sanitary
conditions must be identified and controlled
to prevent their use.
1.5. Raw materials and supplies and additives
must be stored and handled in such a way that
they avoid confusion, alteration,
contamination and adulteration.
2. The water used for the manufacture of
objects, containers, materials and equipment,
destined to come into contact with food and
beverages, must comply with the provisions
established in Chapter III of Resolution 2115
of 2007 or in the regulations that modify it. ,
add or replace.
3. Prevention of contamination:
3.1. Have a pollution prevention procedure
based on risk analysis.
3.2. The equipment and its arrangement must
be adequate to avoid cross contamination
between food and beverage contact materials
and materials for other uses or their
ingredients.
3.3. The environments must be located
according to the logical sequence of the
process, from the reception of the inputs to
the dispatch of the finished product, in such a
way that cross contamination is avoided. If
required, such environments must guarantee
hygienic sanitary conditions of the processing
operations.
3.4. The areas for raw materials and ready-to-
use products must have a physical or
functional separation.
3.5. Have a separate area for returned or
rejected products.
3.6. Establish procedures to avoid product
contamination during transfer, packaging and
loading operations.
4. Administration of production variants or
changes:
4.1. All operating and process procedures
must be established and documented.
4.2. Have a procedure to implement changes
in the
operations and processes, capable of
detecting and indicating possible changes in
the composition or the risk of contamination.
4.3. Have a procedure to handle changes in
the formulation of products, raw materials
and supplies, and
providers.
4.4. Have documented procedures that
consider the
impact of these changes on quality,
performance, composition and
compliance with regulations of the material
or object produced.
5. Storage and transportation:
5.1. Have a sufficient area for the storage of
materials
premiums and supplies.
5.2. Storage conditions must avoid
adulteration, contamination and deterioration
of materials, objects, packaging and
equipment intended to come into contact with
food and beverages.
5.3. Have exclusive storage areas to store
materials, objects, packaging and equipment
intended to enter
contact with food and drinks.
5.4. All stored products and materials must
comply with the labeling requirements
established in number 3 of article 15 of these
technical regulations.
5.5. The vehicle that transports materials,
objects, containers and equipment destined to
come into contact with food and beverages
must guarantee that these products are not
transported together with dangerous
substances and others that by their nature
represent a risk of contamination.
Article 14.Responsibility. Any natural or
legal person that is dedicated to the
distribution or commercialization of material
objects, containers and equipment destined to
come into contact with food and beverages
will be responsible for compliance with the
sanitary standards.
CHAPTER III
Lettering or labeling and mandatory
legends
Article 15Lettering or labeling and
mandatory legends. The labeling or labeling
requirements and mandatory legends for the
commercialization of materials, objects,
packaging and equipment, which
not yet in contact with food and beverages, on
the packaging or in the documents
accompanying the shipment must carry the
following information:
1. The legend: “for contact with food and
beverages”, said information will appear in
visible characters, clearly legible and
indelible.
2. Name or company name and address of the
manufacturer.
3. Labeling or identification (numerical,
alphanumeric codes, bars, perforations,
among others), that allow the traceability of
the material, object, container or equipment
intended to come into contact with food and
beverages.
4. In the case of materials, objects, packaging
and active equipment; information on the use
or permitted uses, name and quantity of the
substances released by the active component;
In order that the food and beverages that
come into contact with them can comply with
the provisions that apply to them, including
those inherent in the
labelled.

References
minsalud.gov.co. (May 15, 2020). Obtained from minsalud.gov.co:
https://www.minsalud.gov.co/sites/rid/Lists/BibliotecaDigital/RIDE/DE/DIJ/resolucion-
0683-de-2012.pdf

siicex.gob.pe. (May 14, 2020). Obtained from siicex.gob.pe:

http://www.siicex.gob.pe/siicex/documentosportal/188937685rad66DEB.pdf
Mass transfer phenomena in food packaging
J. López
(National Open and Distance University, Packaging and food packaging phase 4)

Summary- In the food industry, phenomena of
movement transfer and heat mass transfer are
observed without directly stipulating the
biochemical processes of food, which are of
utmost importance for the preservation of food,
here we will find illustrations that specifically
teach us topics related to transfer of mass applied
to food packaging based on the physico-chemical
characteristics that can be obtained by being
contained in the different packages according to
factors of climatic exposure and behavior with the
materials used that can cause organoleptic and / or
sensory transformations .
INTRODUCTION
Science and technology have long been
moving towards the evolution of barriers
offered by food packaging. They are
currently studying the properties of various
polymer packaging using absorbents for
oxygen gas, ethylene gas and other gases
from chemical compounds and other natural
products, which are focused on being more
environmentally friendly.
Therefore, the different phenomena that
affect food packaging will be studied.
The unstoppable increase in the
consumption of food products in the world
causes an increase in discarded packaging,
which creates a high danger for the
environment.
A. PENETRATION
Passage of gases, vapors or aromas through the
container, (permeable). The driving force is the
difference in the partial P of the permeants on
both sides of the plastic membrane. Examples:
- loss of CO2 (carbonated), SO2 (wine), H2O
(fresh, freezed, dehydrated food)
- Loss of aromas (species, fish) - Absorption of
aromas (bread, dehydrated food)
- O2 absorption that produces the alteration of
proteins, vitamins, oxidative rancidity in fats and
oils (presence of color)

The main function of packaging is to protect

the product contained in it, for this reason
the industry is manufacturing packages
destined or made according to the type of
product and storage and conservation
conditions of the same according to the
conditions of exposure to the medium.
Capillary flow:passage of permeants through
pores, holes or defects of the container itself. This
process depends on the size, shape and physical-
chemical characteristics of the permeant and not
on the packaging material.
Diffusion: There are three processes at this stage:
• Adsorption or condensation on one side of the
material
• Dissemination through the material
• Desorption to the other side of the material
What is done to lower the permeability in the
industry?
1) Temperature drop, they are kept in a
refrigerator
2) Increased tortuosity of the road (greater
thickness, fillings)
3) They are complemented with materials
incompatible with vapors (EVOH (ethylene vinyl
alcohol), nylon, PVDC, etc.)
Steady state permeability
Steady state permeability is the flow per unit
of pressure gradient through a polymeric
membrane, this condition occurs when
diffusion and solubility are constant.
Q
C=
AX
Where Q is the quantity of permeate mass, A
the contact surface and t the time. Hemy's
law indicates that the concentration of the
permeants is directly proportional to the
pressure in the polymer. For a polymer
material of fixed thickness L, at constant
temperature and with gas concentrations x
that vary linearly (xl> x2), the equation can
be integrated through a thickness to
calculate the amount of permeate mass (Q),
obtaining.
x 1− X
F=D 2
L
Expressing the concentration in terms of
pressure, assuming that Henry's law is
fulfilled, equation (4) is obtained, which
describes the permeability in steady state in
terms of pressure difference:
P1−¿ P
F=DS 2
¿
L
Taking into account equations 1 and 3, and
replacing the terms in equation 4, we arrive
at the following expression (Equation 5):
L. Q
P=
A.t.∆ p
Taking into account equation 5 permeability
(P) defines it as the amount of a substance
(mass or volume, Q) that passes through a
membrane of thickness (L), per unit area (A),
time (t) and pressure gradient or
concentration (p).∆
In addition to the permeability coefficient,
other parameters are also used to express
the barrier properties of plastic materials,
such as permeance (R) and transmission
speed (VT).
Permeance is defined as the amount of
substance (by weight or volume) that a film
of area A passes through, per unit of time
and unit of concentration difference (p)
(Equation 6):∆
Q
R=
A.t.∆ p
The relationship of permanence to
permeability is (Equation 7):
P = L. R
Transmission rate is defined as the amount
of a substance (by mass or by volume) that
passes through a film of area A per unit time.
 Q The term "migration" generally describes a
VT = diffusion process, which can be strongly
A.t
influenced by the interaction of food components
The relationship of transmission speed with with packaging material [16]. 2.1.1 Main migrant
permeability is (Equation 9) according to elements The substances that can migrate to food
depend on the nature of the packaging material.
(GUARDA and GALOTTO, 2001).
The polymers used in food packaging and
VT . L packaging are made up of monomers, oligomers,
P= additives and solvent residues (inks and / or
∆P
adhesives) that can be transferred to the food [16,
17]. Among the additives used in the manufacture
of packaging are plasticizers, antioxidants,
B. MIGRATION stabilizers and colorants, among others [16].
Monomers and oligomers (finite number of
monomers) are reactive and potentially toxic
substances. An example of these are the
monomers styrene and vinyl chloride used to
make PS and PVC, respectively [16]. Plasticizers
(butyl stearate, acetyltributyl citrate and adipates,
among others) have low toxicity, but have a
potential carcinogenic effect [16]. The migration
of plasticizers increases when there is direct
contact with fatty foods and with the increase in
temperature [16]. Antioxidants are used to slow
down the oxidation process of plastics generated
by exposure to light. BHT (Butyl hydroxytoluene)
and Irganox 1010 are the most widely used
antioxidants. Most antioxidants are toxic [16]. On
the other hand, to prevent photo-oxidation of
polymeric materials, light stabilizers such as
HALS (sterically hindered amines) are added [15].
The dyes used can be divided into two main
categories: pigments and inks. The pigments can
be organic and inorganic, and are characterized by
having a high incompatibility with polymeric
materials, so intense mixing methods are required
[15]. The inks are highly compatible with most
polymer matrices, melt easily, and do not affect
the transparency of the material [15].

Substances that are not intentionally added in the

packaging production process, such as those that
originate as a result of their decomposition
processes (solvents: residues of printing inks and
adhesives), can also migrate to low feed. specific
storage conditions [18]. 2.1.2 Food simulants A
simulant is a product that mimics the behavior of a
food or food group. Given the complexity of food
products and the variety of conditions that arise
from contact with plastics, certain substances
listed in Table 1 have been officially established,
as possible simulants to be used in determining
migration in food. When it is not possible to use
any of the fatty simulants, the use of iso-octane is
allowed,
http://www.scielo.org.co/pdf/rium/v13n25/v13n25
a08.pdf
FOOD PACKAGING MIGRATION
INVESTIGATIONS
In a large number of studies migrants have been
evaluated in various types of packaging materials
approximately since the 1970s:
- In the year of 1989, Kim et al. evaluated the
vulcanization process of rubber and found that the
raw materials subjected to said process can
generate substances such as phenanthrene,
anthracene and pyrene which become potential
migrants when the product is in contact with food
or other types of products [29] .
- In the 90s, the migration of oligomers present in
crystallized PET (CPET) commonly used in
containers for microwave food cooking was
evaluated, and it was found that in popcorn these
oligomers reached migration levels of (0.485 mg /
dm2); however, there is a possibility that other
oligomers not detected by HPLC were present in
the food [30].
- Aurela et al, evaluated the migration of
alkylbenzenes (solvent used in printing ink) from
cardboard packaging in hamburgers, and found
lower overall migration values than allowed [31].
- The migration of Na and Cl ions present in
oxygen scavengers introduced in plastic food
packaging was evaluated and it was found that the
overall migration values were higher than those
allowed in the non-acidic simulants used [32].
- Conventional preservatives (sodium benzoate,
sodium nitrite, potassium sorbate and sodium
lactate) were incorporated into LDPE films, and
PS and PET sheets. Total migration in simulants
showed that the permissible limits were exceeded
[33].
- A study evaluated the global migration of PVC
films in various fatty simulants. 95% ethanol was
found to be the best alternative fatty food simulant
to reproduce global PVC migration; It was also
found that when the packaging / food system was
subjected to microwave heating, the global
migration increased to 45mg / dm2, exceeding the
allowed limit [34].
- Metal migration (Mg, Fe and Si) was evaluated
in starch and clay nanocomposite films used to
pack lettuce and spinach. Food presented low
specific migration (lower than allowed). The
higher observed silicon content could be attributed
to the fact that clay nanoparticles are mainly
composed of this element [35].
- Researchers evaluated the migration of
monomers in PLA and PLA / PCL films, and
found that lactic acid migrated in amounts greater
than those allowed for the established global limit
[36].
- Recent studies on migration include valuations
of solvents, preservatives, lactic acid (PLA
monomer), active compounds and chemical
contaminants. Other components such as
phthalates are usually incorporated as plasticizers
in conventional plastics and their effect is harmful
to health. In this regard, migration of phthalates in
food packaging and its variation with polarity and
volatility are reported [37].
- Other researchers reported the migration of ethyl
lauryl arginate ELA together with components
(impurities) typical of the packaging material
"PET" in chicken fillets and food simulants. ELA
are widely used surfactants in the production of
active food packaging, as they have strong
antimicrobial activity against a wide range of
pathogenic microorganisms, especially in the
reduction of Listeria monocytogenes. The
components that migrated did not cause adverse
health effects [38].
 - Although lactic acid (PLA monomer) is
accepted by the FDA and EC on the list of
substances allowed to make food contact
packaging, it has been shown to cause irritation in
infants [39].
Researchers identified PLA sheet migration
products, which are used in lunch packaging in
Japan. At 60 ° C, above the glass transition
temperature of the polymer, it decomposed, and
the overall migration (lactic acid monomer and
oligomers) exceeded the allowed limits. It was
concluded that the migration rate increases due to
high temperatures [39].
https://turincondietetico.wordpress.com/2017/02/2
6/que-toxicos-transmiten-los-envases-a-los-
alimentos/
C. ABSORPTION
It consists of the incorporation of fundamentally
volatile components from a food into its
packaging material. Absorption is expressed as a
function of the increase in concentration of the
compound studied in a polymer as a function of
the time that the polymer is exposed to that
compound. Absorption phenomena described as
processes of mass transfer from food to polymer
can also be described by equations such as the
following:
Mrepresents the amount of substance that
migrates from the food to the polymer in time t,
Cfd corresponds to the initial concentration of said
substance in the food. D is the diffusion
coefficient of the substance in said simulant. k
expresses a constant of proportionality that takes
into account the contact surface of the polymer
with the simulant and K represents the partition
coefficient of the substance. The absorption
phenomenon can have a double consequence in
terms of packaged food.
 It directly affects the food, since it loses
part of its aroma, modifying its
organoleptic characteristics.
 It affects indirectly since, along with
diffusion phenomena, absorption
determines the phenomenon of
permeation and diffusion, being able to
change the properties of the absorbent
polymer and modify its behavior as a
barrier. This modification of the polymer
of the structure can also lead to a
modification in the food in the packaged
food.
Factors Affecting Absorption
 Difference in polarity and solubility
parameters between penetrant, its solvent
medium and polymer. The solubility of
an organic compound in a polymer is
related to the difference between what is
called the solubility parameter of that
compound and the polymeric material, so
the smaller this difference, the greater the
solubility of the compound in that matrix.
 Structure of the polymer and chemical
structure of the penetrant. The solubility
of volatile compounds in a polymer is
strongly related to the degree of ordering
of the chains that make up the polymer
matrix, since the presence of amorphous
regions in the polymer favor solubility. It
is also necessary to take into account the
chemical structure of the penetrant, such
as the presence of functional groups or
the length of its chain.
 Concentration of the penetrating
compound and presence of a co-
penetrant. The degree of absorption of a
compound in a polymer varies if it is part
 of a mixture of compounds compared to
whether there are no other co-penetrating
compounds.
 Temperature. The solubility of a
compound in a polymer is favored by
increasing temperature.
An illustrative figure (Figure 8) is shown to
understand the mechanism of diffusion.
D. DIFFUSION

The diffusion (D) of a molecule in a matrix is a

kinetic parameter that is related to the mobility of
the molecules in the material. Said parameter is
represented by a flow magnitude (J) that passes
perpendicularly through an area of different
homogeneous phase sections, with a concentration
gradient of migrants. It is based on a steady-state
dimensional process, which can be described
according to Fick's first law (Crank and Gupta,
1975), (Equation 2):

The diffusion coefficient will depend largely on

the size and molecular weight of the bmigrant
Where J is the migrant flow (mol m-2 s -1), D (C)
compound, as well as its shape and flexibility. The
is the diffusion coefficient (m2 s -1), C is the
characteristics of the packaging material will
concentration of the migrant compound (mol m-3)
mainly depend on the type of material (paper,
and x is the thickness of the material (m). When
polymer ...), its crystallinity, glassy or gummy
the concentration varies with time, the diffusion
state, porosity, orientation, plasticization and
coefficient is expressed according to the second
formulation (Dole, et al., 2006; Reynier, et al.,
Fick equation (Barnes, et al., 2007a; Catalá and
2001a ; Reynier, et al., 2001b),
Gavara, 2002a; Dole, et al., 2006; Tehrany and
Desobry, 2004), see Equation 3:

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