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UNIT II
1. PLASTIC

Plastic is a synthetic material made from a wide range of organic polymers such
as polyethylene, PVC, nylon, etc., that can be moulded into shape while soft,
and then set into a rigid or slightly elastic form.

'Plastic' is a general name given to a wide range of synthetic materials that are
based on polymers. The construction industry uses plastic for a wide range of
applications because of its versatility, strength-to-weight
ratio, durability, corrosion resistance, and so on.

Plastic can be manufactured into forms such as; pipes, cables, coverings,
panels, films, sheets and so on; and can be formed or expanded to create low-
density materials; and be dissolved in solvents or dispersed as emulsions.

The advantages of using plastic in construction are that it is lightweight yet

strong which makes it easier to transport and shift around sites. It is also
resistant to rot and corrosion and has strong weather ability due to it being
capable of achieving tight seals. Plastic can also be flexible, and is easily
extruded, bent, moulded, 3D printed, and so on. Plastic can also be easily
removed and some plastics can be recycled.

The disadvantages of plastic are that it has a high embodied energy content and
a low modulus of elasticity, meaning that it is generally unsuitable for load-
bearing applications. Unless treated, most plastics are also ignitable and have a
high thermal expansion rate , which requires detailing to allow for adequate
thermal movement.

There are environmental concerns about some plastics because of

difficulties recycling them, there persistence in the environment after disposal,
and concerns regarding chemical additives used to make plastics flexible,
resistant to fire, and adhesive.

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Properties of Plastics as a Construction Material

Each plastic material has its own peculiar properties to suit its particular uses.
The success of plastic as an engineering material will depends up on the
selection of variety of plastic. Following are the general properties of plastic.

1. Appearance
2. Chemical resistance
3. Dimensional stability
4. Ductility
5. Durability
6. Electric insulation
7. Finishing
8. Fire resistance
9. Fixing
10. Humidity
11. Maintenance
12. Melting point
13. Optical property
14. Recycling
15. Sound absorption
16. Strength
17. Thermal property
18. Weather resistance
19. Weight
1. Appearance of Plastics
In the market there are so many types of models of plastics are available such as
transparent, coloured etc. suitable pigments are added in the process of
manufacturing of plastic material to get these different properties. Therefore,
these will give good appearance to the structure and makes it attractive.

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2. Chemical Resistance of Plastics

Plastics offer great resistance against chemicals and solvents. Chemical
composition of plastics during manufacturing will decide the degree of
chemical resistance. Most of the plastics available in the market offer great
corrosion resistance. So, corrosive metals are replaced by plastic in the case of
water carrying pipes, etc.
3. Dimensional Stability
Thermo-plastic types of plastics can be easily reshaped and reused. However, in
the case of thermo-setting type plastics, it is not possible to reshape or remould
the material.
4. Ductility of Plastics
Ductile nature of plastic is very low. When tensile stress are acting on plastic
member, they may fail without any prior indication.
5. Durability of Plastics
Plastics with sufficient surface hardness are having good durability. Sometimes,
plastics may affected by termites and rodents especially in the case of thermo-
plastic types, however it is not a serious problem because of no nutrition values
in plastic.

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6. Electric Insulation
Plastics are good electric insulators. So they are used as linings for electric
cables and for electronics tools.
7. Finishing
Any type of finishing treatment van be given to the plastics. Mass production of
plastic particles with uniformity of surface finish is done by having technical
control during manufacturing.
8. Fire Resistance
The resistance to temperature or fire for varieties of plastics considerably varies
depending upon the structure. Plastics made of cellulose acetate are burnt
slowly. PVC made plastics do not catch fire easily. Plastics made of phenol
formaldehyde and urea formaldehyde are fireproof materials.
9. Fixing
Fixing of plastic materials is so easy. We can bolt, drill or glued to fix plastic
material position.
10. Humidity
The plastics made up of cellulosic materials are affected by the presence of
moisture. The plastics made of poly vinyl chloride (PVC pipes) offers great
resistance against moisture.

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11. Maintenance
Maintaining of plastics are so simple. Because they do not need any surface,
finishing coats or paints etc.
12. Melting Point
Generally, plastics have very low melting point. Some plastics may melt at just
50oC. So, they cannot be used in the positions of high temperature. Thermo
setting type of plastics are having high melting point than thermo plastic type
plastics. However, thermo setting types are cannot used for recycling. To
improve the heat resistance of the plastics, glass fibre reinforcement is provided
in its structure.
13. Optical Property
There are so many types of plastics. Some plastics are transparent which allows
light in its original direction and some are translucent nothing but semi-
transparent which allows light but changes light rays direction.

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14. Recycling of Plastics

Disposal of plastics in the environment causes severe pollution. However, it is
not a serious problem because of its recycling property. We can use plastic
waste disposal conveniently to produce drainage pipes, fencing, handrails,
carpets, benches etc.

15. Sound Absorption

By the saturation of phenolic resins, we can produce acoustic boards. These
acoustic boards are sound absorbents and provide sound insulation. Generally
for theatres, seminar halls this type of acoustic ceilings are used.

16. Strength
Practically we can say that plastic is strong material but ideal section of plastic
which is useful for structural component is not designed yet. Generally, by
reinforcing fibrous material into plastic improves its strength. If the strength to

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weight ratio of plastic is same as metals, then also we cannot give preference to
plastics because of various reasons like, heavy cost, creep failure may occur,
poor stiffness and sensitive against temperature.
17. Thermal Property
The thermal conductivity of plastics is very low and is similar to wood. So,
foamed and expanded plastics are used as thermal insulators.

18. Weather Resistance

Most of the plastics except some limited varieties are capable of resistance
against weathering. However, major problem is plastics when the plastics are
exposed to sunlight, they are seriously affected by ultra violet rays and gets
brittle. To prevent this, plastics are incorporated by fillers and pigments, which
helps to absorb or reflect the UV rays to surface.

19. Weight of Plastics

The Plastics have low specific gravity generally ranges from 1.3 to 1.4.
Therefore, they are light in weight and easily transportable to any place in a
large quantity.

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Classification of Plastics

There are many ways of classifying plastics. They can be classified considering
various aspects, as according to their: 1. Behaviour with respect to heating, 2.
Structure, and 3. Physical and mechanical properties

1. Based on Behavior with respect to heating

Thermo-plastics: - Thermoplastics variety softens by heat and hardens when
cooled down. It can be used by remolding as many times as required.
Thermoplastics are defined as polymers that can be melted and recast almost

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indefinitely. They are molten when heated and harden upon cooling. Some of
the most common types of thermoplastic are polypropylene, polyethylene,
polyvinylchloride, polystyrene, polyethylenetheraphthalate and polycarbonate.

Properties of Thermoplastic Material:

1. By heating the polymer, it turns as soft material.
2. It is available in the form of solids at Room temperature.
3. It is a recyclable process.
4. Thermoplastic material in the form of solid is converted into Thermoplastic
material in the form of liquid, which is done by the action of heating, and the
Vice-versa takes place in another direction.
5. Loses Strength: by heating the thermoplastic material, it loses its strength.
6. Gains strength: By the action of cooling, the thermoplastic material gains
strength.
7. Shape change: During cooling only, the thermoplastic material changes its
shape.
8. Temperature: The servicing temperature of thermoplastic material is 150°C.
Structure: The thermoplastic material exhibits Linear structure i.e. -CH2-
9.
CH2-CH2-CH2-
The thermoplastic material is hazardous to the environment, which is less
10.
when compared to the thermoset and rubber.

Thermo-setting: - A thermosetting plastic is a polymer that irreversibly

becomes rigid when heated. Such a material is also known as
a thermoset or thermosetting polymer. Initially, the polymer is a liquid or soft
solid.
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By heating the polymer, if it turns hard, then it is called as thermosetting plastic

material. At room temperature, they are available in the form as liquids.
Thermosetting plastics or Thermoset plastic are synthetic materials that
strengthen during being heated but cannot be successfully remoulded or
reheated after their initial heat forming called as Thermoset material.
Thermosetting Plastic Examples: Epoxy Resin, Phenolic (Bakelite), Vinyl Ester
Resin, Cyanate Ester, Poly Ester.

Properties of a Thermosetting Plastic material:

1. By heating the polymer, it turns as hard material.
2. It is available in the form of liquid at Room temperature.
3. It is a Non-Recyclable process.
4. Thermoset in the form of liquid is converted into Thermoset material in the
form of solid, which is done by the action of heating, and its Vice-versa is not
possible.
5. Gains strength: By the action of heating, the thermoset plastic material gains
strength.
6. No change in the strength of the thermosetting plastic is done by the action
of cooling.
7. Shape change: During heating only, the thermoset material changes its
shape.
8. Temperature: The servicing temperature of a thermoset plastic material is
300°C.
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9. Structure: It exhibits a cyclic structure.

10.It is hazardous to the environment, which is more when compared to the
thermoplastic and less than the rubber.

The primary difference between the two is that Thermoset is a material that
strengthens when heated, but cannot be remoulded or heated after the initial
forming, while thermoplastics can be reheated, remoulded, and cooled as
necessary without causing any chemical changes.

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2. Based on Structure
Homogeneous Plastics: This variety of plastic contains carbon chain i.e., the
plastics of this group are composed of carbon atoms only and they exhibit
homogeneous structure. Polypropylene, polybutylene, polystyrene and
polymethylpentene are examples of polymers with homogeneous carbon
structure in the backbone.

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Polypropylene

Polybutylene

Polymethylpentene

Polystyrene

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Heterogeneous Plastics: This variety of plastic is composed of the chain

containing carbon and oxygen, the nitrogen and other elements and they exhibit
heterogeneous structure. Polyesters, nylons, and polycarbonates
are examples of polymers
with heterogeneous structure. Heterogeneous polymers as a class tend to be less
chemically durable than homogeneous polymers although examples to the
contrary are numerous.

Polyesters

Polycarbonates

Nylons

3. Based on Physical and Mechanical Properties

Rigid Plastics: These plastics have high modulus of elasticity and they retain
their shape under exterior stresses applied at normal or moderately increased
temperatures. Rigid plastics are plastic products that do not give easily when

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squeezed. Many are large, bulky items like lawn chairs, buckets, toddler toys,
broken plastic shovels and sleds, etc. You may recycle these by placing them
next to your recycling cart on your recycling service day. Examples are:
Nondurable items. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) tubs. Polypropylene (PP)
cups and similar food containers.
Durable items. Pallets. Crates. Carts. 5-gallon buckets. Electronic housings.

Semi- Rigid Plastics: These plastics have a medium modulus of elasticity and
the elongation under pressure completely disappears, when pressure is
removed. These so-called semi-crystalline plastics include polyethylene,
polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyamides (nylons), polyesters and some
polyurethanes.

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Soft Plastics: These plastics have a low modulus of elasticity and the elongation
under disappears slowly, when pressure is removed. Soft plastics also include
wrapping from other things such as toilet paper and tissues, bubble wrap, or
Ziploc bags.

Elastomers: These plastics are soft and elastic materials with a low modulus of
elasticity. They deform considerably under load at room temperature and return
to their original shape, when the load is released. The extension can range up to
ten times their original dimensions. Examples of elastomers include natural
rubbers, styrene-butadiene block copolymers, polyisoprene, polybutadiene,
ethylene propylene rubber, ethylene propylene diene rubber, silicone
elastomers, fluoroelastomers, polyurethane elastomers, and nitrile rubbers.

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PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS
The following properties are common with most of the plastics.
1. They are light in weight.
2. They have good resistance to most of the chemical.
3. They have high electrical strength
4. They have good corrosive resistance.
5. Plastics can be moulded to any desired shape and size.
6. They can be made transparent or color.
7. They are cheap compared to metals.
8. All operations like drilling, sawing, punching can be done on plastics.
9. Painting and polishing is not necessary.
10. The plastics possess excellent electric insulating properties.
11. The plastics have low specific gravity, the average being 1.3 to 1.40.
16. PVC • Polyvinyl chloride, commonly abbreviated PVC, is the third-most
widely produced plastic, after polyethylene and polypropylene. PVC is used in
construction because it is more effective than traditional materials such as
copper, iron or wood in pipe and profile applications. It can be made softer and
more flexible by the addition of plasticizers, the most widely used being
phthalates. In this form, it is also used in clothing and upholstery, electrical
cable insulation, inflatable products and many applications in which it replaces
rubber.

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FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTIC

Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) (also fibre-reinforced polymer) is a composite
material made of a polymer matrix reinforced with fibres. The fibres are usually
glass, carbon, basalt or agamid, although other fibres such as paper or wood or
asbestos have been sometimes used. The polymer is usually an epoxy,
vinylester or polyester thermosetting plastic, and phenol formaldehyde resins
are still in use. FRPs are commonly used in the aerospace, automotive, marine,
and construction industries. FRPs have been used widely in the design of new
construction. Structures such as bridges and columns built completely out of
FRP composites have demonstrated exceptional durability, and effective
resistance to effects of environmental exposure.

USES OF PLASTICS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

Plastics are manufactured in different forms such as moulding pipes, sheets and
films. They are formed or expanded to produce materials of low density.
Dissolved in solvents or dispersed as emulsions, they are used in paints,
varnishes and adhesives. At present, plastics find use in buildings mainly in thin
coverings, panels, sheets, foams, pipes etc. skilful use of plastics will expand
the usefulness and life of conventional building materials and help them to
function more efficiently and economically. A wide range of applications of
plastics in buildings are given below:
1. Uses of plastics in façade panels, exterior covering, carpentry etc.
2. Uses of Plastics in Interior Covering, Floors, Walls, Ceilings, Doors,
Partitions Etc.
3. Uses of Plastics in Roof Coverings, Tightness, Domes and Lighting
elements.
4. Uses of Plastics in Sanitary Equipment and Piping.
5. Other Uses of Plastics in Buildings
Some noteworthy trends in use of plastics are given below:

1. Concrete and mortar with thermosetting resin bending agents

2. Thermoplastic and thermosetting resin covering applicable to facades and
concrete epidermis

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3. New roof covering and roof tightening materials (accessory covering

materials, tightness network), easy to place and standing up well to normal to
wear
4. Large foam component units and new shaping techniques
5. Developing techniques for quick shaping of plastic into large components
6. Assembling and fixing processes more suitable for plastics
7. vii. New developments in sanitary equipment and piping, applying
thermoplastic and thermosetting resins.
8. New developments in the way of shuttering and of elements in permanent
shuttering.

ADVANTAGES OF PLASTICS OVER OTHER MATERIALS:

1. It can be molded into finished products at a relatively low cost, compared to
the machining and fabricating costs for wood and metal.
2. It resists chemicals.
3. It poses a high strength to weight ratio.
4. It does not rust like iron.
5. It is nonconductor of electricity.
6. It is light in weight.
7. It is easy to fabricate.
DISADVANTAGE OF PLASTICS:
1. It has low modulus of elasticity.
2. It is not reliable with respect to weathering

2. PAINTS

The paints, distempers and varnishes are provided as a part of the final
treatment to all the surfaces of walls, ceilings, floors, wood work etc., both
internally and externally. Some more forms of finishes/treatments are also used
depending upon requirement. These building treatments perform two major
functions:
(i) They provide a protective coating to the surfaces. This helps in preserving
and protecting the materials used in the building construction from
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environmental effects like heat, frost and rainwater.

(ii) They provide decorative finish or treatment, which adds to the aesthetic
appearance of the surfaces and the building.
Paint is a coating applied to the surface in form of a liquid dispersion, which is
then hardens forming a solid film. Paints are used to protect metals, timber or
plastered surfaces from the corrosive effects of weather, heat, moisture or gases
etc. and to improve their appearance.
Functions of Paint
Paint performs following functions:
(i) It protects wood from decaying.
(ii) It prevents corrosion of metals.
(iii) It renders surface hygienically safe and clean.
(iv) It gives decorative and attractive appearance to the surface.
(v) It also protects the surface from harmful effects of atmospheric agencies.

Characteristics of an Ideal Paint

An ideal paint should have the following characteristics:
1. The paint should be cheap.
2. It should be easy and harmless to the user.
3. It should retain its original colour for a long time.
4. It should be able to cover maximum area of the surface with minimum
quantities.
5. The painted surface should dry neither too slowly nor too rapidly.
6. When applied, the paint should form a thin uniform film on painted surface.
7. The paint should form a hard and durable coat on the painted surface.
8. The paint should not peel off from painted surface.
9. It should be good fire and moisture resistant.
10. The painted surface should not show any cracks.
11. The painted surface should possess attractive and decorative pleasing
appearance.
12. Atmospheric agencies should not be able to affect the painted surface.

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The functions of paints in Construction:

 Protection of the part surface from the environmental factors (Oxygen and
other chemically active gases, moisture, dissolved salts and other chemicals,
temperature, bacteria, fungi). Corrosion protection is the most important
function of paints.
 Aesthetic appearance provided by the paint colour and sheen (eggshell, satin
or gloss).
 Providing a desired ability of reflection-absorption of heat and light.
 Changing the surface properties: ant-friction, hardness, electrical
conductivity.
 Identification of products according to the colour of the paint.

Classification of paints:

 Classification of paints by physical type

 Classification of painting products by their functions

Classification of paints by physical type

 Solvent-borne paints contain up to 80% of solid constituents
(binders, pigments and additives) dispersed in the organic solvent. Solvent-
borne paints dry fast and may contain a wide range of binders. The main
disadvantages of the solvent-borne paints are their toxicity and combustibility.
 Water-borne paints contain water as the paint solvent. Waterborne paints
are non-toxic and non-combustible but they are characterized by long drying
time due to slow evaporation rate of water.
 Water-borne paints based on water-soluble binders contain low
molecular weight polymeric binders dispersed in water in form of true
solutions. Water-soluble binders contain up to 15% of organic oxygen
containing solvents soluble in water (alcohols, glycol ethers, etc.).
 Water-borne paints based on polymer dispersions (Emulsion
paints) contain 50-60% of high molecular weight polymeric binders dispersed
in water in form of Colloids. Emulsion paint contain up to 5% of organic
oxygen containing solvents soluble in water (alcohols, glycol ethers, etc.).
 High-solids paints (Low VOC paints) contain more than 80% of solid
constituents (binders, pigments) dispersed in an organic solvent. VOC - volatile
organic compounds.

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 Powder coatings are obtained from powdered resin, particles of which are
attracted by the electrostatic force to the substrate surface (electrodeposition).
No solvent is involved in the process therefore; powder coatings produce
no/low toxic waste. The main disadvantage of powder coatings is high cost of
equipment.
 Radiation curable coatings are formed from a mixture of
prepolymers, monomers and additives, which is cured under ultra-violet
radiation. Radiation curable coatings harden fast and contain no solvents. The
main disadvantage is relatively high cost.

Classification of painting products by their functions

 Paint - coloured non-transparent protective coating.
 Varnish - transparent or semi-transparent protective coating. A varnish is
made of binder, solvent and additives. Some varnishes contain small amounts
of pigment.
 Enamel - hard protective coating with glossy finish.
 Primer - the first coating applied to the surface in order to enhance
the adhesion of the final paint (topcoat) and to seal the substrate surface. Primer
may be formulated to impart additional protection to the substrate (e.g. anti-rust
primer for steel substrates).

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Constituents of an Oil Paint or Oil Borne Paints

An oil paint essentially consists of the following ingredients:
1. A base
2. An inert extender or filter
3. A vehicle or carrier
4. A drier
5. A solvent or thinner
6. A colouring pigment

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Base
It provides body to the paint and on it depends upon the nature of paints
largely. A base in general should possess the following properties:
 It is the solid matter forming the main body of the paint.
 It makes the paint film harder and more resistant to abrasion.
 It reduces shrinkage cracks formed on drying.
 It forms an opaque layer to obscure the surface of material to be
painted.
 White lead, Red lead, Zinc oxide, Iron oxide, and metallic powders
such as Aluminium, Copper and Bronze etc. are the commonly used
bases.

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An Inert Extender or Filter
They are added in the paint to reduce the cost and to modify some of the
properties of the paints.
 They reduce weight of the paint and render paint more durable. They should
not be used in excess amount as otherwise paint may lose its original character
and may become weak.
 Barium sulphate silica, lithophone, whiting, charcoal, gypsum silicate of
magnesia or alumina etc. are the usual inert extenders.

Vehicles or Carriers
They are liquid substances, which hold solid ingredients of the paint. In general,
vehicles or carriers possess the following properties:
 It is an oily liquid in which the base and pigment are soluble.
 It facilitates the paint to be conveniently spread evenly over the surface by
means of a brush.
 It acts as a binder for the base and causes it to stick to the surface.
 On drying, it forms a tough and an elastic film. Oils most commonly used as
vehicles are linseed oil, poppy oil, nut oil and tung oil.

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Driers
These are metallic compounds which when added to the paint in small
quantities accelerate the process of drying of the paint.
 Driers have a tendency to affect the colour of the paint and to destroy the
elasticity of the paint. Hence, they should not be used in excess amount. They
are not used at all in final finishing coat of the paint.
 Driers should not be used in a paint that dries well.
 Litharge, manganese dioxide, lead acetate and cobalt are the usual driers, out
of which litharge is most commonly used.

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Solvents or Thinners
A liquid thinner is added to the prepared paints to increase their fluidity to the
desired consistency to make them work more smoothly and to help penetration
of porous surfaces.

 It evaporates after the paint has been applied to the surface. It also helps the
paint in its penetration into the surface to be painted.
 Turpentine oil, petroleum spirits and naphtha are mostly used as solvents or
thinners.

Colouring Pigments
These are colouring agents, which are used to develop desired shade of the
paint. For white, black and other very dark shades, the base of the paint is
chosen in such a way that, it will develop the colour of the paint through base
itself. In case of other shades, colouring pigments of desired shade are mixed
with the paint. Colouring pigments may be divided into five divisions.
(i) Precipitates
(ii) Natural earth
(iii) Calcined colors
(iv) Lake colours
(v) Metallic powders
Various colouring pigments to develop a particular colour are as follows:
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(i) Blue
(ii) Brown
(iii) Black
(iv) Green
(v) Yellow
(vi) Red

Types of Paints
The paints are of following types:
1. Aluminium Paint
2. Anti-Corrosive paints
3. Asbestos paints
4. Bituminous paint
5. Bronze paints
6. Cellulose paint
7. Casein paint
8. Cement paint
9. Enamel paint
10. Emulsion paint
11. Graphite paint
12. Plastic paints

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13. Silicate paint
14. Luminous paint
15. Inodorous paint
16. Rubber paint

Aluminium Paint
The paint is prepared by holding very finely ground aluminium in suspension
either in quick drying spirit varnish or slow drying oil varnish as per the
requirements of the surface to be painted. The suspension liquid is spirit or oil,
evaporates and a thin metallic film of aluminium is left on the surface. This
paint is used for painting woodwork and metal surfaces. It is widely used for
painting hot water pipes, gas tanks, marine piers, oil storage tanks, radiators, etc.

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Anti-corrosive Paint
These paints are used mainly to protect the surface of metallic structural steel
work, against the negative effects of acids, corrosive chemicals fumes etc. There
are several paints, which exhibit these properties. These paints essentially
consist of the linseed oil, as vehicle and red lead, zinc oxide, iron oxide, zinc
dust, zinc chromate etc. as their base. These paints are cheap, durable and are
usually black in colour.

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Asbestos Paint
This paint is used for stopping leakage of metal roofs and painting gutters,
spouts, flashings etc. to prevent their rusting. The paint is also used as damp
proof coat to cover the outer face of the basement walls. This paint can
withstand the effects of acidic gases and steam.

Bituminous Paint
This paint consists of asphalt, bitumen or pitches, dissolves in any type of oil or
petroleum. The paint is always black in colour but its colour can be modified by
mixing certain pigment like red oxide etc. in it. The paint is used mostly for
painting iron-works under water. These paints deteriorate when exposed to
direct sun. It is also used for waterproofing.

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Bronze Paint
These paints are prepared by disbursing aluminium bronze or copper bronze in
nitro-cellulose lacquer as vehicle. They produce a very reflective type of
surface and hence very useful for being applied on radiators. These paints are
equally effective for painting interior or exterior metallic surfaces.

Cellulose Paint
This type of paint is prepared from cellulose sheets, nitro-cotton and
photographic films. This paint dries very quickly and provides a flexible, hard
and smooth surface. The paint does not harden by oxidation but by evaporation
of thinning agent. The surface of the paint can be easily washed and cleaned. It
remains unaffected by hot water, smoky or acidic atmosphere. This paint is
used for painting cars, aeroplanes etc.

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Casein Paint
Casein is a product extracted from milk curd. Casein paint when mixed with
base like whiting, titanium, lithophone, etc. forms the paint, which is usually
available in powder or paste form. This paint has high capacity and can be
applied on new plasterwork. It is usually used on walls, ceilings wall boards,
cements block construction etc. to increase the appearance of the surface.

Cement Paint
This paint is available in powder form. It consists of white or coloured cement
as its base and water acts as a vehicle. No oil or varnish is added to it. This paint
is available in variety of shades. It is durable and waterproof. This paint proves
to be useful for surfaces, which are damp at the time of painting and are likely
to remain damp after painting.
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Enamel Paint
This paint is prepared by adding base like white lead or zinc white to a vehicle,
which is a varnish. To obtain the desired colour, colouring pigments may also
be added. This paint dries slowly and forms a hard, durable, smooth, glossy,
solid thin film. Enamel paints can be used both for interior as well as exterior
painting.

Emulsion Paint
This paint consists of synthetic resin like polyvinyl acetate. It can be applied
easily. It retains its colour for a very long time. The surface of the paint is tough
and can be cleaned by washing with water. This paint has excellent resistance
against action of alkali. It dries very quickly in about one to two hours.

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Graphite Paint
It is black in colour. It is used over the surface, which come in contact with
ammonia, chlorine, Sulphur gases, etc. It is very much used in underground
railways.

Plastic Paint
This paint contains a variety of plastics in suspension and is available in the
market under different trade name. It is mostly used in show rooms, display
rooms, and auditorium etc. It can be applied by spray or by brush.

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Silicate Paint
It is prepared by mixing calcium and finely ground silica with resinous
materials. It forms a very hard and durable film on painted surface. It can be
directly applied on brick, concrete or plastered surface, but only after wetting
them.

Luminous Paint
This paint is prepared by mixing calcium sulphide with varnish. This paint
shines in darkness like radium dials of watches. This paint should be applied on
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surface, which have been rendered free from corrosion or lead paints in
particular.

Inodorous Paint
This paint consists of white lead or zinc white mixed with methylated spirit. No
turpentine is used in this paint. White lead or zinc white is ground in oil. Shellac
with same quantity of linseed oil and castor oil is dissolved in methylated spirit
and this mixture is mixed with lead or zinc white paste prepared in linseed oil.
This paint dries quickly, but is not durable.

Rubber Paint
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This paint is prepared by treating rubber with chlorine gas (chlorinated rubber)
and then dissolving it in suitable solvent. This paint can be used on new
concrete and lime plastered surfaces. This paint dries quickly. It is little affected
by weather and sunlight. It is resistant against chemical actions, water, etc.

Painting Processes
 Application of paint to a surface either with a brush or by spraying is known
as painting.
 The surface to be painted should be perfectly smooth, clean and dry.
Presence of moisture between the paint and surface to be painted or between
successive coats of paints causes blisters.
 Painting should as far as possible be carried out in dry weather.
 Brush of only good quality, the hair of which do not come off while painting
should be used.
 The paint is applied on the surface in two, three or four coats. The first coat
is known as priming coat and last one as finishing coat. All the intervening
coats are known as under coats.
 Prime coat forms a thin film, which helps in adhesion of the paint with the
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surface. It also protects the surface from weathering action. Materials for
priming coat should be selected keeping in view the nature of the surface to be
painted.
 Under coats serve as foundation on to the finishing coat. These coats fill all
the irregularities of the surface.
 Finishing coat is lastly applied as per the requirements.
Painting on Plastered Surface
A plastered surface should be painted only after it has thoroughly dried,
otherwise the paint would get sploit. The following factors should be kept in
mind while painting a plastered surface:
 As far as possible fresh plastered surfaces should not be painted.
 At least 6 months to 12 months time should be given to the plastered surface
to dry completely.
 Fresh plaster is alkaline in nature, because lime is liberated during the
hydration of cement.
 Oil based paints and distempers are prone to alkali attack in the presence of
moisture. Hence, if freshly plastered surface is to be painted, an alkali resistant
primer paint should be applied or alternatively paints not containing any oil
should be used.
 Spots of plastered surface showing efflorescence should be brushed off. If
spots appear again, they should again be brushed off and painting should be
postponed until such spots ceases to appear.
 In case of new-plastered surfaces, a solution of one kilogram of zinc
sulphate in two kilograms of water should be applied to the surface. When it
has dried then a coat of pure raw linseed oil is applied. It is followed by two
coats of paint thinned with turpentine and a little varnish. Third coat consisting
of white lead, linseed oil, desired pigment and a little oil of turpentine is then
applied. Finishing coat may be the same as third coat but with a little more of
turpentine oil.
However, these days’ paints are available in market that can be applied directly
on newly plastered surfaces. These are known as cement paints.
Painting on Concrete Surfaces
For painting concrete surfaces, cement paints are used. They are available in

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powder form. They are used by mixing with water. Prepared paint should be
consumed within 2 hrs. or its preparation. Two coats should be applied at an
interval of 24 hrs. The painted surface should be cured by sprinkling water at
intervals.

Defects in Painting
The following defects may occur in painted surface:
Fading
The paint may lose some of its colour due to effects of sunrays on colouring
pigments.

Flaking
Due to poor adhesion, paint may peel off from the surface.

Grinning
If the opacity of the final coat is insufficient, the background of the painted
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surface is clearly visible. This defect is known as grinning.

Bloom
Due to bad ventilation or defective paint, dull patches are developed on the
painted surface.

Flashing
This is opposite of bloom. In this defect, glossy patches are developed on the
painted surface. The reason of this defect may be cheap paint, weather reaction
or poor workmanship.

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Blistering
This defect occurs due to trapped moisture behind the painted surface.

Running
This defect occurs when the surface to be painted is very smooth. In this defect,
small areas of the surface are left uncovered with paint.

Sagging
Thickness of painting should not be excessive. If too much thick coat of paint is
applied, the defect is known as sagging.
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Wrinkling
This defect occurs in thickly painted surfaces.

Saponification
Defect of formation of soap patches on the painted surface is known as
saponification. This defect occurs due to chemical action of the alkalies.

Failure of Paint

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 When paint applied on the surface does not perform its purposes, it is called
failure of the paint. Painting is an easy job but also has its own peculiarities.
The following are the main causes of failure of paint.
Bad Workmanship
Painters are generally in habit of thinning the paint too much so that he may
save paint and labour both. This leads to bad workmanship and it is possible that
paint may be absent for portions of surface.
Wrong Choice of Paint
Choice of paint is done based upon climatic conditions, nature of surface to be
painted and so many other factors affecting the performance of the paint. Low
quality paints are cheap but their durability is very poor.
Surface Penetration
If the surface to be painted has not been prepared well to receive the paint, it
may lead to failure of the paint.
Moisture
Leakage of moisture on any painted surface accelerates the process of separating
the paint layer from the surface.
Salts and Alkalies
The movement of moisture can also transport salts from either internal volume
of masonry or new deposits. Such salts and alkalies saponify the oil paints.
Conditions for Painting
The painting should be done when atmospheric conditions are favourable. Dirt,
dust and moisture must not get entrapped during the process of painting.

3. DISTEMPERS

It is also a process of applying wash or coating like white washing or colour

washing on the surface. Finished surfaces obtained by distempering are far
superior than those obtained by white washing or colour washing. Distempers are
available in ready-made form in the market under different trade names.
Composition of Distempers
Any distemper consists of a base, a carrier, colouring agent, and size. Whiting
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 (powdered chalk) is used as base and water as the carrier. Colouring agents or
pigments are added only, if specific shade is to be obtained. Glue is mostly used
as size.

Distempers may also be termed as a water paint, having whiting as base and
water as the carrier. Distempers are available in powder form or paste form.
They are to be mixed with hot water before use. There is a variety of oil bound
distempers also, in which the drying oil is so treated that it mixes with water
readily.
Distempers are applied on the surface with the help of distemper brushes, which
are about 10 cm wide.
Process of Distempering
Distempering a surface involves following operations:
(i) Preparation of the surface
(ii) Applying prime coat
(iii) Distempering

Preparation of the Surface

Surface to be distempered should be absolutely dry. Dampness in the surface
spoils the distemper coat. Holes, patches, cracks, efflorescence spots etc.
should be thoroughly cleaned and filled with gypsum or lime putty. If the
surface is to be redistempered the old coating should be washed with water and
allowed to dry completely. The surface in the last should be thoroughly rubbed
with sand paper and cleaned.
Applying Prime Coat
After preparation of the surface, it should be primed by applying a coat of
whiting in water or only of milk. Priming coat helps in developing a good bond
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 of distemper with the surface. The priming coat should be allowed to dry
completely, before distemper coat is applied over it.
Distempering
After having applied the priming coat, first coat of distemper is applied on the
surface. The first coat should be of a light tint and applied with great care.
Second coat is applied after the first coat has dried and become hard.
Distempering coats are applied with the help of broad stiff distemper brushes.
Now-a-days, distempers can be applied with the help of spray pistols also.

Properties of Distempers
 Distempers generally shrink on drying. Hence, if the surface receiving
distemper is weak, it may lead to cracking and flaking of the distempers.
 Distempers are available in powder form and also in paste form. Powdered
distempers are known as dry distempers, whereas paste form distempers are
known as oil bound distempers. Oil bound distempers are superior than dry
distempers. Coatings of distempers are comparatively thick and are more brittle
than other water paints.
 Distemper film is generally porous in nature and it allows water vapour to
pass through it. Hence, it allows new walls to dry out without damaging the
distemper film.
 They are less durable than oil paints.
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  Distempers are generally light in colour and provide a good reflective coating.
 They can be applied on cement-plastered surface, lime plastered surface,
brickwork, insulating boards, etc.

4. VARNISHES

Varnish is a solution of some resinous substance in alcohol, oil or turpentine.

The process of covering the surface with varnish is known as varnishing.
Varnishing is done only on wooden surface.
Functions of Varnish
Varnish performs the following functions:
(i) It brings about brilliance to the painted surface.
(ii) It protects the surface against adverse effects of the atmosphere.
(iii) It increases the durability of the paint film.
(iv) It beautifies the surface without hiding the beautiful grains of the wood.
Varnish plays an important part in finishing wooden surfaces of doors,
windows, floors, furniture, etc.
Properties of Good Varnish
A good varnish should possess the following properties:
a. It should not hide the natural grains of the surface.
b. It should not shrink or show cracks after drying.
c. It should make the surface glossy.
d. It should dry rapidly.
e. It should impart the finished surface uniform colour and pleasing

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f. The thin film of varnish developed after drying on the surface
should be tough, hard and durable.
g. The natural colour of the varnish should not fade away when
varnished surface is exposed to atmospheric action.
Constituents of the Varnish
A varnish has usually three elements:
 Resins or resinous material

 Driers

 Solvents

Resins or Resinous Material

Quality of varnish depends much upon the quality of resin used.
Copal, lac, amber and rosin are the commonly used resins for
varnishes. Copal is considered to be best.
Driers
Driers are used to accelerate the process of drying of the varnish.
Litharge, lead, acetate, and white copper are the various types of
driers, out of which litharge is mostly used.
Solvents
Selection of solvent is made depending upon the type of resin.

Sl. Name of Resin Solvent Used

No.
1 Amber and Linseed oil
copal
2 Lac Methylated
spirit
Types of Varnish
The varnishes can be classified into following categories
depending upon the solvent used:
 Oil Varnish
 Spirit Varnish

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  Turpentine Varnish
 Water Varnish

 Asphalt Varnish

 Spar Varnish

 Flat Varnish

Oil Varnish
This type of varnish is manufactured by dissolving hard resins such as
amber and copal in linseed oil. Turpentine may be used in small quantity
to thin the varnish, and also to render it workable. Oil varnishes form a
hard and durable film, but they dry slowly.

Spirit Varnish
This type of varnish is prepared by dissolving resins such as lac or shellac
in methylated spirit. This varnish dries very quickly and gets easily
affected by weather action. This varnish is mostly used for wood furniture.

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Turpentine Varnish
In this type of varnish, gum, dammar, mastic, and rosin like resins are
dissolved in turpentine. These varnishes are light in colour and dry
quickly.

Water Varnish
This varnish is prepared by dissolving shellac in hot water. Shellac does
not dissolve readily in water and as such to accelerate the process of
dissolving shellac in water either ammonia or potash, or soda or borax is
added. This varnish is used for painting pictures, posters and maps.

Asphalt Varnish

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This varnish is obtained by dissolving melted asphalt in linseed oil. The
varnish may be thinned by adding suitable amount of either turpentine or
petroleum spirit. This varnish is used for varnishing fabricated iron and
steel product.

Spar Varnish
This varnish derives its name from its use. It is mostly used on spars and
other exposed parts of the ships. It is very good weather resistant. It
should not be used indoor.

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Flat Varnish
This is an ordinary varnish to which material such as wax, finely divided
silica and metallic soaps are added, to reduce the gloss of the varnished
surface. This varnish presents a dull appearance.

Process of Varnishing
Following operations are required to be carried out while varnishing a
wooden surface:
Preparation of Surface
The surface to be varnished should be thoroughly rubbed smooth by
means of sand paper and thoroughly cleaned from dust and dirt.
Knotting
It is the process by which knots on the surface of woodwork are killed by
applying certain substance over the knots. All the knots should be covered
with a hot preparation of red lead or glue size.
Stopping
After knotting, the surface of woodwork is stopped by means of hot weak
glue size. This coat fills all the pores of the surface. After stopping when
surface becomes dry, it is rubbed again with sand paper.

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 Applying Varnish Coats
After stopping process, varnish is applied on the surface in very thin
coats. Next coat is applied only when previously applied coat has dried.
For varnishing, fine brittle varnishing brush should be used.

5. FERROUS METALS

Ferrous materials/metals may be defined as those metals whose main

constituent is iron such as pig iron, wrought iron, cast iron, steel and their
alloys. The principal raw materials for ferrous metals is pig iron. Ferrous
materials are usually stronger and harder and are used in daily life

P a g e 54 | 93
products. Ferrous material possess a special property that their
characteristics can be altered by heat treatment processes or by addition of
small quantity of alloying elements. Ferrous metals possess different
physical properties according to their carbon content.
IRON AND STEEL
The ferrous metals are iron base metals, which include all varieties of iron
and steel. Most common engineering materials are ferrous materials, which
are alloys of iron. Ferrous means iron. Iron is the name given to pure ferrite
Fe, as well as to fused mixtures of this ferrite with large amount of carbon
(may be 1.8%), these mixtures are known as pig iron and cast iron.
Primarily pig iron is produced from the iron ore in the blast furnace from
which cast iron, wrought iron and steel can be produced.

Classification of Carbon Steels

Plain carbon steel is that steel in which alloying element is carbon.
Practically besides iron and carbon, four other alloying elements are always
present but their content is very small that they do not affect physical
properties. These are sulphur, phosphorus, silicon and manganese. Although
the effect of sulphur and phosphorus on properties of steel is detrimental,
but their percentage is very small. Sulphur exists in steel as iron sulphide,

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which produces red shortness, or manganese sulphide, which does affect its
properties.
All metals used for engineering works are classified into:
A. Ferrous metals
B. Non-Ferrous metals: Wherein iron is not the main constituent
(Copper, Aluminium, Zinc and lead etc)
Ferrous metals:
Wherein iron is the main constituent (Cast iron, wrought iron and different
forms of steels)
Ferrous metals ► not directly obtained from iron ores

PIG IRON:
From iron ore ► impure form of metal ► Pig iron
It is the pig iron, which further yields “Ferrous metals”
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Pig iron is not suitable for any mechanical use unless it is converted into
cast iron, wrought iron or steel.

CAST IRON:
When Pig Iron is re melted with limestone and coke and poured into moulds
of desired shapes and sizes a purer product results known as cast iron.
Carbon content in cast iron varies from 2 to 5%. During re melting of pig
iron, scrap iron may also be added for economy.

Properties of Cast Iron

1. It is brittle, non-ductile, non-malleable and cracks when subjected to
shocks
2. It cannot be magnetized
3. It does not rust
4. It is strong in compression but weak in tension and shear
5. Its melting point is 12000C
6. Its specific gravity is 7.5

Uses
Weak in tension therefore cannot be used in construction Can be used for
parts of pumps, motors, engines etc. Because of corrosion resistance ►can
be used for pipes to some extent
WROUGHT IRON
When pig iron is melted in such a way as to remove all of the carbon and
other impurities, the result is wrought iron
Good quality wrought iron contains 99.5 % iron, less than 0.1 % of Silicon,
0.01 % of Sulphur, 0.07 % of phosphorus and 0.03 % of manganese.
Properties of Wrought Iron
1. Wrought iron is very malleable and ductile
2. Its tensile strength is 20-26 tons /in2
3. It is strong in compression but not so strong as steel

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 4. It can be easily worked, welded and is tough
5. Its melting point is 28000F
6. Wrought iron became pasty and very plastic at red heat and could
be easily forged at about 16500F
USES:
Since mild steel has replaced the wrought iron, therefore it is no longer
produced in large extent. Still in use for roof sheets, wires and metal
ornaments etc.

STEEL
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. Pure iron’s strength remarkably
increases when alloyed with carbon. The tensile strength increases with
increasing carbon content but the ductility reduces. Steel having its
properties because of the presence of carbon alone is called “Plain carbon
steel”.

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Steel is designated by AISI with four digits, the first two denoting alloying
elements and the last two denoting the carbon content.

PLAIN CARBON STEEL can further be classified as

1. Low carbon steel or mild steel:

Low carbon steels contain up to ~0.1% carbon and are not heat treatable.
They are used in corrugated sheets, automobiles, and tin cans. It is soft and
ductile and is mostly used for construction purpose. Uses of Low Carbon
Steel in the construction industry include making Sheets, rods, wires, pipes,
hammers, chains, shafts etc.
Mild steels contain 0.15 –0.25 wt% carbon and are also not heat treatable.
They have higher strengths than low carbon steels. Mild steel is used in
beams, angles, channels, oil pipelines, and boilers. Nb, V, Tican be added to
form carbides, which cause precipitation hardening. Cu and P can be added
to form weathering steels, which are corrosion resistant. S and Mn can be
added to form free cutting steels, which are easier to machine.
2. Medium-Carbon steel :
The carbon content is 0.25 to 0.5 %. The medium carbon steel can be heat
treated to achieve high yield strength. It is stronger than the mild steel
slightly less ductile. Medium Carbon Steel is used in railway wheels, rails,
Shafts and connecting rods etc.
3. High-Carbon steel :
Carbon content is above 0.5%. It is harder and stronger than mild steel and
medium carbon steel. High-strength steels have tensile strength over 600
MPa. High-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steel contains small amounts of
alloying elements and 0.15 –0.25 % carbon. Ultra-high-strength steels have
tensile strength over 1000 MPa. For example: Ni-Cr-Mo low-alloy steel.
High Carbon steel is used in keys, knives, drilling machines etc.

Properties of Mild Steel

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 1. Ductile and malleable
2. It corrodes quickly
3. It can be permanently magnetized
4. It is tough and more elastic than cast iron and wrought iron and
withstands shocks and impacts well
5. It is equally strong in tension, compression and shear
6. Its specific gravity is 7.8
7. It is not much affected by Saline water
Properties of High-carbon Steel

1. Its structure is granular

2. It is more tough and elastic than mild steel
3. It is easier to harden and then to weld
4. It is more difficult to forge and then to weld
5. It can be permanently magnetized
6. Comparatively it is stronger in compression than in tension or in
shear
7. It withstands vibration and shocks better
Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys
Copper:
 A ductile metal with high electrical and thermal conductivity.

 Hardness can be increased by reducing grain size or alloying.

 Brass (copper-zinc), bronze (copper-tin), and cupronickel (copper-

nickel) are common alloys.

 Corrosion resistant to due to protective layer of copper oxide on

surface.
Aluminium – Lightweight (1/3 the density of steel), reactive, ductile, and
malleable.
 Low yield strength can be improved by alloying and heat-treating.

 Good electrical and thermal conductor, corrosion resistant.

Magnesium – Low density, good mechanical properties, high thermal

conductivity.

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  1/3 the density of aluminium while maintaining comparable
strength when alloyed.
 Poor corrosion resistance

WROUGHT IRON

The meaning of “wrought” is that metal which possesses sufficient ductility

in order to permit hot and/or cold deformation. Wrought iron is the purest
iron with a small amount of slag forged out into fibres. The typical
composition indicates 99 per cent of iron and traces of carbon, phosphorus,
manganese, silicon, sulphur and slag. During the production process, first
all elements in iron (may be C, S, Mn, Si and P) are eliminated leaving
almost pure iron molten slag. In order to remove the excess slag, the final
mix is then squeezed in a press and reduced to billets by rolling milling.
The resulting material would consist of pure iron separated by thin layers of
slag material. The slag characteristic of wrought iron is beneficial in
blacksmith/forging operations and provides the material its peculiar fibrous
structure. Further, the non-corrosive slag constituent makes wrought iron
resistant to progressive corrosion and helps in reducing effect of fatigue
caused by shocks and vibrations.
Wrought iron is tough, malleable and ductile and possesses ultimate tensile
strength of 350 N/mm2. Its melting point is 1530°C. It can neither be
hardened nor tempered like steel. The billets of wrought iron can be
reheated to form bars, plates, boiler tubing, forgings, crane hook, railway
coupling, bolts and nuts, chains, barbed wire, coal handling equipment and
cooling towers, etc.

CAST IRON

It is primarily an alloy of iron and carbon. The carbon content in cast iron
varies from 1.5 to 4 per cent. Small amounts of silicon, manganese, sulphur
and phosphorus are also present in it. Carbon in cast iron is present in Free
State either like graphite or in combined state as cementite. Cast iron
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 contains so much carbon or its equivalent that it is not malleable. One
characteristic (except white cast iron) is that much of carbon content is
present in free form as graphite. Largely the properties of cast iron are
determined by this fact.
Melting point of cast iron is much lower than that of steel. Most of the
castings produced in a cast iron foundry are of grey cast iron. These are
cheap and widely used.
The characteristics of cast iron, which make it a valuable material for
engineering applications, are:
1. Very good casting characteristics.
2. Low cost
3. High compressive strength
4. Good wear resistance
5. Excellent machinability

The main limitation of this metal is brittleness and low tensile strength
and thus cannot be used in those components subjected to shocks.

The varieties of cast iron in common use are:

1. Grey cast iron
2. White cast iron
3. Malleable cast iron
4. Nodular cast iron
5. Chilled cast iron
6. Alloy cast iron

Grey Cast Iron

It is the iron, which is most commonly used in foundry work. If this iron
is machined or broken, its fractured section shows the greyish colour;
hence, the name “grey” cast iron. The grey colour is because carbon is
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present in the form of free graphite. A very good characteristic of grey
cast iron is that the free graphite in its structure acts as a lubricant. This is
suitable for those components/products where sliding action is desired.
The other properties are good machinability, high compressive strength,
low tensile strength and no ductility.
In view of its low cost, it is preferred in all fields where ductility and high
strength are not required. The grey cast iron castings are widely utilized in
machine tool bodies, automobile cylinder blocks and flywheels, etc.

White Cast Iron

It is so called due to the whitish colour shown by its fracture. White cast
iron contains carbon exclusively in the form of iron carbide Fe3C
(cementite). From engineering point of view, white cast iron has limited
applications. This is because of poor machinability and possessing, in
general, relatively poor mechanical properties. It is used for inferior
castings and places where hard coating is required as in outer surface of
car wheels. Only crushing rolls are made of white cast iron. However, it is
used as raw material for production of malleable cast iron.
Malleable Cast Iron
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Malleable cast iron is produced from white cast iron. The white cast
iron is brittle and hard. It is, therefore, unsuitable for articles, which are
thin, light and subjected to shock and vibrations or for small castings
used in various machine components. The malleable cast iron is
produced from white cast iron by suitable heat treatment, i.e.,
annealing. This process separates the combined carbon of the white cast
iron into noddles of free graphite.
The malleable cast iron is ductile and may be bent without rupture or
breaking the section. Its tensile strength is usually higher than that of
grey cast iron and has excellent machining qualities. Malleable cast iron
components are mainly utilized in place of forged steel or parts where
intricate shape of these parts creates forging problem. This material is
principally employed in rail, road automotive etc.

Nodular Cast Iron

It is also known as “spheroidal graphite iron”, Ductile iron, or High
strength “Cast iron”. This nodular cast iron is obtained by adding
magnesium to the molten cast iron. The magnesium converts the
graphite of cast iron from flake to spheroidal or nodular form. In this
manner, the mechanical properties are considerably improved. The
strength increases, yield point improves and brittleness is reduced. Such
castings can even replace steel components.
Outstanding characteristics of nodular cast iron are high fluidity, which
allows the castings of intricate shape. This cast iron is widely used in
castings where density as well as pressure tightness is a highly desirable
quality. The applications include hydraulic cylinders, valves, pipes and
pipe fittings, cylinder head for compressors, diesel engines, etc.

Chilled Cast Iron

Quick cooling is generally known as chilling and the iron so produced
is “chilled iron”. The outer surface of all castings always gets chilled to

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a limited depth about (1 to 2 mm) during pouring and solidification of
molten metal after coming in contact with cool sand of mould.
Sometimes the casting is chilled intentionally and some becomes
chilled accidentally to a small depth.
Chills are employed on any faces of castings, which are required to be
hard to withstand wear and friction. Chilled castings are used in
producing stamping dies and crushing rolls railway, wheels cam
followers, and so on.

Alloy Cast Iron

Alloying elements are added to cast iron to overcome inherent
deficiencies in ordinary cast iron to provide requisite characteristics for
special purposes. The alloy cast iron is extremely tough, wear resistant
and non-magnetic steel about 12 to 14 per cent manganese should be
added.
1. Nickel: It may be termed as one of the most important alloying
elements. It improves tensile strength, ductility, and toughness and
corrosion resistance.
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 2. Chromium: Its addition to steel improves toughness, hardness and
corrosion resistance.
3. Boron: It increases hardenability and is therefore very useful when
alloyed with low carbon steels.
4. Cobalt: It is added to high-speed steels to improve hardness,
toughness, tensile strength, thermal resistance and magnetic properties.
It acts as a grain purifier.
5. Tungsten: Tungsten improves hardness, toughness, wear resistance,
shock resistance, magnetic reluctance and ability to retain hardness at
elevated temperatures. It provides hardness and abrasion resistance
properties to steel.
6. Molybdenum: It improves wear resistance, hardness, thermal
resistance, ability to retain mechanical properties at elevated
temperatures and helps to inhibit temper brittleness.
7. Vanadium: It increases tensile strength, elastic limit, ductility, shock
resistance and acts as a degaser when added to molten steel. It provides
improvement to hardenability of steel.
8. It is a very good deoxidizer and promotes grain growth. It is the
strongest carbide former. Titanium is used to fix carbon in stainless
steel and thus prevents the precipitation of chromium-carbide.
9. Niobium: It improves ductility, decreases hardenability and
substantially improves the impact strength. It also promotes fine grain
growth.

6. STAINLESS STEELS

The only material known to engineers, which possesses a combination of

various properties such as: wide range of strength and hardness, high
ductility and formability, high corrosion resistance, good creep
resistance, good thermal conductivity, good machinability, high hot &
cold workability and excellent surface finish is stainless steel. Alloy
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 steels have been developed for a specific purpose. We shall study them
as follows: They are known as stainless since they do not corrode or rust
easily in most of environment and media. Stainless steels can be further
divided into the following three categories:
(1) Ferritic stainless steel: It is that steel when properly heat-treated and
finished, resists oxidation and corrosive attacks from corrosive media.
Ferritic stainless steels contain 12–18% chromium, 0.15 to 0.2% carbon
besides iron and usual amounts of manganese and silicon. The steels are
stainless and relatively cheap. They are magnetic in nature. Structure of
these steels consist of ferrite phase which cannot be hardened by heat
treatment. These steels are actually iron-chromium alloys and cannot be
hardened by heat treatment. Such type of steel is utilized in manufacture
of dairy equipment food processing plants, etc.
(2) Martensitic stainless steel: These steels contain 12–18% chromium and
0.1 to 1.8% carbon. These steels can be hardened by heat treatment but
their corrosion resistance is decreased. Steels with 12 to 14% chromium
and 0.3% carbon are widely used for table cutlery, tools and equipment.
Steel with little less carbon percentage and higher percentage of
chromium are used as springs, ball bearings and instruments under high
temperature and corrective conditions.
(3) Austenitic stainless steels: These are the most costliest among all
stainless steels. In these steels besides chromium, nickel is also added.
Nickel is a very strong austenitic stabilizer and therefore the
microstructure of these steels is austenitic at room temperature. These
steels contain 12 to 21% chromium and 8 to 15% nickel and carbon less
than 0.2%. The most familiar alloy of this group is known as 18:8
stainless steel i.e. 18% chromium and 8% nickel plus other. Other
elements like carbon, manganese and silicon in very small quantities.

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7. NON-FERROUS METALS AND ALLOYS

Non-ferrous metals are those which do not contain significant quantity of

iron or iron as base metal. These metals possess low strength at high
temperatures, generally suffer from hot shortness and have more shrinkage
than ferrous metals. They are utilized in industry due to following
advantages:
1. High corrosion resistance
2. Easy to fabricate, i.e., machining, casting, welding, forging and rolling
3. Possess very good thermal and electrical conductivity
4. Attractive colour and low density
The various non-metals used in industry are: copper, aluminium, tin, lead,
zinc, and nickel, etc., and their alloys.

1. Copper
The crude form of copper extracted from its ores through series of processes
contains 68% purity known as Blister copper. By electrolytic refining
process, highly pure (99.9%) copper which is remelted and casted into
suitable shapes. Copper is a corrosion resistant metal of an attractive
reddish brown colour.

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Properties and Uses
(1) High Thermal Conductivity: Used in heat exchangers, heating
vessels and appliances, etc.
(2) High Electrical Conductivity: Used as electrical conductor in various
shapes and forms for various applications.
(3) Good Corrosion Resistance: Used for providing coating on steel prior
to nickel and chromium plating
(4) High Ductility: Can be easily cold worked, folded and spun.
Requires annealing after cold working as it loses its ductility.

2. Aluminium
Aluminium is white metal, which is produced by electrical processes from
clayey mineral known as bauxite. However, this aluminium ore bauxite is
available in India in plenty and we have a thriving aluminium industry.

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Properties and Uses
(1) Like copper it is also corrosion resistant.
(2) It is very good conductor of heat and electricity although not as good
as copper.
(3) Possesses high ductility and lightweight so widely utilized in aircraft
industry.
(4) Needs frequent annealing if cold worked since it becomes hard after
cold working.
(5) In view of its ductility and malleability it has replaced copper in
electrical transmission and appliances to some extent.
(6) It is used in manufacturing of household utensils including pressure
cookers.

3. Lead
Lead is the heaviest of the common metal. Lead is extracted from its ore
known as galena. It is bluish grey in colour and dull lustre, which goes very
dull on exposure to air.

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Properties and Uses
(1) Its specific gravity is 7.1 and melting point is 360°C.
(2) It is resistant to corrosion and many chemicals do not react with it
(even acids).
(3) It is soft, heavy and malleable, can be easily worked and shaped.
(4) Lead is utilized as alloying element in producing solders and
plumber’s solders.
(5) It is alloyed with brass as well as steel to improve their
machinability.
(6) It is utilized in manufacturing of water pipes, coating for electrical
cables, acid tanks and roof covering etc.

4. Tin
It is a brilliant white metal with yellowish tinge. Melting point of tin is
240°C.

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Properties and Uses
(1) Tin is malleable and ductile, it can be rolled into very thin sheets.
(2) It is used for tinning of copper and brass utensils and copper wire
before its conversion into cables.
(3) It is useful as a protective coating for iron and steel since it does
corrode in dry or wet atmosphere.
(4) It is utilized for making important alloys such as fine solder and
moisture proof packing with thin tin sheets.

4. Zinc
The chief ores of zinc are blende (ZnS) and calamine (ZnCO3). Zinc is a
fairly heavy, bluish-white metal principally utilized in view of its low cost,
corrosion resistance and alloying characteristics. Melting point of zinc is
420°C and it boils at 940°C.

Properties and Uses

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(1) High corrosion resistance: Widely used as protective coating on iron
and steel. Coating may be provided by dip galvanizing or electroplating.
(2) High fluidity and low melting point: Most suitable metal for pressure
die casting generally in the form of alloy.
(3) When rolled into sheets, zinc is utilized for roof covering and for
providing a damp proof non-corrosive lining to containers.
(4) The galvanized wires, nails, etc. are produced by galvanizing
technique and zinc is also used in manufacture of brasses.

5. Nickel
About at least 85% of all nickel production is obtained from sulphide ores.
Properties and Uses
1. Pure nickel is tough, silver coloured metal, harder than copper having
some but less ductility but of about same strength.
2. It is plated on steel to provide a corrosion resistance surface or layer.
3. Widely used as an alloying element with steel. Higher proportions are
advantageously added in the production of steel such as monel or in conel.
4. It possesses good resistance to both acids and alkalis regarding corrosion
so widely utilized in food processing equipment.

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 8. GLASS

Glass is a hard substance, which may be transparent or translucent and

brittle. The fusion process used to manufacture glasses. In this process, sand
is fused with lime, soda, and some other admixtures and then cooled
rapidly. Glasses used in construction purposes and architectural purposes in
engineering.

Fig.: Use of Glass as Building Envelope

The glass is a mixture of a number of metallic silicates, one of which is
usually that, of an alkali metal. It is amorphous, transparent or translucent.
It may also be considered as a solidified super-cooled solution of various
metallic silicates having infinite viscosity.
For the purpose of classification, the glass may be grouped into the following
five main categories:
(1) Soda-lime glass or commercial glass
(2) Potash-lime glass
(3) Potash-lead glass
(4) Common glass
(5) Borosilicate glass.

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Composition of Glass:
The glass is not a single compound. It is therefore very difficult to give any
particular chemical formula for it. However, with reasonable accuracy, it
may generally be expressed as follows –
aX2O, bYO, 6SiO2
Where, a and b are numbers of molecules,
X = an atom of an alkali metal such as Na, K, etc.
Y = an atom of a bivalent metal such as Ca, Pb, etc.
With this expression, the chemical formulas for three groups of glass, as
classified above, are as follows:

Properties of Glass:
The properties of glass are mainly governed by factors such as composition
of the constituents, state of surface, thermal treatment conditions,
dimensions of specimen, etc.
Following are the properties of glass, which have made the glass popular and
useful:
(i) It absorbs, refracts or transmits light.
(ii) It can take up a high polish and may be used as substitute for very costly
gems.
(iii) It has no definite crystalline structure.
(iv) It has no sharp melting point.
(v) It is affected by alkalies.
(vi) It is an excellent electrical insulator at elevated temperatures because
glass can be considered as an ionic liquid. The ions are not easily moved at
room temperature because of the high viscosity. However, when the

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 temperature rises, the ions are permitted to flow and thus they will sustain
an electric current.
(vii) It is available in beautiful colours.
(viii) It behaves more as a solid than most solids in the sense that, it is
elastic. But when the elastic limit is exceeded, it fractures instead of
deforming.
(ix) It is capable of being worked in many ways. It can be blown, drawn or
pressed. But it is strange to note that it is difficult to cast in large pieces.
(x) It is extremely brittle.
(xi) It is not usually affected by air or water.
(xii) It is not easily attacked by ordinary chemical reagents.
(xiii) It is possible to intentionally alter some of its properties such as
fusibility, hardness, refractive power, etc. to suit different purposes.
(xiv) It is possible to obtain glasses with diversified properties. The glasses
may be clear, colourless, diffused and stained.
(xv) It is possible to weld pieces of glass by fusion.
(xvi) It is transparent and translucent. The transparency is the most used
characteristic of glass and it is due to the absence of free electrons. For the
same reason, it also works as a good insulator.
(xvii) When it is heated, it becomes soft and soft with the rise in temperature.
It is ultimately transformed into a mobile liquid. This liquid, when allowed
to cool, passes to all the degrees of viscosity.
This property of glass has made its manufacturing process easy. It can also
be formed into articles of desired shape. Thus the amorphousness of glass
permits it to be blown, drawn from furnaces and continuously worked.
(xviii) Due to advancement made in the science of glass production, it is
possible to make glass lighter than cork or softer than cotton or stronger
than steel. The strength of glass however is considerably affected by foreign
inclusions, internal defects and cords or chemically heterogeneous areas.

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(xix) The glass panes can be cleaned easily by any one of the following
methods:
(a) Applying methylated spirit;
(b) Painting the glass panes with lime-wash and leaving it to dry and then
washing with clean water;
(c) Rubbing damp salt for cleaning paint spots; and
(d) Rubbing finely powdered chalk.
It can thus be easily appreciated that glass, though used for thousands of
years, is just beginning to be understood and it is still possible to get a
variety of glasses with certain chemical additives. Further investigations are
yet in the process for preparing glass with extraordinary unusual
characteristics and thus to increase the utility of this unique and complex
material.
In fact, the glass industry has made enormous progress all over the world and
the glass has become very cheap and useful to the poor as well as to the
rich.
Types of Glass Based on Composition of Glass:
The properties and uses of the following types of glass will now be
discussed:
(1) Soda-lime glass or commercial glass
(2) Potash-lime glass
(3) Potash-lead glass
(4) Common glass
(5) Borosilicate glass.

(1) Soda-Lime Glass or Commercial Glass:

This is also known as the soda-glass or soft-glass. It is mainly a mixture of
sodium silicate and calcium silicate.

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Properties:
Following are the properties of soda-lime glass:
(i) It is available in clean and clear state.
(ii) It is cheap.
(iii) It is easily fusible at comparatively low temperatures.
(iv) It is possible to blow or to weld articles made from this glass with the
help of simple sources of heat.
Uses:
It is used in the manufacture of glass tubes and other laboratory apparatus,
plate glass, window glass, etc.
(2) Potash-Lime Glass:
This is also known as the Bohemian-glass or hard-glass. It is mainly a
mixture of potassium silicate and calcium silicate.
Properties:
Following are the properties of potash-lime glass:
(i) It fuses at high temperatures.
(ii) It is not easily affected by water and other solvents.
(iii) It does not melt so easily.
Uses:
This glass is used in the manufacture of glass articles which have to
withstand high temperatures such as combustion tubes, etc.
(3) Potash-Lead Glass:
This is also known as the flint glass. It is mainly a mixture of potassium
silicate and lead silicate.
Properties:
Following are the properties of potash-lead glass:
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(i) It fuses very easily.
(ii) It is easily attacked by aqueous solutions.
(iii) It possesses bright lustre and great refractive power.
(iv) Its specific gravity is about 3 to 3.30.
(v) It turns black and opaque, if it comes into contact with reducing gases of
the furnace during heating.
Uses:
It is used in the manufacture of artificial gems, electric bulbs, lenses, prisms,
etc.
(4) Common Glass:
This is also known as the bottle glass. It is prepared from cheap raw
materials. It is mainly a mixture of sodium silicate, calcium silicate and iron
silicate.
Properties:
Following are the properties of common glass:
(i) It fuses with difficulty.
(ii) It is brown, green or yellow in colour.
(iii) It is easily attacked by acids.
Uses:
It is mainly used in the manufacture of medicine bottles.
(5) Borosilicate Glass:
Most of us are more familiar with this type of glass in the form of ovenware
and other heat-resisting ware, better known under the trade name Pyrax.
Borosilicate glass is made mainly of 70% to 80% silica and 7% to 13%
boric oxide with smaller amounts of the alkalis (sodium and potassium
oxides) and aluminium oxide.
Properties:
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Following are the properties of borosilicate glass:
(i) It has a relatively low alkali content and consequently has good chemical
durability and thermal shock resistance.
(ii) It has high softening point.
(iii) It does not break when temperature changes quickly.
Uses:
This glass is widely used in the chemical industry, for laboratory apparatus,
for ampoules and other pharmaceutical containers, for various high intensity
lighting applications and as glass fibres used in the reinforced plastics to
make protective helmets, boats, piping, car chassis, ropes, car exhausts and
many other items and also in textile industry.
Engineering Properties of Glass
1. Transparency
2. Strength
3. Workability
4. Transmittance
5. U value
6. Recycling property
1. Transparency of Glass
Transparency is the main property of glass which allows the vision of the
outside world through it. The transparency of glass can be from both sides
or from one side only. In one side transparency, glass behaves like a mirror
from the other side.
2. Strength of Glass
The strength of glass depends on the modulus of rupture value of glass. In
general glass is a brittle material but by adding admixtures and laminates
we can make it as more strong.
3. Workability of Glass
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A glass can be molded into any shape, or it can be blown during melting. So,
workability of glass is a superior property.
4. Transmittance
The visible fraction of light that passing through glass is the property of
visible transmittance.
5. U value of Glass
U value represents the amount of heat transferred through glass. If a glass is
said to be insulated unit then it should have lower u value.
6. Recycle Property of Glass
Any glass can be 100% recyclable. It can also be used as raw material in
construction industry.
Types of Glass on the Basis of Appearance and their Uses
The types of glass used in construction are:
1. Float glass
2. Shatterproof glass
3. Laminated glass
4. Extra clean glass
5. Chromatic glass
6. Tinted glass
7. Toughened glass
8. Glass blocks
9. Glass wool
10. Insulated glazed units
1. Float Glass
Float glass manufactured from sodium silicate and calcium silicate so, it is
also called as soda-lime glass. It is clear and flat, so it causes glare.
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 Thickness of the float glass is available from 2mm to 20mm, and its weight
range from 6 to 36 kg/m2. The application of float glass includes shop
fronts, public places, etc.

Fig. Laminated Glass

2. Shatterproof Glass
Shatterproof glass is used for windows, skylights, floors, etc. Some type of
plastic polyvinyl butyral is added in its making process. So, it cannot form
sharp-edged pieces when it breaks.

Fig.: Shatterproof Glass

3. Laminated Glass
Laminated glass is the combination of layers of ordinary glass. So, it has
more weight than a normal glass. It has more thickness and is UV proof and
soundproof. These are used for aquariums, bridges, etc.

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 Fig.: Laminated Glass Used in Building Construction
4. Extra Clean Glass
Extra clean glass has two unique properties, photocatalytic and hydrophilic.
Because of these properties, it acts as stain proof and gives a beautiful
appearance. Maintenance is also easy.

Fig.: Extra Clean Glass

5. Chromatic Glass
Chromatic glass is used in ICU’s, meeting rooms etc. it can control the
transparent efficiency of glass and protects the interior from daylight. The
chromatic glass may be photochromic which has light sensitive lamination,
thermos-chromatic which has heat sensitive lamination and electrochromic
which has electric lamination over it.
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 Fig.: Chromatic Glass
6. Tinted Glass
Tinted glass is nothing but colored glass. A color producing ingredients is
mixed to the normal glass mix to produce colored glass which does not
affect other properties of glass. Different color-producing ingredients are
tabulated below:
Table: Different Types of Ions Used to Produce Various Colors in
Glasses

Coloring ion Color

Iron oxide Green

Sulphur Blue

Manganese dioxide Black

Cobalt Blue

Chromium Dark green

Titanium Yellowish brown

Uranium Yellow

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 Fig.: Tinted Glass
7. Toughened Glass
Toughened glass is a durable glass that has low visibility. It is available in all
thicknesses, and when it is broken it forms small granular chunks that are
dangerous. This is also called as tempered glass. This type of glass is used
for fire-resistant doors, mobile screen protectors, etc.

Fig.: Toughened Glass

8. Glass Blocks
Glass block or glass bricks are manufactured from two different halves and
they are pressed and annealed together while melting process of glass.
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 These are used as architectural purpose in the construction of walls,
skylights etc. They provide aesthetic appearance when light is passed
through it.

Fig.: Glass Block

9. Glass Wool
Glass wool is made of fibers of glass and acts as an insulating filler. It is fire-
resistant glass.

Fig.: Glass Wool

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10. Insulated Glazed Units
Insulated glazed glass units contains a glass is separated into two or three
layers by air or vacuum. They cannot allow heat through it because of air
between the layers and acts as good insulators. These are also called as
double glazed units.

Fig.: Insulated Glazed Glass Unit

9. THERMAL & SOUND INSULATION MATERIAL

What is Thermal Insulation of Buildings?

In general, people living in hot regions wants to make their inside
atmosphere very cool similarly people living in cold regions, wants warmer
atmosphere inside. However, we know that the heat transfer takes place
from hotter to colder areas. As a result, heat loss happens. To overcome this
loss in buildings thermal insulation is provided to maintain required
temperature inside the building. The aim of thermal insulation is to
minimize the heat transfer between outside and inside of building.

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Materials and Methods of Thermal Insulation of Buildings
There are many forms of thermal insulation materials are available in the
market as follows:
1. Slab or block insulation
2. Blanket insulation
3. Loose fill insulation
4. Bat insulating materials
5. Insulating boards
6. Reflective sheet materials
7. Lightweight materials
1. Slab or Block Insulation
The blocks are made of mineral wool, corkboard, cellular glass, and cellular
rubber or saw dust etc. These are fixed to the walls and roofs to prevent heat
loss and maintains required temperature. These boards are available in
60cmx120cm (or more area) with 2.5cm thickness.

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2. Blanket Insulation
Blanket insulation materials are available in blanket shape or like paper rolls,
which are directly spread over the wall or ceilings. They are flexible and
having a thickness about 12 to 80 mm, these blankets are made of animal
hair or cotton or wood fibers etc.

3. Loose Fill Insulation

Stud space is provided in wall where windows and doors are to be provided.
In that studding, space of wall loose fill of some insulating materials is
provided. The materials are rock wool, wood fiber wool, cellulose etc.

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4. Bat Insulating Materials
These are also available as blanket rolls but bat-insulating rolls are having
more thickness than blanket type materials. These are also spreader over the
walls or ceilings.

5. Insulating Boards
Insulating boards are made from pulp of wood, cane or other materials.
These pulps is pressed hard with some stress at suitable temperature to
make it as solid boards. They are available in many sizes in the market. And
these are generally provided for interior lining of walls as well as for
partition walls.

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6. Reflective Sheet Materials
Reflective sheet materials like aluminium sheets, gypsum boards, steel sheet
Materials will have more reflectivity and low emissivity. Therefore, these
materials are having high heat resistance. The heat gets reduced when solar
energy strike and is reflected. These are fixed outside of the structure to
stop the heat entrance into the building.

7. Lightweight Materials
By using lightweight aggregates while preparing concrete mixture will also
results good results in heat loss preventions. Concrete will have more heat
resistance if it is made of lightweight aggregates like blast furnace slag,
vermiculite, burnt clay aggregates etc.
Other General Methods of Building Thermal Insulation
Without using, any thermal insulating materials as said above we can achieve
the thermal insulation from the following methods.
 By providing roof shading
 By proper height of ceiling

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  Orientation of building
8. By Providing Roof Shading
By providing roof shading for the building at the place where sun directly
strikes the building during peak hours, we can reduce the heat by shading of
roof. Accurate angle should be provided for shading to prevent from sun
light.
9. By Proper Height of Ceiling
The heat gets absorbed by the ceiling and emitted downwards that is into the
building. However, the point should be noted is, the vertical gradient of
radiation intensity is not significant beyond 1 to 1.3 m. it means it can travel
up to 1 to 1.3 m downward from the ceiling. Therefore, provision of ceiling
at 1 to 1.3m height from the height of occupant will reduce some heat loss.
10. Orientation of Building
The building orientation with respect to sun is an important thing. So, the
building should be constructed in an orientation in such a way that it should
not subject to more heat losses.

Sound insulation materials

1) Glass wool: although glass wool is primarily used for thermal insulation,
this material has excellent soundproofing qualities as well. Thanks to the
big mass, a lot of noise can be absorbed. Especially in case of roofs, glass
wool is a better option than rigid insulation boards when it comes to
sound insulation. However, you should take into account that fibreglass
insulation requires more free space. This material can be used for floors,
walls and ceilings as well.

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Glass wool insulation is usually supplied in the shape of semi-rigid
insulation sheets. This way, they are easy to install and they absorb many
sounds.

2) Polyethylene: polyethylene is especially used to build a soundproof floor.

It is a strong and quite cheap plastic. Next to that, this material is resistant
to moisture and very low or very high temperatures.

3) Other materials: next to glass wool and polyethylene, there are many
other materials, which can serve as sound insulation in your house or
office. Cork and rock wool, for example, have good soundproof and
sound-absorbing properties as well.

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