MODULE 1

PLASTICS – INTRODUCTION
Plastics are organic substances made up of huge molecules
called polymers. A polymer is a large molecule formed by
joining many small molecule (monomers).
The process by which the monomer molecules are linked to
form a polymer molecule is called Polymerisation.
Plastics have a higher molecular weight
Chemicals found in plastics include carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
and nitrogen. Chlorine, fluorine, sulphur, or silicon may also be
present.
TYPES OF PLASTICS
There are two types of plastics- Thermo plastics and Thermo
set plastics.
Thermoplastics are the plastics that do not undergo chemical
change in their composition when heated and can be moulded
again and again. E.g. Poly Ethylene, PVC ( Poly vinyl chloride
), Nylon Etc.It does not have any cross linking in their
molecular structure. It is formed by addition polymerization
process. When thermoplastics are heated, it becomes very soft
and rehrdens on cooling.
Thermoplastics can be formed as sheets, pellets, films, tubes,
rods or fibres
Thermo set plastics are formed from two directions and
produce three dimensional networks of molecules, not linear
chains.Thermoset plastics can not be re melted.
They are formed through compression moulding or casting.
E.g. Bakelite, melamine , silicon, epoxy.

Comparison between Thermoplastics and Thermo sets:

THERMOPLASTIC MATERIALS:
Thermoplastics can be classified as
1. Commodity Plastics
2. Engineering plastics
3. Speciality plastics
COMMODITY PLASTICS:
Plastics that are used in large volumes are called as commodity
plastics
Commonly used domestic products are made from these
plastics. E.g.: Polythene, poly propylene, Poly styrene, Poly
vinyl chloride

POLYETHYLENE:
Polyethylene is thermoplastic resin made by polymerisation of
ethylene. It is partly crystalline. It is partly crystalline and
partly amorphous polymer
Polyethylenes are processed by Injection moulding, blow
moulding and rotational moulding etc.
Characteristics of PE
o Toughness
o Near zero moisture absorption
o Excellent chemical resistance
o Excellent electrical insulating properties
o Low coefficient of friction, and ease of processing
o Good load bearing
Polyethylenes are classified based on Density as follows
1. LDPE( low density polyethylene)
2. HDPE( High density polyethylene)
LDPE :-
They have highly branched structures with moderate
crystallinity(50-65%)
Characteristics are:
1. Flexible
2. High Impact strength
3. Low heat resistance
Applications :
1. Package films
2. Extrusion coating of paper
3. Wire and cable coating
 4. Pipe and tubing
5. Injection moulded products for household applications
like Buckets, bowls, tumblers, jugs, soap dishes etc.
6. Blow moulded containers for cosmetics
7. Pharmaceuticals
HDPE:-
Properties :
1. High stiffness
2. Highly Crystalline structure
3. High tensile strength
4. High melting point
5. Good chemical resistance
6. Lower stress cracking resistance
Applications:
1. Slit films are woven into sacks for a variety of packaging
applications like plastics, granules, fertilizers, grains,
chemicals
2. Blow moulded containers for cosmetics, pharmaceuticals
3. Pipes, sheets and tubes for various applications
4. Monofilaments for fishing nets, ropes, chemical filters
5. Cups, Saucers, plates, bottle closer etc.
PP ( POLYPROPYLENE )
Properties :
 1. Lightest Industrial polymer( Lower density – 0.90
g/cm3 )
2. Good optical qualities
3. Better resistance to heat and resist more chemicals
4. Have negligible water absorption and excellent
electrical properties
5. Easy to process
6. Ability to carry light loads for long periods over wide
temperature ranges.
Processing : Injection moulding, Rotational moulding,
Continuous laminating process
Applications:
1. PP fibres are woven into fabrics and carpets
2. Slit tape filaments are used as jute replacements in
carpet backings and sacks
3. PP also is made into un oriented and oriented films for
packaging.
4. PP is injection- moulded into auto parts, hospital
equipment, kitchen ware, and furniture.
PS ( POLYSTYRENE)
Polystyrene is the low cost amorphous material
Properties:
1. High hardness
2. Rigidity
3. Optical clarity
4. Dimensional stability
5. Excellent processibility

Applications :
1. Package for food
2. Disposable cups
3. Dust covers
 4. Oriented crystal PS sheet is thermoformed into trays
and blister packaging
5. Foamed crystal PS is used in Insulating applications
ABS ( ACRYLONITRILE BUTADIENE STYRENE)
ABS materials are composed of acrylonitrile, butadiene and
styrene in varying proportions, combined by graft
copolymarization and physical blending.
Processing :
ABS materials are available as compounds for injection
moulding, extrusion and calendaring, as sheet for thermos
forming or cold forming, and in expandable grades for foam
moulding.
Properties :
1. Toughness
2. Wide service temperature range
3. Good dimensional stability
4. Chemical resistance
5. Electrical Resistance
6. Ease of fabrication
Applications :
In the automotive market, ABS is used for injection
mould interior panel( low gloss grades), grills, wheel covers,
and mirror housings (electroplatable grades), flame retardant
grade are used to mould housings and keyboards for computer.
General purpose ABS is used in telephones, calculators and
machines. ABS sheet is thermoformed into refrigerator door
liners and food storage compartments. Other ABS applications
include house wares, luggage, toys, and sporting goods.
PVC ( POLY VINYL CHLORIDE)
 PVC is the most important of the vinyl thermos plastics
considering volume of production and fields of application, the
commercial products ranges from very rigid to very flexible
items.
Properties :
1. Excellent water resistance
2. Chemical resistance
3. Abrasion resistance
4. Unlimited colour possibilities
5. Excellent strength.
Processing :
PVC can be conveniently processed to rigid items if
only it is compounded with stabilizers and lubricants. It is
compounded with other compounding ingredients such as
fillers, plasticizers, extenders and other process aids, impact
improvers, colouring matters etc. Stabilizers of PVC protect it
from degradation at processing temperatures.
Applications :
Rigid PVC is used in building and construction. Mostly
it is produced via extrusion into product such as pipe and
window profiles. Packaging is another major markets for PVC.
Eg. Thermoforming boxes and blister packs .PVC are made
into food wrap and cable coating, flooring, garden hose and
toys.
PMMA ( POLYMETHYL METHACRYLATE)
PMMA is hard, rigid, and transparent material . PMMA is
the most widely used member of the acrylic family.
Properties:
1. Excellent optical properties ( crystal clarity)
2. Most resistant to impact than glass
 3. Low water absorption
4. Good electrical resistivity
Processing :
Acrylics are available as compounds for extrusion process
, injection moulding, blow moulding and casting, extruded or
cast sheet and film are also marketed.
Applications :
Typical applications including outdoor signs, glazing,
aircraft canopies, skylights, auto taillights, dials, buttons,
lighting applications, knobs, and machine covers.
ENGINEERING PLASTICS
Thermoplastics materials which has the capacity to
withstand tensile pressure of more than 400 kg/cm2 and
temperature of more than 100 degree C under specified fiber
stress in continuous use are considered as engineering plastics.
Eg. Nylon, PET, PBT, PC.
The engineering plastics are classified based on their
chemistry of origins
1. Acetal based
2. Amide based
3. Ester based
4. Ether based
POLYACETALS
Polyoxymethylenes or polyformaldehyde resins derived
from formaldehyde are commonly referred to the generic term
acetal resins.
Properties:
1. Strongest and stiffest thermoplastics
2. Excellent fatigue life and dimensional stability
 3. Low friction coefficients
4. Exceptional solvent resistance
5. High heat resistance
6. Good creep resistance
7. Good electrical properties
Applications :
Typical parts include gears, rollers and bearings,
conveyor chains, auto window lift mechanisms and cranks,
door handles, plumbing components, and pump parts.
PTFE ( POLY TETRAFLUOROETHYLENE)
Poly tetrafluoroethylene is in granular form or in the form of a
fine aqueous dispersion. PTFE is a linear polymer having a
density of about 2.2 g/cm3. Processing is done by cold forming
process with subsequent sintering of the moulded articles
above the melting point which is 327degree C and finally
cooling
The dispersions can be used for casting, films, dip coating etc

Properties:
1. Extreme chemical inertness over temperature range
bw 200C-260C
2. Moulded components can be used up to temperatures
of about 300C
3. It has good physical properties
4. Low power factor, low die electric constant
5. Does not absorb moisture
6. Non adhesive
Applications :
Major applications of PTFE are as seals, films,
gaskets, laboratory equipment or components, packing in
pumps and values, stopcocks, machine components, kitchen
wares( Non stick pans) and electrical insulation.
POLYAMIDES(NYLONS)
Nylons have high tensile strength, flexural strength,
impact strength and abrasion resistance. Nylons resist non polar
solvents, including aromatic hydrocarbons, esters, and essential
oils. They are softened by and absorb polar materials such as
alcohols, glycols, and water. Moisture pickup is a major
limitation for nylons because it results in dimensional change
and reduces mechanical properties.
Several types are available, the two most widely used being
nylon 6/6 and nylon 6

Applications :
1. Mechanical engineering applications like gears , cans,
bearing, brushes, and valve seats
2. Sterilisable moulding have found applications in
medicine and pharmacy
3. Nylon combs have found wide acceptance due to
durability
4. Nylon film has been increasingly used for packaging
applications for food stuffs and pharmaceutical
products
5. Nylon monofilaments have found applications in
fishing nets, ropes, tugs, wigs, surgical sutures, sports
equipment, braiding and outdoor upholstery
PC ( POLYCARBONATE)
Properties :
1. Polycarbonate is a high performance plastic with good
impact strength(ductility)
2. Polycarbonate has high transparency and good
dimensional stability
 3. The moisture absorption for PC is low
4. Good stain resistance, a wide range of colourability ,
and low combustibility
Applications :
Typical applications includes lenses, glazing, pump
impellers, cams and gears, interior aircraft components,
automotive instrument panels, headlights, boat propellers,
water bottles, housing for hand held power tools and small
appliances and optical storage disks.
THERMOPLASTIC POLYESTER
The two dominant materials in this family are polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) and polybutylene terephthalate (PBT).
The thermoplastic polyesters are similar in properties to types
6 and 6/6nylons but have lower water absorption and higher
dimensional stability than the nylons.
Properties:
1. Low water absorption
2. Good dimensional stability
3. Low static and dynamic co-efficient of friction
4. Good chemical and abrasion resistance
5. Good electrical properties.
Processing:
PET is a water-white polymer and is made into
fibers, films and sheets, and blow moulded and
thermoformed containers for soft drinks and foods. Glass-
reinforced PET compounds can be injection-moulded into
 parts for automotive, electrical/electric, and other industrial
and consumer products.
Automotive Applications: Fuel injection controls, ignition coil
caps, coil bobbins, distributor caps, housing and rotors, motor
end caps, speedometer frames, and gears industrial uses include
housings, gears, bearings, cams, slides, water meter
components, pump impellers and housings. Electrical
applications: Bobbins, connectors, TV tuners, and high voltage
components, relays, potentiometers, integrated circuit carriers
and sockets, terminal and motor blocks.

THERMOSETTING PLASTIC MATERIALS

Among plastic materials, thermosetting materials generally
provide one (or) more of the Following advantages:
1. high thermal stability
2. resistance to creep under load
3. resistance to deformation under load
4. high dimensional stability.
5. High rigidity and hardness.
6. Light weight
7. Excellent electrical insulating properties.
Thermosetting materials are formed by compression moulding,
transfer moulding, and thermoset injection moulding
techniques.

POLYESTERS
Polyester resins can be formulated to be brittle and hard,
tough and soft and flexible. In combination with
reinforcements such as glass fibres, they are offer outstanding
strength, a high strength-to-weight ratio, chemical resistance,
and other excellent mechanical properties.
The members of the unsaturated polyester family are the
orthophthalic (lowest cost) and isophthalic polyesters, vinyl
esters; and blends of the various types. The cross linking of
unsaturated polyesters is initiated by a peroxide catalyst
Polyester resins generally are dissolved in a cross linking
monomer, with styrene as the common solvent.

Properties :
Ease of handling. They cure to a solid state with no liquid (or)
gas evolved. Rapid cure for thermosetting resins.
Ease of colouring.
1. Good dimensional stability.
2. Good electrical properties.
3. Good physical properties.
4. Heat resistance.
5. Flame resistance.
6. Corrosion resistance.
Applications:
Boat hulls, automotive body parts, building panels,
housings, bathroom components, pipes and pressure vessels,
appliances, and electronic and electrical applications.
EPOXY RESINS
 Epoxy polymers are generally called as epoxy resins.
Epoxy resins are prepared from bisphenol -A and
epichlorohydrin. Epoxy resins are thermosetting resins and are
easily converted to tough infusible solids by the simple addition
of a curing agent and/or an accelerator which further promotes
the reaction.
Properties:
These resins offer excellent mechanical properties,
dimensional stability, chemical resistance, low water
absorption, low shrinkage, good abrasion resistance, good
adhesion properties
Applications:
Aircraft components, filament-wound rocket, motor
casings for missiles, pipes, tanks, pressure vessels, and tooling,
jigs and fixtures. Another major application area for epoxies is
adhesives. The auto industry has started to use epoxy adhesives
in place of welding and for assembling plastic body parts.
PF (PHENOL FORMALDEHYDE)
Phenolics is one of the earliest commercial synthetic
materials and belongs to thermoset moulding compound family
Properties:
1. They are hard and rigid.
2. They have good electrical insulation properties.
3. They are not readily inflammable and they do not support
combustion.
4. They can be used at temperatures upto 120°c depending on
the composition.
5. Metal inserts can be, firmly embedded in them during the
moulding process.
6. They have low water absorption.
7. They have good resistance to staining.
8. They are generally limited in colour and colour stability
Applications:
1. Components of electric motors like bobbins, man plates,
side plates etc.
2. Handles of pressure cookers, components of domestic
appliances like food mixer electric iron (handles), toasters,
coffee percolatoos, etc.
3. Telephone sets, radio cabinets, etc.
4. Household items like plates, salt-pepper shakers
5. Closures for bottles and jars.

AMINO RESINS
Resins (or) plastics based on products of interactions
between amines or amides and aldehydes are commonly known
as amino resins (or) amino plastics. There are different amino
resins prepared and used. The urea-formaldehyde resins are the
most important one.
MF: (MELAMINE FORMALDEHYDE RESINS)
The properties of melamine moulding compounds are
1. Extreme hardness.
2. Flame and heat resistance.
3. A wide range of colour possibility
4. colour stability
5. resistance to boiling water and solvents
6. high impact strength
7. complete freedom from odour and taste
8. good abrasion resistance

Processing:
MF resins (or) compounds are processed by compression
moulding, transfer moulding (or) screw injection techniques.
Applications:
Dishware and household goods, dinnerware, Ash trays,
door knobs, dispensers, coffee makers, connector plug inserts,
watt meter blocks etc.
Melamines find extensive use outside of the moulding
area in the form of adhesives, coating resins and laminating
resins.
UF (Urea Formaldehyde):
Urea-formaldehyde resins are prepared by reactions between
urea and formaldehyde.

Properties;

1. The cured urea resins are hard and rigid and resistant to
stain and scratching.
2. They are non-flammable but they char around 200?c.
3. They exhibit good impact properties and excellent
electrical insulation properties under dry conditions.
4. UF resins do not impart taste and odor to food and drinks
with which they may come in contact.
5. Excellent colourability
6. Low cost
7. Moisture absorption is relatively high.
Processing:
Moulding is commonly done by the compression, transfer (or)
screw injection technique.
Applications:
 House wares (cups, bowls, saucers, plates, salt pepper
shakers, etc).
 Housing for domestic appliances like food mixers, coffee
percolators, hair dryers etc.
 Electrical wiring accessories like plugs, sockets, holders,
switches, telephone sets.
 Caps and closures for glass and plastic containers
especially for the cosmetic industry.
 Vacuum flask cups and jugs, buttons, trays, knobs, kitchen
and bathroom fittings etc.
 Urea-formaldehyde resins also used as wood adhesives in
the manufacture of plywood and laminates.
 PU (Polyurethanes): Polymers formed through
interactions of isocyanate groups of disocyanates (or)
polyisocyanates and hydroxyl groups of monomeric (or)
polymeric diols (or) polyols are commonly known as
polyurethanes.
 Polyurethanes are used as resins, rubbers, adhesives and
surface coatings.

THERMOSET POLYURETHANES:

Properties:
1. Excellent thermal insulation and superior heat resistance.
2. High tensile strength.
3. High abrasion resistance.
4. Electrical properties similar to phenolic resins.
 5. Very good adhesion to metals, woods, glass, ceramics, and
fabrics.
6. PU foams are light weight and soft.

Applications:
They are used as rigid and flexible foams, elastomers
and surface coatings
1. Rigid polyurethane foams
Insulation for refrigerators, deep freezers, air- conditioners.
Insulation of refrigerated trucks, vans tankers, wagons carrying
perishables. Aircraft, Aircraft wings tips, Radar covers,
Bumpers, crash pads for automobiles, Roof insulation for cars,
buses, railway coaches, Furniture, Packaging

2. Flexible PU foam: cushioning materials, sponges

3. As adhesive, hard polyurethane resins are suitable for metals.

Factors to be considered for selecting plastics are:

DENSITY
Density is the mass per unit volume of the plastic
material
MELTING TEMPERATURE

MATERIAL MELTING
POINT( °C)
EPOXY 120
PHENOLIC 120
NYLON 194 to 265
POLYETHYLENE 110 to 117
 POLYSTYRENE 170

SHRINKAGE
As the plastics material in the cavity cools, it contracts, and the
final moulding is smaller than the original mould. Thus when a
tool is being designed from a dimensional component drawing,
a shrinkage allowance must be added. Shrinkage is caused by a
volumetric change in the polymer at it cools from molten to
solid. It is not a single event but occurs over a period of time.
Shrinkage is generally the difference between the dimension of
the mould at room temperature (22°c) and the dimensions of
the cold, blown part, usually checked 24 hour after production.

Y = (1+S) L

Where
Y - Tool dimension (mm)
S - Shrinkage value of moulding material
L - Component dimension (mm)

BULK FACTOR
The ratio of the volume of the loose plastic powder to the
volume of the mouldings called bulk factor. The bulk factor
reaches a very high value when the material is reinforced with
fiber materials.
Loading such a materials often requires an extra high loading
space. This extra loading space from top of cavity is called
loading chamber and the loading chamber is similar to cavity
size.
The loading chamber design is generally required in positive
and semi-positive moulds.

MOULDING PRESSURE
The pressure at which the material is injected into the machine
is called moulding pressure.
ADDITIVES:
The additives are incorporated in the polymer keeping one (or)
more of the following advantages
1. reduction of material cost
2. improvements in properties, performance and service life
of end product
3. achieving ease of processing and
4. Minimizing degradation during processing and use.

Requirements of Additives:
1. It should be effective at a minimum economic level.
2. The additive should not exude to the surface during
service i.e. chalking, bleeding and blooming phenomena
should not happen.
3. The additive should be stable under processing conditions,
i.e. should not volatize out of the matrix during
processing, otherwise effectiveness of additive reduce.
4. It should be nontoxic and should not impart taste or colour
Types of additives:
Functionally, the additives may be categorized under the
following heads
1. Fillers
2. Plasticizers
3. Colorants
4. Heat stabilizers
5. Antioxidants
6. Ultraviolet light absorbers
7. Antistatic agents
8. Flame retardants
9. Blowing agents
10. Lubricants

Fillers:

 Fillers are usually solid additives.

 They are used as loading agents (inert fillers) with the
objective of lowering the material cost
 But they give desired improvements in physical properties
such as tensile strength. modulus, abrasion resistance and
tear strength (Reinforcing fillers).
Eg: Calcium carbonate, carbon black, mica, Talk, Silica,
polymeric fibers, Fibrous fillers [wood flour, wood pulp, cotton
flock, glass fibre and synthetic organic fibres (reyons, nylons
and polyesters)] etc.

Plasticisers:

 Plasticizers are usually high boiling nonvolatile liquids.

 Plasticisers enable the molecular chains of polymers to
 move freely with respect to one another, with a minimum
of entanglement (or) internal friction.

Properties:
Plasticisers make the polymer more flexible, increase
elongation to failure, lower the melting point, lower the elastic
modulus and increase the impact resistance.
Used in PVC, cellulosics, nylon, ABS and polystyrene.
The most popular general-purpose plasticizers are the
phthalates, epoxies, phosphates, adipate diesters, and
polyesters.

The choice of plasticizer is based on

(i) End-product property requirements

(ii) compatibility with resin, and
(iii) Low cost.

Stabilizers:

Stabilizers are used as additives in polymers to protect

them from degradation during storage and processing and
underperforming conditions.

The most common stabilizers are

 Heat stabilizer, which protect the polymer against

degradation by high temperatures.

 Antioxidants, which protect the polymer against

degradation by oxygen attack, and
  UV absorbers, which protect the polymer against
degradation by ultra violet light.

Heat stabilizers: Heat stabilizers are used to prevent the

degradation of resins during processing.
when melts are subjected to high temperatures (or) to extend
the life of end products.
The stabilizers used are basic lead salts and selected cadmium
and barium compounds and organo-tin compounds.

Antioxidants: Antioxidants protect the polymer against

degradation by oxygen attack. Degradation is evidenced by
embrittlement, loss of tensile properties and discoloration.
Oxygen attack (or) oxidative degradation becomes very
critical under processing conditions when oxygen is absorbed
at a high rate resulting in peroxidation (or) Hydroperoxidation
and subsequent degradation of the polymer by a radical chain
mechanism follows.

Antioxidants are primarily of two types:

(i) Preventive antioxidants, which prevent generation of

radicals and

(ii) Chain breaking antioxidants, which function effectively

by interrupting the propagation of the oxidative
chain degradation.

Most common chain breaking antioxidants are phenols,

such as styrenated phenols and amines, such as phenyl
naphthylamines.

Among the preventive antioxidants, more commonly used are:

(i) peroxide decomposers such as dilauryl thiopropionate and
p-substituted phenyl phosphates.

UV Absorbers: Virtually every plastic degrades in sunlight in

a number of ways, the most common being discoloration and
the loss of physical properties. Particularly sensitive to this type
of degradation are the polyolefins, polystyre PVC, ABS,
polyesters and polyurethanes.

UV degradation prevented by addition of special additives

commonly known as UV-absorbers. UV-absorbers commonly
in use are benzophenone and its derivatives, phenyl salicylates
and benzotriazoles. Carbon black (1-5%) also gives protection
against UV degradation.

Colorants: The use of colorants makes it possible to deep

color, as well as the various colours and marble like shades.
There are two types of colorants used in plastics (i) dyes and
(ii) pigments. (Both organic and inorganic).

Dyes are soluble in the medium they are coloring, where as

pigments are insoluble.

The important property requirement of colorant is colour

stability. The dyes and the pigments are stable at moulding
temperatures and on exposures to the light, moisture, and air,
colourants are also chosen for strength, electrical properties,
clarity, and resistance to migration (bleeding).

Mostly pigment is used as a colorant in plastics Industry. The

appearance of an item coloured by pigments is affected by the
particle size of the pigment and the accumulation of these
particles into larger particles called aggregates.
It is often convenient to use master batches (or) colour
concentrates in appropriate proportions with the white/
colorless granules to produce coloured end- products

Lubricants:

Lubricants are used to increase, the polymer flow property (or)

processibility at lower

temperatures. Lubricants are used to increase the appearance of

end products.

Lubricants are used to allow quick mould release and prevents

the moulded part from sticking to the mould.

Examples: (1) Metallic Stearates (2) amides and esters, fatty

acids, hydrocarbon waxes, and low molecular weight
polyethylene.

Flame Retardants:

Plastics are generally organic compounds and most plastics are

easily burning. Some burn while only in contact with flame.
E.g. PVC.

But many more plastics continue to burn when the ignition

source is removed. Flame retardants are used to reduce (or)
eliminate the tendency of a resin to burn.

Plastics used in building industry, transport vehicles, mining

and related Industries, etc. should have good flame retardant
characteristics.
Two techniques are used to make the plastics flame retardant

The flame retardant raw material is used for the manufacturing

of plastics. E.g use of tetrabromo bisphenol 'A' in place of
bisphenol 'A' in manufacturing of epoxy resins, polyester
resins.

Antimony compounds such as antimony oxide, antimony

chloride, etc. are commonly used to impart enhanced flame
retardancy in plastics.

Blowing (or) Foaming Agents:

The function of blowing agents in plastics is to produce cellular

materials (i.e.) materials containing large proportion of fine
cells filled with gas.

Foaming agents are used to decrease the density of a polymer

by 50 to 60% with loading levels of 0.5 to 2.0% by weight and
to reduce the material cost plus other advantages such as
overcoming problem of sink marks. Foamed plastics have
improved electrical and thermal insulation properties and
higher strength to weight ratios.

Blowing agents are classified as physical (or) chemical

depending on how the gas is generated.

Physical blowing agents: These are normally compressed

gases (or) volatile liquids, which change their state during the
foaming operation.

E.g. compressed gas is usually nitrogen and is injected under

high pressure into the polymer melt, as the pressure is relieved,
the gas becomes less soluble in the polymer melt and expands
to form cells.

E.g. Volatile liquid develops cells when they change from

liquid to gaseous state when heated to polymer processing
temperature.

Typical physical blowing agents are pentanes, heptanes mostly

used for polystyrene foam. Methylene chloride, trichlorofluoro
methane used for PVC and PU foam.

Chemical blowing agents: Chemical blowing agents are

usually solids, decompose under the influence of processing
temperatures to form a gas.

They can be inorganic (or) organic and decomposition can be

endothermic (or) exothermic. E.g

Sodium bicarbonate, Polycarbonate acid and citric acid.

Benzene sulfonyl hydrazide.

Azobisbutyronitrile, Azodicarbonamide..

Cross- Linking Agents: Cross- linking (or) curing agents are

leading to the production of thermo set plastics and vulcanized
rubbers. Now a days, almost any polymer linear (or) branched
and having reactive sites in its structure (or) otherwise- can be
cross- linked using selected chemical cross-linking agents
under heat and pressure (or) using high energy radiations such
as y - rays, x-rays and high speed electrons.
Peroxides, such as benzoyl peroxide is widely used as the
curing agents for many of thermoplastics and rubbers.

Antistatic Agents: Plastics are very good electrical insulating

materials, that is, their electrical conductivity is low. The good
insulation, leads to an unwanted property, namely, that material
is prone to acquire and retain electrostatic charges on the
surface. The buildup of electrostatic charges is undesirable for
several reasons.

Dust particles are attracted to the surface, which is much

undesirable for a transparent article and can cause severe wear
on gramophone records.

Statically charged objects can cause sparks, which is

undesirable for electrical appliances, (or) in the presence of
solvent (or) its vapours cause serious fire hazard.

To overcome above problem, antistatic agents are incorporated

which in combination with atmospheric humidity form
conductive film on the polymer surface, which in turn,
facilitates the dissipation of the charges.

Plastics particularly susceptible to the accumulation of

electrostatic charge are polyethylene, polypropylene,
polystyrene, acrylics, and acrylonitriles,

The most common antistatic agents for plastics are amines,

quaternary ammonium compounds, phosphate esters, and
polyethylene glycol esters.
PLASTICS PROCESSING TECHNIQUES:
Plastic processing may be defined as engineering method
usedto convert Plastic materials into useful end products by the
application of heat and pressure for various applications.
The fundamental work involved in processing a plastics:
 causing deformation in the plastics, and
 Allowing it to set in a defined shape and size.

Thermoplastic materials are processed at deformable state of

materials attained by appropriate temperatures.

Thermosetting materials are processed at plastic deformable

state of materials before set (or) cured through chemical
reactions by appropriate temperatures. The shaping of plastics
may be accomplished by the following techniques.

1. Shaping in the molten state employing compression

moulding, transfer moulding, injection moulding, melt
spinning, calendering blow moulding, rotational moulding
and extrusion techniques,
2. Shaping in the leathery (or) rubbery state employing
thermoforming techniques and calendaring,

3. Wet processing of polymers solutions employing wet

spinning, spraying spreading, brushing and dipping
techniques,
 4. Shaping of objects using polymer suspensions (or)
emulsions (paste and latex technology), low molecular
weight resin syrup (cast phenolics) (or) monomer polymer
syrup (casting of acrylic sheets (or) laying up of fiber
reinforced laminates and composites), and

5. Shaping through machining (or) finishing operations.

Each of techniques (other than the finishing operations)

involves a setting operation (freezing, cross- linking, gelling,
extended polymerization, drying) after the desired deformation
has been achieved, so as to stabilize the imported shape.

The plastics processing may also be viewed under three major

categories
(a) Moulding:
1. Compression Moulding
2. Transfer Moulding
3. Injection Moulding, and
4. Blow Moulding
(b) Forming:
1. Extrusion,
2. Spinning
3. Calendaring
 4. Thermoforming
5. Casting, slush moulding and rotational moulding
(c) Others: lamination, reinforcement and coating.
INJECTION MOULDING PROCESS:
Injection moulding is a primary processing method. It is
especially well suited to mass production, because the
conversion of the raw material to a finished part usually
requires only one operation. Little (or) no finishing is required,
and even complicated shapes can be manufactured in a single
operation.

The process for manutacturing thermoplastics proceeds as

follows
1. The material fed into the injection molding machine
hopper.
2. Within the headed cylinder (or) barrel, the material is
conveyed, melted, and mixed thoroughly by the rotating
screw.
3. The molten plastic material is then injected into the mould
under high pressure by using plunger.
 4. The moulding (or) product cools within the mould thus
gains the inherent stability needed for its removal from the
mould.
5. The moulded part is now removed from the mould.
Advantages:
Moulding are produced in the finished.
The thermoplastic material is moulded to the required shape
and size with repeatable precision.
Functional features such as metal inserts, threads and holes can
be moulded-in.
High output rates can be achieved, particularly when multi-
impression moulds are used and when automatic operation is
used.
Disadvantages:
1. Capital cost of the injection moulding machine can be high
compared with other moulding machinery.
2. Mould costs can be high compared with those for other
moulding processes
Hot runner moulding:
Injection moulds have sprue and runners channels that convey
the molten plastic from the moulding machine nozzle to the
gate of each mould cavity. Normally, the material in these sprue
and runners channel cools and solidifies along with the part,
and then ejected from the mould with the part. The sprue and
runners are cut from the mould with the part, usually by the
moulding machine operator during the next machine cycle.
Although the runner material, usually can be reground and
used, it is advisable to avoid the need for these steps by the use
of hot runner moulds. These moulds incorporate electrical units
to heat the runners so that the material in them remains in the
molten state between shots and is not ejected from the mould
with the part.
1. Trimming of the runners from the part is eliminated.
2. Less material needs to be heated for each shot.
3. Material is not subjected to repeated heating, which
may degrade it.
4. Thin walled parts do not have to wait for the thicker
sprues and runners to solidify, and less material needs
to be heated for each cycle.
Co-Injection Moulding:
Co-injection means that two or more different plastics are
"laminated" together. These plastics could be the same except
for colour. When different plastics are used, they must be
compatible in that they provide proper adhesion, melt at
approximately the same temperature, etc. Two or more
injection units are required, with each material having its own
injection unit. The materials can be injected into specially
designed moulds-rotary, shuttle, etc.
The term co-injection can denote different products,
such as sandwich construction, double-shot injection, structural
foam construction, two-colour moulding, in moulding, etc.
Advantages:
 It combines performance of materials.
 It permits use of a low-cost plastic such as a regrind.
 It provides a decorative "thin" surface of an expensive
plastic.
 For moulding multi component parts (automotive tail-
lights, containers, machine housings)

Multi-Component Moulding:

Two component/two colour moulding can be done by a

machine with two injection unit and one nozzle. Outer polymer
with colour is injected first and then the core polymer which
could be reprocessed material (or) foamed material (polymer
with foaming agent) is injected through the hot melt core of the
first polymer. This is suitable for thicker walled parts.
The first injection unit injects outer polymer with proper
colour. It fills the mould partially. As soon as the melt gets in
contact with mould it forms a solid skin at the mould contact
surfaces but the central core of the wall remains fluid.
Subsequent injection of core polymer melt pushes the fluid melt
of "first outer polymer" forward and rolls toward mould surface
to form the skin for the remaining part of unfilled mould.
This process is also called sandwich moulding and co-
injection moulding. Injection can take place independently (or)
simultaneously (or) by timed delay.
Multi-Colour Moulding:

This is sometimes called double-shot moulding. It uses an

injection moulding machine for making two-colour moulded
parts by means of successive moulding operations. This is
accomplished by first moulding the basic case (or) shell and
then moulding with the next shot in to the first moulded part.
These steps can be accomplished using two separate machines
(or) have two injection units (with different plastics) delivering
melts in sequence into a shuttle (or) rotary mould held between
platens.
Gas Injection Moulding (or) Injection Gas Pressure
Moulding:

It is similar to two component moulding. Here, outer material

is injected first practically and then insert gas (nitrogen) is
injected as core material instead of another polymer. Therefore,
it can also be described as co-injection moulding with nitrogen
as core. This is the standard gas injection technique.
In gas injection moulding we have filling phase and
holding (follow-up) phase without the pressure peak (between
them) as in solid injection moulding process.
Gas injection moulding process
Filling phase: When melt flows through the mould, the solid
skin formation in the (wall thickness) melt takes place on core
as well as cavity surfaces because of lower mould surface
temperature. The middle section remains hot and fluid and
hence it remains flow able till the freezing progresses with
increasing time. The gas has to penetrate the hot fluid middle
section for its progress. It is natural for the gas to penetrate and
continue to move through the thicker melt section with larger
hot flow able melt in the middle. This offers less resistance to
flow gas.
Holding phase: The gas transforms uniform pressure
throughout mould, even far from the injection point. Therefore,
lower average pressure is required during hold on phase. A
uniform pressure within the moulding avoids differential
shrinkage; therefore, there is least scope for warpage of
moulding.
There is no peak pressure in gas injection moulding and the
filling pressures are lower. Therefore, lower clamp force is
required to keep the mould closed.
Hold on pressure is not through melt but through gas.
Therefore, there are no moulded-in stresses. Hence, no stress
cracking in usage is possible cooling time would be very much
less as it has to cool less than 50% of actual wall thickness.
Therefore cycle time is lower and hence productivity is higher.
Advantages:
1. It significantly reduces volume shrinkage which causes
the sink marks.
2. Lighter weight.
3. No moulded-in stresses in the part, better performance.
4. Least deformation (or) distortion due to warpage.
5. Lower clamp force required.
 6. Lower cycle time and higher productivity.
7. Simplified and cost efficient mould,
8. Increased mechanical rigidity for the same weight.
Disadvantages:
1. Additional cost for gas pressure generation unit and
pressure control module.
2. Additional cost for the process medium of gas (nitrogen).
3. Additional cost for special nozzle (or) gas nozzle for
mould.
4. More difficulties during start-up of process

Reaction Injection Moulding (RIM):

Reaction injection moulding is a simple concept. The process
is based on a chemical reaction. A reactive liquid mixture
(usually polyol and isocyanate) is injected or poured into a
mould where a chemical reaction takes place. After an
exothermic reaction occurs, the finished part is removed from
the mould. Depending on the chemical formulation, the end
product can take on a wide range of physical characteristics:
foam or solid, highly rigid or very flexible
Polyol: Determines the physical characteristics of the part,
including density, strength, and colour Isocyanate (ISO) Reacts
with the polyol to form a thermo set polyurethane plastic
An immediate chemical reaction occurs inside the mixing head,
with a continued exothermic reaction inside the mould cavity
as the curing process progresses. When processing foams,
significant forces created inside the mould must be resisted to
ensure the integrity of the part. The clamping pressure required
can be up to many tons depending on the size, expansion rates,
and the desired density of the part, along with other material
factors. Mounting the mould in a pneumatic or hydraulic press
provides the force required to keep the mould tightly closed
during the curing process.
Advantages:
1. Low viscosity.
2. Easy to incorporate fillers
3. No regrind
4. No weld lines
Disadvantages:
1. Incomplete mixing
2. Toxic monomers
3. Formation of volatile byproduct
4. No way to recycle

COMPRESSION MOULDING PROCESS:

In the compression moulding process the plastic
material is placed in the mould cavity by the operator. When
mould is closed, plastic material is compressed to mould shape
and held in this form until it cures.
The principles of compression moulding are
1. The mould is held between the heated platens of a
hydraulic press.
2. A predetermined quantity of moulding compound
(powder, granules (or) performs) is placed in the mould
3. Mould halves are closed and the material is subjected to
"breathing" by opening the mould for a fraction of a
second before clamping it closed again.
4. The moulding compound softens and flows to shape as the
mould temperature become high enough.
5. For thermoplastic materials, the mould is held under
pressure for specified period so that every part of the
cavity is completely filled by the molten polymer and then
cooled till the articles harden.
For thermosetting materials, the mould is held under pressure
and temperature till the polymer is completely cured.
1. The mould is opened.
2. The moulded article is ejected out of the mould.
3. If close dimensional tolerances are needed, the moulded
article, after removal from the mould, is kept in a shrink
block (or) a cooling fixture.
In practice, the compound is often-preheated to shorten the
moulding cycle and to assist early flow in the mould.
Types of compression mould:
There are four types of compression moulds are identified
1. Flash moulds
2. Semi-positive moulds
3. Positive moulds, and
4. Landed positive moulds.
Flash moulds:
This is the simplest of all the types of compression moulds. The
details of a flash mould may be represented as illustrated in Fig.

In this figure, the top-half of the mould is the plunger

(or) force is called the male half. The bottom-part has a
depression or cavity, for holding the polymeric material. It
conforms to the shape of the part. The cavity half of the
mould is also called the female half of the mould. This half
has a landed area, round the cavity. The plunger has two guide
pins, which fit into the slots in the female part of the mould.
The guide pins ensure proper alignment of the two halves.
When the two halves closed the top half rests on the landed
area of the cavity leaving clearance, between the two halves.
The mould halves are fitted to two press platens, which close
and open the mould halves by means of a hydraulic system.
The mould halves have arrangements for heating. In the
beginning of a moulding cycle, the polymer compound in the
form of moulding powder is taken in the cavity. The cavity is
heated and the resin melts. At this time, the plunger closes in
so that the molten material is trapped within the cavity, the
plunger and the land. A small quantity of material escapes
through the clearance. The two halves pinch the material on
the land. The mould halves are closed first and then just for a
fraction of a second it is opened and again closed down. This
is called breathing. This helps in removing any trapped gas or
volatiles in the molten resin. The mould halves are held closed
for a period long enough to make the resin fill every part of
the cavity. The closed mould is subsequently cooled for
thermoplastic materials and heated thermosetting resins to
make the moulded article is removed from the cavity. The
pinched material on the landed area of the mould forms the
flash round the moulded piece, which needs to be trimmed in
the finishing operations.
Advantages:
 Low tooling cost.
Disadvantages:
 The material wastage in the form of flash may amount to
10-25% which adds to the cost of manufacture of the
piece.
  The resin is confined within the cavity by only the land
area (about 5mm in width).Therefore, greater degree of
compactness is not achievable in this type of mould.
 Only very simple shapes such as trays, plates, etc. are
moulded
 Due to limited depth available, materials of high bulk
factors (bulk factor is the ratio of the volume of the
moulding compound to that of the moulded shape)
cannot be used in this type of mould.

Semi-positive moulds:

In this type of mould, provision is made to trap the

material within the cavity more positively. The land width
usually ranges between 5mm and 7mm. In the figure D is the
powder cavity which has clearance angle 0 (varies from 0 to
2?) between the male and the female parts, is provided so that
any powder escaping up the angled clearance find easy outlet
without any hindrance. In this arrangement, even if the
moulding compound is taken slightly in excess (i.e .,
overloading the mould), it would not cause any damage to the
mould In these moulds, material of a high bulk factor (of the
order of 8) may easily be used.
The powder cavity has a land. Guide pins are used for proper
alignment of the two halves of the mould.
An approximate working formula for calculating the depth of
the cavity has been recommended as.
D = (A- B)/C
Where,
A =total volume of moulding compound, in³.
B =volume of the moulded article, in³
C =horizontal area of the moulded piece plus the horizontal
area of the land, in³.
D = depth of the cavity, in.
Positive moulds:

The plunger A has positive cut to entrap the material the same
way as does the semi-positive type of mould. But in the plunger
of the semi-positive mould, the plunger rests on the lower cut
of the powder cavity but in the fully positive mould, there is no
powder lowered into the cavity to different levels thus changing
the bottom thickness of the moulded piece according to the
requirements. With the same set of cavity and plunger, pieces
of different into the cavity.
These moulds are not good for resins which are very free-
flowing type. These are suited for moulding DMCs and
compounds with fibrous fillers. The angle of clearance is
normally 2 to 30. The plunger will hit the cavity if the cavity is
not loaded with material. To avoid caving damage pressure
pads are used.
Landed positive moulds:

Landed positive mould mayhave internal or external land. This

type of mould is utilized when a radius, bevel, bead or some
projections are to be formed. This type of mould is a
combination of the fully positive and the flash type. In this
regard, it is like the semi-positive type of mould. It differs from
the semi-positive type in the small horizontal flash it forms. The
pressure is borne by the charge and the flash. Like any other
positive type of moulds, the two halves in this mould telescope
to some extent which provides better transmission of pressure
to the material.
Advantages of compression moulding:
 Both thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers may be
moulded by this method.
 Wastage of material is less when compared to transfer
moulding or injection moulding, as there is no sprue,
runner or gate in a compression mould.
 With materials having fibrous fillers or reinforcement, this
method gives products of maximum impact strength as it
retains the fibre lengths.
 Compression moulds offer lowest equipment cost
compared to that of the transfer or injection moulding
methods.
Disadvantages of compression moulding:
 Compression mould is not suitable for complicated shapes
which is containing undercuts, small holes or side draws.
 Articles which require very close dimensional tolerances
are not suitable for compression moulding

COMPARISON BETWEEN COMPRESSION

MOULDING AND INJECTION MOULDING
S.No. COMPRESSION INJECTION MOULDING
MOULDING
1 Both thermoplastic and Both thermoplastic and
thermosetting may be thermosetting materials may
moulded by this be moulded by this method.
method.Preferably Preferably thermoplastic
thermosets materials
2 Post moulding operations are
required( flash removal)
3 Wastage of material is less
when compared injection
moulding
4 Functional features such as
metal inserts, threads can not
be moulded in easily
5 Production rate is low
6 Reinforcement is possible
7 For larger products
compression moulding is
recommended
Mouldings are produced in
the finished state
Wastage is high because of
sprue, Runner etc.
Functional features such as
metal inserts, threads can be
moulded in easily
Production rate is high
compared to compression
moulding
Not possible
Not recommended for larger
products because of high
equipment and mould cost.

TRANSFER MOULDING PROCESS:

Transfer moulding has been defined as a process of forming a
polymer article (usually thermosetting) in a closed mould, the
material in a hot plastic state, being conveyed by pressure
from an auxiliary chamber.
The word 'transfer' means that the moulding material is moved
from one place to another. The enclosure where the polymer
is rendered plastic is called the pot or well. From the pot the
molten material moves to the mould cavity.
The mould consists of the usual platens A which carry
assembly. B is a piston or plunger working in a heated pot C.
It is in the pot where the moulding material is charged or
loaded. From the pot C, the molten material is pushed by the
plunger B through a passage D called a sprue. The sprue is
therefore, a vertical passage carrying the molten polymer from
the pot to the cavity E (usually multiple cavities). Before
entering the actual cavity, the material from the central
vertical passage (the sprue) gets channelized into different
passages each leading to a separate cavity. These passages F
are called runners. The runners carry the material from the
sprue to the cavity.The entrance of the material to the cavity
proper is called a gate G.
In the transfer mould, the transfer plunger has an under-
cut J in the central part. This is to provide an effective grip for
removing the material in the sprue (also known as the cull),
the runners and the gates after moulding is over.

Types of transfer mould:

There are two types of transfer moulds
 Pot transfer mould
 Plunger transfer mould
Pot transfer mould:
The mould consists of two platens A and B. To the top
platen A, is fixed the transfer plunger C and its retainer
plate D. To the bottom platen B, is attached the cavity E
and the cavity retainer plate F. Above the assembly of E
and F is fixed the plunger G and the plunger retainer plate
H. G and H provide support to the sprue I from its either
side. Surmounted on G and H arethe transfer chamber J and
its retainer plate K. Between the retainer plates D and K
and also between F and H, passages L are present for
release of excess material from the transfer chamber and the
cavity respectively. There are several holes M drilled in the
mould facilitate proper alignment of the components of the
assembly. Below the cavities E and centrally below the
sprue l, are located ejector pins N which are fixed to the
bottom platen B by screws and bushes O. the transfer
plunger C has the undercut Q in it for gripping the cull after
moulding operation is over.The mould opens during
loading along the parting line 1-1 while after the moulding
is over and for unloading of the mould, it opens along the
parting line 2-2.
 A typical cycle of operation for such a mould consists of
the following steps:
 The mould opens along . 1-1 and the transfer chamber
J is loaded with the moulding compound.
 The heated transfer chamber melts the moulding
powder or granules.
 The transfer plunger C is lowered into the transfer
chamber.
 The molten material is forced through the heated sprue
I into the runner, gate and finally the heated cavity E.
 The mould then opens first along the parting line 2 - 2
lifting the cull Q out of the sprue.
 The ejector pins then push the moulded articles out of
cavity.
 The moulded articles are removed and taken for
finishing operations.
 The cull with sprue is removed from transfer chamber
in the parting line1-1 and the parts are cleaned with
compressed air to make them ready for the next cycle.

Plunger transfer mould:

 The mould consists of a transfer chamber or pot A in
which a plunger or a ram B works. The heated transfer pot is
loaded with the moulding compound. The resin melts and is
driven by the ram, through the runner, into the cavities C of
the A closed mould. The plunger D of the mould is attached to
its retainer plateE while the cavity is held in place by a cavity
retainer plate F. The cavities have knock out pins (ejector
pins) G, to facilitate removal of the moulded object after the
moulding operation. The difference between this type and the
pot-type of the mould is that there is no sprue in this type. As
a result, the cull formed is small, and material wasted is also
less. Also, this type uses only a twoplate type is mould while
pot-type uses a three-plate type mould. The overall moulding
cycle for this type is shorter than that of the true or pot-type of
transfer mould. The absence of the sprue does not require the
particular step of operation that is needed to remove the cull
and the runners as is required in the case of the pot-type of
transfer mould. The moulded object can be removed with the
cull and the runners still attached to it.
Advantages:
 Moulding cycle time is shorter and quality of product is
better.
 Tool costs and maintenance costs are less.
 Moulds last longer.
 Cost of finishing operations are less because the flash is
small and thin.
Disadvantages:
 Wastage for small articles is more.
 Production costs for small articles are more because
wastage and finishing costs are more.
COMPARISON BETWEEN COMPRESSION AND
TRANSFER MOULDING
Sl.No. COMPRESSION TRANSFER MOULDING
MOULDING
1 Breathing is required to The same objective is
remove gas and reduce cure achieved by venting.
time.
2 Cure time may range from Varies from 45-90 seconds.
30-300 sec. Depends on the Depends on the geometry of
material, the thickness of the part
part and the material.
3 Mouldable size is limited by Part weight may be up to
the capacity of the press. 500 grams only
4 Incorporation of inserts is Most complicated inserts
difficult. Risk of getting can also be accommodated.
them dislocated is more
5 Tolerance level is fair and Close tolerances are
depending upon the mould possible.
design.
6 Shrinkage is minimum Shrinkage is more.
Blow moulding:
Basic principle:
Blow moulding is a primary processing method used for the
moulding of plastic bottles and other containers from
thermoplastic materials. Blow moulding is a technique
employed for manufacturing products which are essentially
hollow.

The basic process involves producing a plastic parison (Plastic

tube) or a preform, either by extrusion or injection moulding.
The formed parison is placed in a split hollow mold (cavity in
represents the outside shape of the part to be produced) and
blows up to conform to the contour of the mold by passing air
into the interior of the parison. The expanded parison is
cooled, the mold is opened and the rigid blow moulded part is
removed.
Types of blow moulding
I. Extrusion Blow Moulding (EBM) [principally uses an
unsupported parison].
II. Injection blow moulding (IBM) [principally uses a
perform supported by a metal core pin].
III. Stretch Blow Moulding. [for EBM or IBM, to obtain
biaxially oriented products, which provide significant
cost to performance advantages].

Advantages of blow moulding:

1. Blow moulded parts are manufactured economically, in
unlimited quantities, with little (or) no finishing
operation required.
2. It is principally a mass production method.
3. The surfaces of the mouldings are as smooth and bright,
(or) as grained and engraved, as the surfaces of the
mould cavity in which they were processed.

OTHER PROCESSES

ROTATIONAL MOULDING PROCESSING:

Rotational moulding uses gravity inside a rotating mould to
achieve a hollow form. Also called roto moulding, it is an
alternative to blow moulding for making large, hollow shapes.
It is used principally for thermoplastic polymers, but
applications for thermo sets and elastomers.

In this method, a measured quantity of polymer powder is

placed in a thin-walled metal mould. The mould is closed and
it is rotated about two mutually perpendicular axes and it is
heated.
This rotation will cause the powder to sinter against the mould
walls. After heating and sintering, the mould is cooled while it
is still rotating. The cooling of mould is done by using water
and air. Then the rotation is stopped and moulded component
is removed.
Stages in rotational moulding:
There are four stages.
1. Loading
2. Heating
3. Cooling
4. Unloading.
Loading stage: In the loading stage, a predetermined amount
of plastic material, in the form of a powder (or) a liquid is
charged in to a hollow mould (mould halves).
The mould is closed by a series of bolts. (or) clamps. Then the
mould is mounted on the arm of a moulding machine. The
machine is capable of bi axially rotating and moving the
mould through the four phases of the process.
Then the machine simultaneously rotates the mould in two
directions and moves the mould into the heating chamber (or)
oven.
Heating stage: In the oven, the mould is heated and the
temperature of the inner mould surface is raised. This causes
melting of plastic particles and sticking to the mould surface.
A single layer of adjacent particles is retained on the
mould surface, while the other particles tumble away.
Further heat transfer through the layer raises the temp
of the inner surfaces to cause the retention of the second layer
of particles. Thus the thickness build up slowly. Further
heating may help to homogenize the material, and produces a
smooth inner surface.
Cooling stage: In the cooling stage, the mould is placed in a
cooling chamber. A combination of air and water is used to
cool the mould slowly, thereby maintaining the parts
dimensionally stable.
Unloading stage: The mould is removed from the cooling
chamber, opened and finished parts are removed. The process
can then be repeated.
Rotational moulding can also produce parts with complex
hollow shapes with wall thickness of 0.4 mm minimum. Large
size parts as 1.8 mx1.8x3.6 m can also be formed by this
process.
The surface finish of the mould is same as that of surface
finish of walls.
Materials to the processed:
Rotational moulding is a material dependent process. The
process related material requires
1. Availability in a powder (or) liquid form.
2. Thermal stability.
3. Good flow,
The plastic materials to be moulded are PE, PP, PVC,
NYLON, PC
Advantages of rotational moulding:
1. This is a low-pressure process that allows the use of
light-duty moulds and machines.
2. Moulded parts exhibit low levels of moulded-in stress.
3. Rotational moulding is the ideal plastics process for
running family moulds.
4. There is no time lost in purging from one kind of
material (or) colour to next.
5. This process has the ability to produce two-colour (or)
two-material parts without multiple moulds (or)
sophisticated two-material moulding machines.
6. Parts produced by this process are free of weld-lines.
7. Rotational moulding produces a minimal amount of
scrap material.
8. There are no sprues (or) runners.

Applications
1. It is used to produce toys in P.V.C.
2. It is used to make petrol tanks for motorcars from
polyethylene and nylon.
3. Metallic or plastic inserts are moulded by this process.
 4. It is used to produce tanks of various sizes, boat hulls and
footballs.
Industrial products: Tanks, drums, containers, machine
components, medical carts, Video game housings, pump
bodies, septic tanks, lifting units and portable toilets.
Transportation products: Truck-bed boxes, tool boxes,
ventilating ducts, fuel tanks, battery cases, motorcycle
saddlebags and bumpers.
Consumer products: Infant and adult furniture such as
tables, chairs, beds, desks and benches, insulated food and
beverage containers and Mailboxes.
Recreational products: Ride-on and ride -in toys, play
ground equipment, motor and sailboats, toy storage boxes and
exercise equipments.
THERMOFORMING:
It is a process in which a heated plastic sheet is changed to a
desired shape by causing it to flow against the mould surface
by reducing the air pressure between one side of the sheet and
the mould surface.
The fig shows the vacuum forming process in which the
plastic sheet is heated in a heater and the sheet is fixed in a
clamp in the first stage.
 In the second stage, the heated sheet is placed on the die
where the air between the sheet and mould is removed.
In the third stage, increasing intensity draws the sheet
against the surface of the mould where it cools and solidifies.
The vacuum forming process is also called
"Thermoforming". If large surface area moulds are used, it
will be very difficult to stretch the plastic into the mould. In
this case, the mechanical assist is given to stretch the plastic
into the mould.
The main advantage of this process is low cost and
quick process of making the sheet. In this, the air pressure acts
as a cushion and temperature of the air delays the sheet
cooling. A wide variety of plastic products are made by this
thermoforming.
Applications
1. It is very much useful for making trays, drink cups,
refrigeration door lines.
2. It is used for making panels for shower stalls and
advertising signs.

EXTRUSION:
Extrusion is a primary processing technique where softened
plastic material is forced continuously through a die to give
product of constant cross-section.
In addition to the production of continuous shapes (like the
film, sheet, rods, pipe and filaments) extruders are also used
to apply insulation and jacketing to wire and cable (or) to coat
substrates such as paper, foil, (or) cloth. In the blow moulding
process, an extruder can be used to form a molten tube (ie ., a
parison). The extruder is also integral to converting plastics
into the pellet shape most commonly used in processing. As
such, the extruder also functions as a device for compounding
plastics (ie, adding ingredients such as colorants to a resin
mix).
And finally, an extrusion-type screw is used to provide
the melt for various moulding processes.
Single screw extruder operation:
 The plastics pellets (or) powders are fed from a feed
hopper through the fed throat into the channel of a screw. The
screw rotates in a barrel and conveys the plastic forward for
melting and delivery. A drive motor provides the controlled
rotation of the screw.
Heat is generally applied to the barrel by electrical heaters,
whose temperature is measured by thermo couples. As the
material moves along the screw, it is melted and forced
through a breaker plate which often carries a screen pack. The
function of the breaker plate and screen pack is to reduce
rotary motion of the melt and remove large particles.
Finally, the melt passes through the die which gives the shape
of the final extrude.
Usually, the extruder must be followed by some kind,
of cooling system to remove heat sufficiently to solidify the
final product. A typical technique is to draw the extrusion
directly into a long water bath, keeping it submerged so that
the water can cool the section. Small plates having the shape
of the finished extrusion are often used to hold the plastic as it
passes through the water. These are called sizing plates.
Sizing plates:
Near the end of the extrusion line, there is some sort of a
powered device, called a take-off which functions in gripping
the extrusion and pulling it through the cooling phase.
Extruder screw:

The development of the screw extruder allowed plastics and

rubber processors to increase both their productivity and the
quality of their extruded products.
Basically an extruder screw has three different zones.
Feed zone: The function of this zone is to preheat the plastic
and convey it to the subsequent zones. The screw depth is
constant and the length of this zone is such as to ensure a
correct rate of feed forward.
Compression: The second zone has decreasing channel
depth. There are several functions for this zone, usually called
the "compression "(or) "Transition" zone. It expels air trapped
between the original granules. Heat transfer from the heated
barrel walls is improved as the channel depth decreases and
melting is accommodated.
Metering zone: In this section the screw depth is again
constant but the depth of the screw is less than the feed zone.
The main function of metering is to homogenize the melt and
quality also has to supply the melted material to die with
constant temperature and pressure.
Types of Extruder screw:

There is variation in the ideal design for each polymer type.

Polymer which melts gradually, (eg:LDPE) the overall length
roughly evenly divided between the three zones is
appropriate. Screwsof this type are often referred to as
polyethylene screws.
If the polymer melts relatively sharply the conventional
wisdom is that a very short compression zone is needed,
usually only one turn of the screw flight in length: an example
of such a polymer is nylon, hence the common name Nylon
screw for this design.
PVC is a difficult polymer to extrude. It is often best
processed using a screw which is one long compression zone
along its entire length, sometimes with the addition of a
metering zone.
Pipe extrusion:

A typical pipe line consists of a single (or) a twin - screw

extruder, a die, equipment for inside and outside calibration, a
cooling tank, a wall thickness measuring device, haul off and
automatic cutting and pallet equipment, (or) a windup unit for
self- supporting pipe coils.
A small diameter tubing (less than 10 mm) is usually made
with a free extrusion process; this is a process without a sizing
(or) calibrating unit. Large diameter tubing and pipe is made
with a sizing device just downstream of the die. The purpose
of the size (or) calibrator is to solidity the plastic to a
thickness sufficient, to transfer the stresses acting on the
product, while maintaining the desired shape and dimensions.
In the production of plastic tubing (or) pipe several methods
are used to shape, cool, and control the size of the melt after if
emerges from the extrusion die. Small tubing often can be
made by "free extrusion" where in the molten tube is simply
flooded with cooling water by immersing in a tank (or) trough
filled with circulating water. The size in this case is
determined by the size of the extrusion die and the drawdown.
Tension is maintained on the cooling melt by pulling the tube
at a faster rate than the melt is issuing from the die. The final
tube (or) pipe is smaller than the die and quite often a very
slight internal air pressure, introduced through the die
mandrel, will keep the tube from collapsing and will maintain
a circular cross section.
If the tube is larger, it is difficult to maintain a constant shape
(or) dimension by free extrusion. Guides and supports are
needed as the material cools. A series of plates (or) sizing ring
which will from and support the melt if is drawn through the
water will enable exact sizes and shapes to be made.
Sizing:

Several methods of bringing the pipe to size are in use.

The European method is external sizing with a sizing sleeve.
The plastic pipe is drawn through a water-cooled metal sleeve
and held to the sleeve by air pressure inside the pipe.
Alternatively, the pipe may be sized internally by a mandrel,
in the extended mandrel method. The shrinkage of the cooling
plastic pipe keeps a tight contact with the internal metal
mandrel. The mandrel is water-cooled. This method is well
suited to polyolefin plastics.
The sizing plate method is now less used than formerly. In
this method the pipe takes its size by passing through a series
of metal sizing plates. The newest and most used method of
sizing is the vacuum trough. The pipe is fed through along
closed water-filled trough. Metal sizing rings in the trough
give the pipe its desired diameter. A vacuum drawn over the
water in the trough to reduce the external pressure and
expands the pipe against the sizing rings.
Cooling baths: The pipes must be cooled sufficiently in the
calibrating tank and in the bath which follows to retain
enough from stability to withstand the stresses in the haul-off,
in the winder (or) in the cutting unit.
Cooling is carried out in the water bath (or) by spraying with
water; both methods provide high head transfer values and
uniform cooling when there is no central water cooler for
extrusion plant, the head is removed from the cooling water
by a head exchanger in the line itself.
Pipe haul-off units: Pipe haul-off units have the task of
pulling the pipe away from the die without jerking and
transporting it through the calibration unit and cooling section
at constant speed.
In addition to belt type take-off unit, which are employed for
pressure sensitive, thin-walled pipes and tubes having lower-
range diameters, multiple cater pillar units are used.
Belt haul-off units are mainly used for sensitive thin- walled
pipes and tubes in the lower diameter range at high production
speeds.
Evenly distributed pressure on the product is applied by two
flat (or) toothed belts moving at synchronized speed. The belt
contact surfaces highly wear-resistant rubber (or) foam
material to protect the product.
Caterpillar haul-off units with rubber gripping pads are used
for pipes of medium-size and large diameters in order to
ensure constant conveying. Depending on pipe diameter the
pad separation is adjusted by parallel movement to ensure
optimum contact throughout the entire length.
The following factors must be taken into account when
deciding on the suitability of a haut - off unit;
 Pipe diameter
 Wall thickness and inherent rigidity of pipes
 Haul - off speed and laud - off power.

Blown Film Extrusion:

Blown film systems are employed to produce very wide and
tubular films. These systems consist of extruders with a
blowing head, normally a spiral-type. A blown film line is
quite different from a flat film is extruded vertically upwards
an shown in fig. Air is introduced to the inside of the tube; as
a result the tube expands to a bubble with a diameter larger
than the diameter of the die. The ratio of the bubble diameter
to the die diameter is called the blow up ratio.
The vertically extruded tubular film passes air ring in which if
is cooled. When the bubble has cooled sufficiently, if is
flattened in a collapsing frame and pulled through a set of nip
rolls. From there, the lay flat film is guided over several idler
rollers to the winder where it is rolled up over a core.
In some blown film processes the plastic extruded downwards
to produce film with special properties.
A blown film die has an annular orifice between a
conical center mandrel and an outer ring which is adjustable
to extrude films of various widths and thickness. The center
core and outside ring must be perfectly concentric as far as
possible.
Advantages
1. It can produce not only tubular products (bags) but also
flat film, simply by slitting open the tube
2. The advantages of blown- film extrusion over flat
extrusion include to produce film with a more uniform
strength in both the machine and transverse directions. In
flat- film extrusion (particularly at high take - off rates),
there is a relatively high orientation of the film in the
machine direction and a very low orientation in the
transverse direction. In blown-film extrusion by
 balancing blowup ratios against takeoff rate, it is possible
to achieve physical properties which are very nearly
equal in both directions, and this gives a film of
maximum toughness.
3. No edge film is required as in flat film.
4. Another advantage of blown film is in bag making,
where the only seal necessary is one across the bottom of
the bag, whereas flat film either one (or) the longitudinal
seals are also necessary.
Disadvantages:
1. The main disadvantage is the lower clarity of the blown
film but this can be improved by more efficient cooling.

Cast film extrusion:

This film are often cast on a roll rather than extruded intoa
roll stack. The main components of a cast film line are the
extruder, the film die, the chill roll unit, thickness gauging
system, the surface treatment unit, and the winder.
The film is extruded downward onto the chill. The initial
contact between the film and chill roll is established by the
use of an air knife. The air knife produces a thin steam of high
velocity air across the width of the chill roll; the air stream
pushes the film against the roll surface as shown in fig.
From the chill roll unit the film is led to a thickness -
gauging unit where the thickness of the film is measured
across the width of the film the width of the film. Most
thickness gages for film and sheet have a scanning measuring
head that traverse, across the film back and forth to measure
thickness both along the length and across the width of the
film.

After the thickness - gauging unit, the film passes through a

surface treatment unit. Such a unit is incorporated, if surface
treatment of the film is required. This is usually done to
improve adhesion, for instance, for a subsequent printing (or)
laminating operation.
From the treatment unit, film is led to the winder unit. There
are different types of winders are available.
Rod extrusion:
The die orifice is a round hole in a die bushing.
Diametral control of the extrusion is by
(1) the die orifice and
(2) the drawdown ratio.
Generally, dies for rod are single opening dies. However,
there are a few multi-orifice dies used for the smaller sizes of
rod.
In contrast, dies for monofilament are nearly always multi-
orifice, with the orifices arranged in a circular pattern. The
circular form is frequently called a "spinneret" because of
common usage to produce monofilament for textile
applications. Another arrangement might be side-by-side and
fed by a manifold.
Co Extrusion:
Co-extrusion is a commonly used technique to combine two
(or) more plastics passing through a single extrusion die.

There are two major co-extrusion techniques, the feed block

system and the multi- manifold system. In the feed block
system the different plastics are combined in the feed block
module and then enter into a regular extrusion die with a
single manifold and outlet.
The advantage of the feed block system is that it is simple,
inexpensive, and allows many layers to be combined. The
main drawback is that the flow properties of the different
plastics have to be quite close to avoid interface distortion.
This limits the choice of materials that can be combined
through feed black co extrusion.
In the multi- manifold system each plastic has its own
entrance and manifold in the co extrusion die. The different
melt streams are combined just before they exit the die, so that
minimum interface distortion can occur
The advantage of the multi-manifold system is that plastics
with widely different flow properties can be combined. As a
result, there is a wide choice of materials that can be
combined through this extrusion technique.
The disadvantage is that the design of the die is more
complicated and therefore, more expensive.

Fig shows a multi-manifold sheet (or) film die this die has two
inlets, two manifold, and a single outlet. The flow of the upper
layer can be adjusted by the flexing the choker bar, using the
adjustment nuts. The two plastic combine at the entrance to
the land region. This is the last parallel section of the die flow
channel the flow in the land region can be adjusted with the
flex lip adjustment bolts. These bolts are located along the
width of the die exit with a spacing of about 25 to 40mm and
allow local adjustment of the die gap.
Many multi-manifold dies are possible, including flat
film and sheet dies, tubing and pipe dies, blown film dies, and
profile dies.