ART APPRECIATION INSTRUCTOR: Mrs. Shiena Mae D.

Racaza

Types Definition
Painting The application of pigment to a two-dimensional surface (usually).
Need not be contained within a frame
Sculpture The art of making two or three-dimensional representative or abstract
forms, especially by carving stone or wood or by casting metal or
plaster.
Architecture The built environment; could include non-built or unfinished projects;
structures like bridges, towers etc.
Performance Performance art is presented to an audience within a fine art context,
and is traditionally interdisciplinary.
Installation An art object designed for a particular space; often site-specific and
designed to transform the perception of a space.
Video An event captured and manipulated through technology.
Conceptual Art in which the idea or concept presented by the artist is considered
more important than the finished product, if any such product exists.
Land art/ Site-specific art In land art, landscape and artwork are inextricably linked; site-specific
art is created to exist in a certain place.

Art Historical Definition Relevant terms and concepts (including

Periods/Movements styles)
Greek (850–31 BCE) Greek idealism: balance, perfect The Classical style: harmony, balance,
students study from 500 proportions; post and lintel symmetry, architectural orders (Doric,
BCE construction; idealised forms (both Ionic, Corinthian); sculpture: Archaic,
in sculpture and architecture). Classical to Hellenistic; ceramics:
Geometric to black/red vase figure wares.
Roman (300 BCE–476) Roman realism: structural use of Verism: psychological penetration in
the arch/barrel vault and concrete. sculpture; borrowings from the Greeks;
interior decoration and encaustic portraits;
stadia and propaganda.
Byzantine (330–1453) Art of the Eastern Roman Empire Christian art form (although derived from
from 4th Century CE to the Fall of forms of Greek and Egyptian).
the Roman Empire. Hieratic/other-worldly. Mosaics (tesserae);
icons, panel painting, architectural
terminology specific to Byzantine
structures.
Middle Ages (500–1400) Celtic art Celtic: asymmetrical, curvilinear abstract
ornament, zoomorphic. Carolingian:
Carolingian Emperor Charlemagne and successors -
first conscious attempt to revive the
Renaissance Classical Greek and Roman heritage;
illuminated manuscripts; large-scale
Romanesque architecture. Romanesque: muscular
architectural style, rounded headed arches,
Gothic. linear sculpture, distorted to convey
religious emotion. Gothic structures: flying
buttresses, rib vaults, pointed arches,
stained glass. Sculptural ‘S’ curves,
tapestries, Books of Hours.
Early and High Rebirth of classical culture. Intellectual influence from Humanism, Neo-
ART APPRECIATION INSTRUCTOR: Mrs. Shiena Mae D. Racaza

Renaissance (1400–1550) Platonism; greater command of anatomy

(in visual arts); linear and atmospheric
perspective; increasing secular subjects as
well as history/mythological works in
painting and sculpture. For architecture: a
classical revival – harmony, clarity and
repose.
Venetian and Northern The Renaissance spreads Northern: Rapid developments in oil
Renaissance northward to France, the Low painting (glazes); woodcuts; altarpieces;
Countries, Germany, and panel paintings in Flanders; empirical
(1430–1550) England. perspective (rather than mathematically
calculated linear perspective) and direct
observation; non-idealised. Venice:
influences from Northern Europe; brilliant
colour; religious and secular (sometimes
erotic) painting.
Baroque (1600–1750) Splendour and flourish for God; Religious impulse of the
art as a weapon in the religious CounterReformation – dynamic movement,
wars. Exuberant Counter- synthesis of architecture, painting and
Reformation art that progresses to sculpture acceptable/appealing to the
more secular Rococo throughout masses; later Baroque (Rococo) – lighter
the period. and more playful; asymmetrical.
Neoclassical (1750–1850) Art that recaptures GrecoRoman Classical revival – Palladianism (in
grace and grandeur. architecture); preference for the linear and
symmetrical in painting.
Romanticism (1780–1850) The triumph of imagination and Literary influences; sublime and
individuality. picturesque, Nature dominates – insistence
on the rights of imagination.
Realism (1848–1900) Celebrating the working class and Rejects idealistic tendencies of
peasants; en plein air rustic Romanticism; social realism.
painting
Impressionism (1865–1885) Capturing fleeting effects of Colour applied in small touches (rather
natural light. than broad brush-stokes) to create
brighter/more immediate paintings; painting
in front of the motif.
Post-Impressionism (1885– A soft revolt against Post-Impressionism: Pointillism,
1910) Impressionism. divisionism, use optical mixtures of colour.
Art Nouveau (1890–1914) Stylised forms based on Art Nouveau: exaggerated asymmetrical
nature/geometry. decorative style; undulating forms; rejects
historicism; offshoot of Symbolism and Arts
& Crafts
Fauvism and German Non-naturalistic colours to Fauvism: loosely formed ‘group’ working in
Expressionism (1900–1939) produce emotional effects; the south of France: experimental paint
abstraction. handling and use of colour alone to evoke
a sensation in the viewer. German
Expressionism: general concept of
democratising art; techniques vary: no
formal stylistic intentions – but anti-
Impressionist; anti-naturalistic subjectivism.
Futurism, Suprematism, De Pre- and Post-World War I art Futurism: celebrating machines and speed;
Stijl and Constructivism experiments: new forms to anarchic attitudes to predecessors.
(1905–1920) express modern life. Suprematism and De Stijl: simple
geometric forms; primary colours
appropriate to the modern world.
ART APPRECIATION INSTRUCTOR: Mrs. Shiena Mae D. Racaza

Constructivism: iconoclastic, based in

Marxist ideology – architectonic forms; the
unification of art and society.
Cubism (1907–1914) An early 20th-century style and Experiments with form; repudiation of
movement in art, especially subject; flattening of the canvas;
painting, in which perspective with fragmentation (analytical Cubism)
a single viewpoint was elimination of space (in synthetic Cubism):
abandoned, and use was made of collage; Cubist sculpture takes similar
simple geometric shapes, approaches.
interlocking planes, and (later)
collage
Dada and Surrealism Dada: various interventions, Dada: retaliation to art being bound with
(1917–1950) depending on location. bourgeois capitalism; theatrical;
Surrealism: painting dreams and nonsensical; provocative. Surrealism:
exploring the unconscious. Freud’s Interpretation of Dreams;
Automatism; frottage, Dalí’s Veristic
Surrealism.
Bauhaus (1919–1933) Bauhaus: German 20thcentury Bauhaus: aimed to bring together all arts
International Modernism school of design, the aesthetic of under the primacy of architecture. While it
(1920s–1960) which was influenced by and combines them, it also favours functionality
derived from techniques and over ornamentation, and asymmetry and
materials employed especially in regularity over symmetry. Bauhaus
industrial fabrication and architecture rejects decorative details and
manufacture. aimed to use classical architecture and its
scientific, geometric aesthetic without
International Modernism: an ornamentation of any kind.
influential modernist style in
architecture characterized chiefly International Modernism: avant-garde
by regular, unadorned geometric architectural style; worked from the inside
forms, open interiors, and the use (‘form ever follows function’), logical
of glass, steel, and reinforced planning (rather than axial symmetry)
concrete.
Abstract Expressionism Post-World War II: pure Consciously American; gestural painting
(1940s–1950s) abstraction and expression borrows from Surrealism (automatism)
without form; no obvious subject. calligraphic and colour field. Formal and
technical innovations – flat, hard-edged,
colour relationships and space. Non-
figurative.
Pop Art (1960s) Art responds to and absorbs Socially democratic; more like commercial
consumerism. design/advertising; styleless; responds to
popular culture.
Postmodernism and Art that challenges conventional Postmodernism: free, often ironic,
Deconstructivism (1970– categories reworking and mixing appropriation of past styles; new materials;
present) past styles. new audiences and new sites for display.

Deconstructivism is influenced by the

theory of ‘Deconstruction’, which is a form
of semiotic analysis and is characterised by
unpredictability and controlled chaos.
 ART APPRECIATION INSTRUCTOR: Mrs. Shiena Mae D. Racaza

History of Art
Origins and Evolution of Visual Arts
History of Stone Age Art (2.5 million-3,000 BCE)

Prehistoric art comes from three epochs of prehistory: Paleolithic, Mesolithic and

Neolithic. The earliest recorded art is the Bhimbetka petroglyphs (a set of 10 cupules
and an engraving or groove) found in a quartzite rock shelter known as Auditorium cave
at Bhimbetka in central India, dating from at least 290,000 BCE. However, it may turn
out to be much older (c.700,000 BCE). This primitive rock art was followed, no later
than 250,000 BCE, by simple figurines (eg. Venus of Berekhat Ram [Golan Heights] and
Venus of Tan-Tan [Morocco]), and from 80,000 BCE by the Blombos cave stone
engravings, and the cupules at the Dordogne rock shelter at La Ferrassie. Prehistoric
culture and creativity is closely associated with brain-size and efficiency which impacts
directly on "higher" functions such as language, creative expression and ultimately
aesthetics. Thus with the advent of "modern" homo sapiens painters and sculptors
(50,000 BCE onwards) such as Cro-Magnon Man and Grimaldi Man, we see a huge
outburst of magnificent late Paleolthic sculpture and painting in France and the Iberian
peninsular. This comprises a range of miniature obese venus figurines (eg. the Venuses
of Willendorf, Kostenky, Monpazier, Dolni Vestonice, Moravany, Brassempouy, Gagarino,
to name but a few), as well as mammoth ivory carvings found in the caves of Vogelherd
and Hohle Fels in the Swabian Jura. However, the greatest art of prehistory is the cave
painting at Chauvet, Lascaux and Altamira.

These murals were painted in caves reserved as a sort of prehistoric art gallery, where
artists began to paint animals and hunting scenes, as well as a variety of abstract or
symbolic drawings. In France, they include the monochrome Chauvet Cave pictures of
animals and abstract drawings, the hand stencil art at Cosquer Cave, and the polychrome
charcoal and ochre images at Pech-Merle, and Lascaux. In Spain, they include
polychrome images of bison and deer at Altamira Cave in Spain. Outside Europe, major
examples of rock art include: Ubirr Aboriginal artworks (from 30,000 BCE), the animal
figure paintings in charcoal and ochre at the Apollo 11 Cave (from 25,500 BCE) in
Namibia, the Bradshaw paintings (from 17,000 BCE) in Western Australia, and the hand
stencil images at the Cuevas de las Manos (Cave of the Hands) (from 9500 BCE) in
Argentina, among many others.

Mesolithic Art (c.10,000-4,000 BCE)

Against a background of a new climate, improved living conditions and consequent

behaviour patterns, Mesolithic art gives more space to human figures, shows keener
observation, and greater narrative in its paintings. Also, because of the warmer weather, it
moves from caves to outdoor sites in numerous locations across Europe, Asia, Africa,
Australasia and the Americas. Mesolithic artworks include the bushman rock paintings in
the Waterberg area of South Africa, the paintings in the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka in
India, and Australian Aboriginal art from Arnhem Land. It also features more 3-D art,
including bas-reliefs and free standing sculpture. Examples of the latter include the
 ART APPRECIATION INSTRUCTOR: Mrs. Shiena Mae D. Racaza

anthropomorphic figurines uncovered in Nevali Cori and Göbekli Tepe near Urfa in eastern
Asia Minor, and the statues of Lepenski Vir (eg. The Fish God) in Serbia. Other examples of
Mesolithic portable art include bracelets, painted pebbles and decorative drawings on
functional objects, as well as ancient pottery of the Japanese Jomon culture. One of the
greatest works of Mesolithic art is the sculpture "Thinker From Cernavoda" from
Romania.

Neolithic Art (c.4,000-2,000 BCE)

The more "settled" and populous Neolithic era saw a growth in crafts
like pottery and weaving. This originated in Mesolithic times from about 9,000 BCE in the
villages of southern Asia, after which it flourished along the Yellow and Yangtze river
valleys in China (c.7,500 BCE) - see Neolithic Art in China - then in the fertile crescent of
the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys in the Middle East (c.7,000) - the 'cradle
of civilization' - before spreading to India (c.5,000), Europe (c.4,000), China (3,500) and
the Americas (c.2,500). Although most art remained functional in nature, there was a
greater focus on ornamentation and decoration. For example, calligraphy - one of the great
examples of Chinese art - first appears during this period. See: Chinese Art Timeline for
details. Neolithic art also features free standing sculpture, bronze statuettes (notably by
the Indus Valley Civilization), primitive jewellery and decorative designs on a variety of
artifacts. The most spectacular form of late Neolithic art was architecture: featuring
large-stone structures known as megaliths, ranging from the Egyptian pyramids, to the
passage tombs of Northern Europe - such as Newgrange and Knowth in Ireland - and the
assemblages of large upright stones (menhirs) such as those at the Stonehenge Stone
Circle and Avebury Circle in England. (For more, please see: megalithic art.) However, the
major medium of Neolithic art was ceramic pottery, the finest examples of which were
produced around the region of Mesopotamia (see Mesopotamian art) and the eastern
Mediterranean. For more chronology, see: Pottery Timeline. Towards the close of this era,
hieroglyphic writing systems appear in Sumer, heralding the end of prehistory.
History of Bronze Age Art (In Europe: 3000-1200 BCE)

The most famous examples of Bronze Age art appeared in the 'cradle of civilization'
around the Mediterranean in the Near East, during the rise of Mesopotamia (present-day
Iraq), Greece, Crete (Minoan civilization) and Egypt. The emergence of cities, the use of
written languages and the development of more sophisticated tools led the creation of a
far wider range of monumental and portable artworks.

Egyptian Art (from 3100 BCE)

Egypt, arguably the greatest civilization in the history of ancient art, was the first
culture to adopt a recognizable style of art. Egyptian painters depicted the head, legs
and feet of their human subjects in profile, while portraying the eye, shoulders, arms
and torso from the front. Other artistic conventions laid down how Gods, Pharaohs and
ordinary people should be depicted, regulating such elements as size, colour and
figurative position. A series of wonderful Egyptian encaustic wax paintings, known as the
ART APPRECIATION INSTRUCTOR: Mrs. Shiena Mae D. Racaza

Fayum portraits, offer a fascinating glimpse of Hellenistic culture in Ancient Egypt. In

addition, the unique style of Egyptian architecture featured a range of massive stone
burial chambers, called Pyramids. Egyptian expertise in stone had a huge impact on
later Greek architecture. Famous Egyptian pyramids include: The Step Pyramid of
Djoser (c.2630 BCE), and The Great Pyramid at Giza (c.2550 BCE), also called the
Pyramid of Khufu or 'Pyramid of Cheops'.

Sumerian Art (from 3500 BCE)

In Mesopotamia and Ancient Persia, Sumerians were developing their own unique
building - an alternative form of stepped pyramid called a ziggurat. These were not
burial chambers but man-made mountains designed to bring rulers and people closer to
their Gods who according to legend lived high up in mountains to the east. Ziggurats
were built from clay bricks, typically decorated with coloured glazes. See Sumerian
Art (c.4500-2270 BCE).

Persian Art (from 3500 BCE)

For most of Antiquity, the art of ancient Persia was closely intertwined with that of its
neighbours, especially Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq), and influenced - and was
influenced by - Greek art. Early Persian works of portable art feature the intricate
ceramics from Susa and Persepolis (c.3000 BCE), but the two important periods of
Persian art were the Achaemenid Era (c.550-330 BCE) - exemplified by the monumental
palaces at Persepolis and Susa, decorated with sculpture, stone reliefs, and the famous
"Frieze of Archers" (Louvre, Paris) created out of enameled brick - and the Sassanid Era
(226-650 CE) - noted for its highly decorative stone mosaics, gold and silver dishes,
frescoes and illuminated manuscripts as well as crafts like carpet-making and silk-
weaving. But, the greatest relics of Sassanian art are the rock sculptures carved out
of steep limestone cliffs at Taq-i-Bustan, Shahpur, Naqsh-e Rostam and Naqsh-e Rajab.

Minoan Art (c.2100-1425 BCE)

The first important strand of Aegean art, created on Crete by the Minoans, was rooted in
its palace architecture at Knossos, Phaestus, Akrotiri, Kato Zakros and Mallia, which
were constructed using a combination of stone, mud-brick and plaster, and decorated
with colourful murals and fresco pictures, portraying mythological animal symbols (eg.
the bull) as well as a range of mythological narratives. Minoan art also features stone
carvings (notably seal stones), and precious metalwork. The Minoan Protopalatial period
(c.1700 BCE), which ended in a major earthquake, was followed by an even more
ornate Neopalatial period (c.1700-1425 BCE), which witnessed the highpoint of the
culture before being terminated by a second set of earthquakes in 1425. Minoan
craftsmen are also noted for their ceramics and vase-painting, which featured a host
of marine and maritime motifs. This focus on nature and events - instead of rulers and
deities - is also evident in Minoan palace murals and sculptures.
 ART APPRECIATION INSTRUCTOR: Mrs. Shiena Mae D. Racaza

Bronze Age Metalwork

Named after the metal which made it prosperous, the Bronze Age period witnessed a
host of wonderful metalwork made from many different materials. This form of
metallugy is exemplified by two extraordinary masterpieces: The "Ram in the Thicket"
(c.2500 BCE, British Museum, London) a small Iraqi sculpture made from gold-leaf,
copper, lapis lazuli, and red limestone; and The "Maikop Gold Bull" (c.2500 BCE,
Hermitage, St Petersburg) a miniature gold sculpture of the Maikop Culpture, North
Caucasus, Russia. See also: Assyrian art (c.1500-612 BCE) and Hittite art (c.1600-1180
BCE). The period also saw the emergence of Chinese bronzeworks (from c.1750 BCE),
in the form of bronze plaques and sculptures often decorated with Jade, from the Yellow
River Basin of Henan Province, Central China.
  History of Iron Age Art and Classical Antiquity (c.1500-200 BCE)

Art of Classical Antiquity witnessed a huge growth during this period, especially in

Greece and around the eastern Mediterranean. It coincided with the rise of Hellenic
(Greek-influenced) culture.

Mycenean Art (c.1500-1100 BCE)

Although Mycenae was an independent Greek city in the Greek Peloponnese, the term
"Mycenean" culture is sometimes used to describe early Greek art as a whole during the
late Bronze Age. Initially very much under the influence of Minoan culture, Mycenean
art gradually achieved its own balance between the lively naturalism of Crete and the
more formal artistic idiom of the mainland, as exemplified in its numerous tempera
frescoes, sculpture, pottery, carved gemstones, jewellery, glass, ornaments and precious
metalwork. Also, in contrast to the Minoan "maritime trading" culture, Myceneans were
warriors, so their art was designed primarily to glorify their secular rulers. It included a
number of tholos tombs filled with gold work, ornamental weapons and precious
jewellery.

Ancient Greek Art (c.1100-100 BCE)

Ancient Greek art is traditionally divided into the following periods: (1) the Dark Ages
(c.1100-900 BCE). (2) The Geometric Period (c.900-700 BCE). (3) The Oriental-Style
Period (c.700-625 BCE). (4) The Archaic Period (c.625-500 BCE). (5) The Classical
Period (c.500-323 BCE). (6) The Hellenistic Period (c.323-100 BCE). Unfortunately,
nearly all Greek painting and a huge proportion of Greek sculpture has been lost, leaving
us with a collection of ruins or Roman copies. Greek architecture, too, is largely known to
us through its ruins. Despite this tiny legacy, Greek artists remain highly revered, which
demonstrates how truly advanced they were.

Like all craftsmen of the Mediterranean area, the ancient Greeks borrowed a number of
important artistic techniques from their neighbours and trading partners. Even so, by the
death of the Macedonian Emperor Alexander the Great in 323 BCE, Greek art was
ART APPRECIATION INSTRUCTOR: Mrs. Shiena Mae D. Racaza

regarded in general as the finest ever made. Even the Romans - despite their awesome
engineering and military skills - never quite overcame their sense of inferiority in the
face of Greek craftsmanship, and (fortunately for us) copied Greek artworks assiduously.
Seventeen centuries later, Greek architecture, sculptural reliefs, statues, and pottery
would be rediscovered during the Italian Renaissance, and made the cornerstone of
Western art for over 400 years.

Dark Ages
After the fall of the Mycenean civilization (12th century BCE) Greece entered a period of
decline, known as the Dark Ages - because we know so little about it. Sculpture, painting
and monumental architecture almost ceased.

Geometric Period
Then, from around 900 BCE, these arts (created mainly for aristocratic families who had
achieved power during the Dark Ages) reappeared during the Geometric period, named
after the decorative designs of its pottery.

Oriental Period
The succeeding Orientalizing period was characterized by the influence of Near Eastern
designwork, notably curvilinear, zoomorphic and floral patterns.

Archaic Period
The Archaic period was a time of gradual experimentation; the most prized sculptural
form was the kouros (pl.kouroi), or standing male nude. This was followed by the
Classical period, which represents the apogee of Greek art.

Classical Period
Greek architecture blossomed, based on a system of 'Classical Orders' (Doric, Ionic and
Corinthian) or rules for building design, based on proportions of and between the
individual parts. The Parthenon on the Acropolis complex in Athens is the supreme
example of classical Greek architecture: other famous examples include: the Temple of
Zeus at Olympia, the Temple of Hephaistos, the Temple of Athena Nike, the Theatre at
Delphi, and the Tholos Temple of Athena Pronaia. In the plastic arts, great classical
Greek sculptors like Polykleitos, Myron, and Phidias demonstrated a mastery of
realism which would remain unsurpassed until the Italian Renaissance. But painting
remained the most-respected art form - notably panel-paintings executed in tempera or
encaustic paint - with renowned Greek painters like Zeuxis, Apelles,
and Parrhasius added new techniques of highlighting, shading and colouring.

Hellenism
The beginning of the final Hellenistic phase coincided with the death of Alexander and the
incorporation of the Persian Empire into the Greek world. Stylewise, classical realism was
superceded by greater solemnity and heroicism (exemplified by the massive statue "The
Colossus of Rhodes", the same size as the Statue of Liberty) as well as a growing
expressionism. The period is characterized by the spread of Greek culture (Hellenization)
throughout the civilized world, including techniques of sculpture and mosaic art. Famous
ART APPRECIATION INSTRUCTOR: Mrs. Shiena Mae D. Racaza

Hellenistic sculptures include: the celebrated "Venus de Milo", "Dying Gaul" by

Epigonus; the Pergamon Altar of Zeus (c.166-156 BCE); "Winged Victory of
Samothrace"; and "Laocoon and His Sons" by Hagesandrus, Polydorus and Athenodorus.

Greek Pottery

Greek pottery developed much earlier than other art forms: by 3000 BCE the
Peloponnese was already the leading pottery centre. Later, following the take-over of the
Greek mainland by Indo-European tribes around 2100 BCE, a new form of pottery was
introduced, known as Minyan Ware. It was the first Greek type to be made on a potter's
wheel. Despite this, it was Minoan pottery on Crete - with its new dark-on-light style -
that predominated during the 2nd Millennium BCE. Thereafter, however, Greek potters
regained the initiative, introducing a series of dazzling innovations including: beautifully
proportioned Geometric Style pottery (900-725), as well as Oriental (725-
600), Black-Figure (600-480) and Red-Figure (530-480) styles. Famous Greek
ceramicists include Exekias, Kleitias, Ergotimos, Nearchos, Lydos, the Amasis Painter,
Andokides, Euthymides, and Sophilos (all Black-Figure), plus Douris, Brygos and
Onesimos (Red-Figure).

Etruscan Art (c.700-90 BCE)

In Etruria, Italy, the older Villanovan Culture gave way to Etruscan Civilization around
700 BCE. This reached its peak during the sixth century BCE as their city-states gained
control of central Italy. Like the Egyptians but unlike the Greeks, Etruscans believed in
an after-life, thus tomb or funerary art was a characteristic feature of Etruscan culture.
Etruscan artists were also renowned for their figurative sculpture, in stone, terracotta
and bronze. Above all Etruscan art is famous for its "joi de vivre", exemplified by its
lively fresco mural painting, especially in the villas of the rich. In addition, the skill
of Etruscan goldsmiths was highly prized throughout Italy and beyond. Etruscan
culture, itself strongly influenced by Greek styles, had a marked impact on other
cultures, notably the Hallstatt and La Tene styles of Celtic art. Etruscan culture declined
from 396 BCE onwards, as its city states were absorbed into the Roman Empire.

Celtic Art (c.600-100 BCE)

From about 600 BCE, migrating pagan tribes from the Russian Steppes, known as Celts,
established themselves astride the Upper Danube in central Europe. Celtic culture, based
on exceptional trading skills and an early mastery of iron, facilitated their gradual
expansion throughout Europe, and led to two styles of Celtic art whose artifacts are
known to us through several key archeological sites in Switzerland and Austria. The two
styles are Hallstatt (600-450) and La Tene (450-100). Both were exemplified by
beautiful metalwork and complex linear designwork. Although by the early 1st
Millennium CE most pagan Celtic artists had been fully absorbed into the Roman Empire,
their traditions of spiral, zoomorphic, knotwork and interlace designs later resurfaced
and flourished (600-1100 CE) in many forms of Hiberno-Saxon art (see below) such as
illuminated Gospel manuscripts, religious metalwork, and High Cross Sculpture. Famous
ART APPRECIATION INSTRUCTOR: Mrs. Shiena Mae D. Racaza

examples of Celtic metalwork art include the Gundestrup Cauldron, the Petrie Crown and
the Broighter gold torc.

Roman Art (c.200 BCE-400 CE)

Architecture

Unlike their intellectual Greek neighbours, the Romans were primarily practical people
with a natural affinity for engineering, military matters, and Empire building. Roman
architecture was designed to awe, entertain and cater for a growing population both in
Italy and throughout their Empire. Thus Roman architectural achievements are
exemplified by new drainage systems, aqueducts, bridges, public baths, sports facilities
and amphitheatres (eg. the Colosseum 72-80 CE), characterized by major advances in
materials (eg. the invention of concrete) and in the construction of arches and roof
domes. The latter not only allowed the roofing of larger buildings, but also gave the
exterior far greater grandeur and majesty. All this revolutionized the Greek-dominated
field of architecture, at least in form and size, if not in creativity, and provided endless
opportunity for embellishment in the way of scultural reliefs, statues, fresco murals, and
mosaics. The most famous examples of Roman architecture include: the massive
Colosseum, the Arch of Titus, and Trajan's Column.

Painting, Sculpture

If Roman architecture was uniquely grandiose, its paintings and sculptures continued to
imitate the Greek style, except that its main purpose was the glorification of Rome's
power and majesty. Early Roman art (c.200-27 BCE) was detailed, unidealized and
realistic, while later Imperial styles (c.27 BCE - 200 CE) were more heroic. Mediocre
painting flourished in the form of interior-design standard fresco murals, while higher
quality panel painting was executed in tempera or in encaustic pigments. Roman
sculpture too, varied in quality: as well as tens of thousands of average quality portrait
busts of Emperors and other dignitaries, Roman sculptors also produced some
marvellous historical relief sculptures, such as the spiral bas relief sculpture on Trajan's
Column, celebrating the Emperor's victory in the Dacian war.

Early Art From Around the World

Although the history of art is commonly seen as being mainly concerned with civilizations
that derived from European and Chinese cultures, a significant amount of arts and crafts
appeared from the earliest times around the periphery of the known world. For more
about the history and artifacts of these cultures, see: Oceanic art (from the South Pacific
and Australasia), African art (from all parts of the continent) and Tribal art (from Africa,
the Pacific Islands, Indonesia, Burma, Australasia, North America, and Alaska).
History of Medieval Art
ART APPRECIATION INSTRUCTOR: Mrs. Shiena Mae D. Racaza

Constantinople, Christianity and Byzantine Art

With the death in 395 CE, of the Emperor Theodosius, the Roman empire was divided
into two halves: a Western half based initially in Rome, until it was sacked in the 5th
century CE, then Ravenna; and an eastern half located in the more secure city
of Constantinople. At the same time, Christianity was made the exclusive official
religion of the empire. These two political developments had a huge impact on the history
of Western art. First, relocation to Constantinople helped to prolong Greco-Roman
civilization and culture; second, the growth of Christianity led to an entirely new category
of Christian art which provided architects, painters, sculptors and other craftsmen with
what became the dominant theme in the visual arts for the next 1,200 years. As well as
prototype forms of early Christian art, much of which came from the catacombs, it also
led directly to the emergence of Byzantine art. See also: Christian Art, Byzantine Period.

Art of Byzantium (Constantinople) (330-1450 CE)

Byzantine art was almost entirely religious art, and centred around its Christian
architecture. Masterpieces include the awesome Hagia Sophia (532-37) in Istanbul; the
Church of St Sophia in Sofia, Bulgaria (527-65); and the Church of Hagia Sophia in
Thessaloniki. Byzantine art also influenced the Ravenna mosaics in the Basilicas of
Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, San Vitale, and Sant' Apollinare in Classe. Secular examples
include: the Great Palace of Constantinople, and Basilica Cistern. As well as new
architectural techniques such as the use of pendentives to spread the weight of the
ceiling dome, thus permitting larger interiors, new decorative methods were introduced
like mosaics made from glass, rather than stone. But the Eastern Orthodox brand of
Christianity (unlike its counterpart in Rome), did not allow 3-D artworks like statues or
high reliefs, believing they glorified the human aspect of the flesh rather than the divine
nature of the spirit. Thus Byzantine art (eg. painting, mosaic works) developed a
particular style of meaningful imagery (iconography) designed to present complex
theology in a very simple way. For example, colours were used to express different
ideas: gold represented Heaven; blue, the colour of human life, and so on.

After 600 CE, Byzantine architecture progressed through several periods - such as, the
Middle Period (c.600-1100) and the Comnenian and Paleologan periods (c.1100-1450) -
gradually becoming more and more influenced by eastern traditions of construction and
decoration. In Western Europe, Byzantine architecture was superceded by Romanesque
and Gothic styles, while in the Near East it continued to have a significant influence on
early Islamic architecture, as illustrated by the Umayyad Great Mosque of Damascus
and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.

Byzantine Painting

In the absence of sculpture, Byzantine artists specialized in 2-D painting, becoming

masters of panel-painting, including miniatures - notably icons - and manuscript
illumination. Their works had a huge influence on artists throughout western and
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central Europe, as well as the Islamic countries of the Middle East.

Irish Christian Art (c.600-1100 CE)

Located on the remote periphery of Western Europe, Ireland remained free of

interference from either Rome or the barbarians that followed. As a result, Irish Celtic art
was neither displaced by Greek or Roman idioms, nor buried in the pagan Dark Ages.
Furthermore, the Church was able to establish a relatively secure network of Irish
monasteries, which rapidly became important centres of religious learning and
scholarship, and gradually spread to the islands off Britain and to parts of Northern
England. This monastic network soon became a major patron of the arts, attracting
numerous scribes and painters into its scriptoriums to create a series of increasingly
ornate illuminated gospel manuscripts: examples include: the Cathach of Colmcille
(c.560), the Book of Dimma (c.625), the Durham Gospels (c.650), the Book of Durrow
(c.670), and the supreme Book of Kells (also called the Book of Columba), considered to
be the apogee of Western calligraphy. These gospel illuminations employed a range of
historiated letters, rhombuses, crosses, trumpet ornaments, pictures of birds and
animals, occasionally taking up whole pages (carpet pages) of geometric or interlace
patterns. The creative success of these decorated manuscripts was greatly enhanced by
the availability of Celtic designs from jewellery and metalwork - produced for the Irish
secular elite - and by increased cultural contacts with Anglo-Saxon craftsmen in England.

Another early Christian art form developed in Ireland was religious metalwork,
exemplified by such masterpieces as the Tara Brooch, the Ardagh Chalice, the
Derrynaflan Chalice, and the Moylough Belt Shrine, as well as processional crosses like
the 8th/9th century Tully Lough Cross and the great 12th century Cross of Cong,
commissioned by Turlough O'Connor. Finally, from the late eighth century, the Church
began commissioning a number of large religious crosses decorated both with scenes
from the bible and abstract interlace, knotwork and other Celtic-style patterns. Examples
include Muiredach's Cross at Monasterboice, County Louth, and the Ahenny High Cross in
Tipperary. These scripture high crosses flourished between 900 and 1100, although
construction continued as late as the 15th century.

Unfortunately, with the advent of the Vikings (c.800-1000), the unique Irish contribution
to Western Civilization in general and Christianity in particular, began to fade, despite
some contribution from Viking art. Thereafter, Roman culture - driven by the Church of
Rome - began to reassert itself across Europe.

A Word About Asian Art

In contrast to Christianity which permits figurative representation of Prophets, Saints and

the Holy family, Islam forbids all forms of human iconography. Thus Islamic art focused
instead on the development of complex geometric patterns, illuminated
texts and calligraphy.

In East Asia, the visual arts of India and Tibet incorporated the use of highly coloured
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figures (due to their wide range of pigments) and strong outlines. Painting in India was
extremely diverse, as were materials (textiles being more durable often replaced paper)
and size (Indian miniatures were a specialty). Chinese art specialized in ceremonial
bronze sculpture, calligraphic and brush painting and jade carving, as well as
lacquerware and Chinese pottery. In Japan, Buddhist temple art, Zen Ink-Painting,
Yamato-e and Ukiyo-e woodblock prints were four of the main types of Japanese art.

Romanesque Art (Carolingian, Ottonian) (c.775-1050)

On the continent, the revival of medieval Christian art began with Charlemagne I, King

of the Franks, who was crowned Holy Roman Emperor, by Pope Leo III in 800.
Charlemagne's court scriptoriums at Aachen produced a number of magnificent
illuminated Christian texts, such as: the Godscalc Evangelistary, the Lorsch Gospels and
the Gospels of St Medard of Soissons. Ironically, his major architectural work -
the Palatine Chapel in Aachen (c.800) - was influenced not by St Peter's or other
churches in Rome, but by the Byzantine-style Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna. The
Carolingian empire rapidly dissolved but Carolingian Art marked an important first step in
the spread of Medieval art and the revitalization of Continental culture. Furthermore,
many of the Romanesque and Gothic churches were built on the foundations of
Carolingian architecture. Charlemagne's early Romanesque architectural achievements
were continued by the Holy Roman Emperors Otto I-III, in a style known as Ottonian Art,
which morphed into the fully fledged "Romanesque." (In England and Ireland, the
Romanesque style is usually called Norman architecture.)

The Church Invests in Art to Convey Its Message

The spread of Romanesque art in the 11th century coincided with the reassertiveness of
Roman Christianity, and the latter's influence on secular authorities led to the Christian
re-conquest of Spain (c.1031) as well as the Crusade to free the Holy Land from the grip
of Islam. The success of the Crusaders and their acquisition of Holy Relics triggered a
wave of new cathedrals across Europe. In addition to its influence over international
politics, Rome exercised growing power via its network of Bishops and its links with
Monastic orders such as the Benedictines, the Cistercians, Carthusians and Augustinian
Canons. From these monasteries, its officials exercised growing administrative power
over the local population, notably the power to collect tax revenues which it devoted to
religious works, particularly the building of cathedrals (encompassing sculpture and
metalwork, as well as architecture), illuminated gospel manuscripts, and cultural
scholarship - a process exemplified by the powerful Benedictine monastery at Cluny in
Burgundy.

Romanesque Architecture (c.1000-1200)

Although based on Greek and Roman Antiquity, Romanesque architecture displayed

neither the creativity of the Greeks, nor the engineering skill of the Romans. They
employed thick walls, round arches, piers, columns, groin vaults, narrow slit-windows,
large towers and decorative arcading. The basic load of the building was carried not its
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arches or columns but by its massive walls. And its roofs, vaults and buttresses were
relatively primitive in comparison with later styles. Above all, interiors were dim and
comparatively hemmed in with heavy stone walls. Even so, Romanesque architecture did
reintroduce two important forms of fine art: sculpture (which had been in abeyance
since the fall of Rome), and stained glass, albeit on a minor scale.

Gothic Art (c.1150-1400)

Largely financed by monastic orders and local bishops, Gothic architecture exploited a

number of technical advances in pointed arches and other design factors, in order to
awe, inspire and educate the masses. Thus, out went the massively thick walls, small
windows and dim interiors, in came soaring ceilings ("reaching to heaven"), thin walls
and stained glass windows. This transformed the interior of many cathedrals into
inspirational sanctuaries, where illiterate congregations could see the story of the bible
illustrated in the beautiful stained glass art of its huge windows. Indeed, the Gothic
cathedral was seen by architects as representing the universe in miniature. Almost every
feature was designed to convey a theological message: namely, the awesome glory of
God, and the ordered nature of his universe. Religious Gothic art - that is, architecture,
relief sculpture and statuary - is best exemplified by the cathedrals of Northern France,
notably Notre Dame de Paris; Reims and Chartres, as well as Cologne Cathedral, St
Stephen's Cathedral Vienna and, in England, Westminster Abbey and York Minster.
History of Renaissance Art (c.1300-1620)

Strongly influenced by International Gothic, the European revival of fine art between
roughly 1300 and 1600, popularly known as "the Renaissance", was a unique and (in
many respects) inexplicable phenomenon, not least because of (1) the Black Death
plague (1346), which wiped out one third of the European population; (2) the 100 Years
War between England and France (1339-1439) and (3) the Reformation (c.1520) - none
of which was conducive to the development of the visual arts. Fortunately, certain factors
in the Renaissance heartland of Florence and Rome - notably the energy and huge wealth
of the Florentine Medici family, and the Papal ambitions of Pope Sixtus IV (1471-84),
Pope Julius II (1503-13), Pope Leo X (1513-21) and Pope Paul III (1534-45) - succeeded
in overcoming all natural obstacles, even if the Church was almost bankrupted in the
process.

Renaissance art was founded on classicism - an appreciation of the arts of Classical

Antiquity, a belief in the nobility of Man, as well as artistic advances in both linear
perspective and realism. It evolved in three main Italian cities: first Florence, then Rome,
and lastly Venice. Renaissance chronology is usually listed as follows:

• Proto-Renaissance (c.1300-1400)
This introductory period was largely instigated by the revolutionary painting style
of Giotto (1270-1337), whose fresco cycle in the Capella Scrovegni (Arena Chapel) in
Padua introduced a new realism into painting which challenged many of the iconographic
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conventions then in use.

• Early Renaissance (c.1400-1490)
Triggered in part by the unearthing of a copy of De Architectura ("Ten Books Conerning
Architecture") by the 1st century Roman architect Vitruvius (c.78-10 BCE), and Filippo
Brunelleschi's magnificent 1418 design for the dome of Florence's Gothic cathedral
(1420-36), this period of activity was centred on Florence. Major early Renaissance
artists included the architect Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446), the
sculptor Donatello (1386-1466), and the painter Tommaso Masaccio (c.1401-28). Later
important contributors included Piero della Francesca (1420-92), Antonio del Pollaiuolo
(1432-98) and Botticelli (1445-1510), plus the Northerner Andrea Mantegna (1431-
1506).

• High Renaissance (c.1490-1530)
Regarded as the apogee of the Italian Renaissance and its aesthetic ideals of beauty and
harmony, the High Renaissance was centred on Rome and dominated by the painting
of Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519) (eg. "The Last Supper", "The Mona Lisa")
and Raphael (1483-1520) (eg. "The School of Athens"), and the immortal works
of Michelangelo (1475-1564) (including masterpieces of Italian Renaissance
sculpture such as "Pieta" and "David", and the "Genesis" Sistine Chapel fresco). Other
leading high Renaissance artists included members of the school of Venetian
painting school, such as Giovanni Bellini, Giorgione, Titian, Paolo
Veronese and Tintoretto.

Renaissance architecture employed precepts derived from ancient Greece and Rome, but
kept many modern features of Byzantine and Gothic invention, such as domes and
towers. Important architects included: Donato Bramante (1444-1514) the greatest
exponent of High Renaisance architecture; Baldassare Peruzzi (1481-1536), an important
architect and interior designer; Michele Sanmicheli (1484-1559), the leading pupil of
Bramante; Jacopo Sansovino (1486-1570), the most celebrated Venetian architect; Giulio
Romano (1499-1546), the chief practitioner of Italian Late Renaissance-style building
design; Andrea Palladio (1508-1580), an influential theorist; and of course Michelangelo
himself, who helped to design the dome for St Peter's Basilica in Rome.

• Northern Renaissance (c.1400-1530)
In Northern Europe (Flanders, Holland, England and Germany), the Renaissance
developed in a different manner. A damper climate unsuited to fresco painting
encouraged the early use of oils, while differing skills and temperament led to the early
espousal of printmaking, and the the invention of the printing press by Johannes
Gutenberg in the 1450s. In most countries of Northern Europe the Reformation caused a
serious loss of patronage, and a consequent decline in large-scale religious works. In its
place there emerged new traditions of portraiture, and other easel-works, which led
ultimately to the wonderful still lifes and genre painting of the Dutch Realism school in
the 17th century. The greatest artists of the Northern Renaissance were: the
Dutchman Jan Van Eyck (1390-1441), noted for his luminous colours and detailed
realism; the versatile German Albrecht Durer (1471-1528), noted for his drawing, self-
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portraiture, oils, watercolours, woodcuts and engravings; Robert Campin (1375-1444)

the Master of Flemalle, an elusive but outstanding artist who taught Van der Weyden and
was a key founder of the Dutch School; the Belgian Roger van der Weyden (1400-
1464), noted for his powerful religious paintings; the Netherlandish painter Hieronymus
Bosch (1450-1516), noted for his moralizing fantasy works illustrating the sins of Man;
the austere religious fanatic Mathias Grunewald (1470-1528), whose dramatic style of
art influenced later schools of Expressionism; and the portraitists Lucas Cranach (1472-
1553) and Hans Holbein (1497-1543).

Among the greatest sculptors of the Northern Renaissance were: the German limewood
sculptor Tilman Riemenschneider (1460-1531), noted for his reliefs and freestanding
wood sculpture; and the wood-carver Veit Stoss (1450-1533) noted for his delicate
altarpieces.

• Mannerism (1530-1600)
This style grew up partly as a reaction against the idealistic forms of the High
Renaissance and partly as a reflection of troubled times - Martin Luther had begun the
Reformation, while Rome itself had just been sacked by mercenaries. Mannerist artists
introduced a new expressiveness into their works, as exemplified by the marvellous
sculpture Rape of the Sabine Women by Giambologna, and Michelangelo's Last
Judgement fresco in the Sistine Chapel. Other important exponents of Mannerism
include El Greco (c.1541-1614) and Caravaggio (1571-1610), whose dramatic use of
light and shadow influenced a generation of Caravaggisti.
History of Post-Renaissance Art

Baroque Art (c.1600-1700)

It was during this period that the Catholic Counter-Reformation got going in an

attempt to attract the masses away from Protestantism. Renewed patronage of the visual
arts and architecture was a key feature of this propaganda campaign, and led to a
grander, more theatrical style in both areas. This new style, known as Baroque art was
effectively the highpoint of dramatic Mannerism.

Baroque architecture took full advantage of the theatrical potential of the urban

landscape, exemplified by Saint Peter's Square (1656-67) in Rome, in front of the domed
St Peter's Basilica. Its architect, Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598-1680) employed a widening
series of colonnades in the approach to the cathedral, conveying the impression to
visitors that they are being embraced by the arms of the Catholic Church. The entire
approach is constructed on a gigantic scale, to induce feelings of awe.

In painting, the greatest exponent of Catholic Counter-Reformation art was Peter Paul

Rubens (1577-1640) - "the Prince of painters and the painter of Princes". Other leading
Catholic artists included Diego Velazquez (1599-1660), Francisco Zurbaran (1598-
1664) and Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665).
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In Protestant Northern Europe, the Baroque era was marked by the flowering of Dutch
Realist genre painting, a style uniquely suited to the new bourgeois patrons of small-
scale interiors, genre-paintings, portraits, landscapes and still lifes. Several schools
of 17th century Dutch painting sprang up including those of Haarlem, Delft, Utrecht, and
Leiden. Leading members included the two immortals Rembrandt (1606-1669) and Jan
Vermeer (1632-1675), as well as Frans Snyders (1579-1657), Frans Hals (1581-1666),
Adriaen Brouwer (1605-38), Jan Davidsz de Heem (1606-84), Adriaen van Ostade (1610-
85), David Teniers the Younger (1610-90), Gerard Terborch (1617-81), Jan Steen (1626-
79), Pieter de Hooch (1629-83), and the landscape painters Aelbert Cuyp (1620-91),
Jacob van Ruisdael (1628-82) and Meyndert Hobbema (1638-1709), among others.

Rococo Art (c.1700-1789)

This new style of decorative art, known as Rococo, impacted most on interior-design,
although architecture, painting and sculpture were also affected. Essentially a reaction
against the seriousness of the Baroque, Rococo was a light-hearted, almost whimsical
style which grew up in the French court at the Palace of Versailles before spreading
across Europe. Rococo designers employed the full gamut of plasterwork, murals,
tapestries, furniture, mirrors, porcelain, silks and other embellishments to give the
householder a complete aesthetic experience. In painting, the Rococo style was
championed by the French artists Watteau (1684-1721), Fragonard (1732-1806),
and Boucher (1703-70). But the greatest works were produced by the
Venetian Giambattista Tiepolo (1696-1770) whose fantastic wall and ceiling fresco
paintings took Rococo to new heights. See in particular the renaissance of French
Decorative Art (1640-1792), created by French Designers especially in the form of French
Furniture, at Versailles and other Royal Chateaux, in the style of Louis
Quatorze (XIV), Louis Quinze (XV) and Louis Seize (XVI). As it was, Rococo symbolized
the decadent indolence and degeneracy of the French aristocracy. Because of this, it was
swept away by the French Revolution which ushered in the new sterner Neoclassicism,
more in keeping with the Age of Enlightenment and Reason.

Neoclassical Art (Flourished c.1790-1830)

In architecture, Neoclassicism derived from the more restrained "classical" forms of

Baroque practised in England by Sir Christopher Wren (1632-1723), who designed St
Paul's Cathedral. Yet another return to the Classical Orders of Greco-Roman Antiquity,
the style was characterized by monumental structures, supported by columns of pillars,
and topped with classical Renaissance domes. Employing innovations like layered
cupolas, it lent added grandeur to palaces, churches, and other public structures. Famous
Neoclassical buildings include: the Pantheon (Paris) designed by Jacques Germain
Soufflot (1756-97), the Arc de Triomphe (Paris) designed by Jean Chalgrin,
the Brandenburg Gate (Berlin) designed by Carl Gotthard Langhans (1732-1808), and
the United States Capitol Building, designed by English-born Benjamin Henry Latrobe
(1764-1820), and later by Stephen Hallet and Charles Bulfinch. See also the era
of American Colonial Art (c.1670-1800).
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Neoclassicist painters also looked to Classical Antiquity for inspiration, and emphasized
the virtues of heroicism, duty and gravitas. Leading exponents included the French
political artist Jacques-Louis David (1748-1825), the German portrait and history
painter Anton Raphael Mengs (1728-79), and the French master of the Academic
art style, Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres (1780-1867). Neoclassical sculptors
included: Antonio Canova (1757-1822),
Bertel Thorvaldsen (1770-1844), and Jean-Antoine Houdon (1741-1828).

Romanticism Movement (Flourished c.1790-1830)

In contrast to the universal values espoused by Neo-Classicism, Romantic artists

expressed a more personal response to life, relying more on their senses and emotions
rather than reason and intellect. This idealism, like Neoclassism, was encouraged by the
French Revolution, thus some artists were affected by both styles. Nature was an
important subject for Romantics, and the style is exemplified, by the English School of
Landscape Painting, the plein air painting of John Constable (1776-
1837), Corot (1796-1875) along with members of the French Barbizon School and the
American Hudson River School of landscape painting, as well as the more
expressionistic JMW Turner (1775-1851). Arguably, however, the greatest Romantic
landscape painter is arguably Caspar David Friedrich (1774-1840). Narrative or history
painting was another important genre in Romanticism: leading exponents
include: Francisco Goya (1746-1828) Henry Fuseli (1741-1825), James Barry (1741-
1806), Theodore Gericault (1791-1824) and Eugene Delacroix (1798-63), as well as
later exponents of Orientalist painting, and moody Pre-Raphaelites and Symbolists.

Realism (c.1845 onwards)

As the 19th century progessed, growing awareness of the rights of man plus the social
impact of the Industrial Revolution caused some artists to move away from idealistic or
romantic subjects in favour of more mundane subjects, depicted in a more true-life, style
of naturalism. This new focus (to some extent anticipated by William Hogarth in the 18th
century, see English Figurative Painting) was exemplified by the Realism style which
emerged in France during the 1840s, before spreading across Europe. This new style
attracted painters from all the genres - notably Gustave Courbet (1819-77) (genre-
painting), Jean Francois Millet (1814-75) (landscape, rural life), Honore Daumier
(1808-79) (urban life) and Ilya Repin (1844-1930) (landscape and portraits).
History of Modern Art

Impressionism (c.1870-80)

French Impressionism, championed above all by Claude Monet (1840-1926), was a

spontaneous colour-sensitive style of pleinairism whose origins derived from Jean-
Baptiste Camille Corot and the techniques of the Barbizon school - whose quest was to
depict the momentary effects of natural light. It encompassed rural landscapes [Alfred
Sisley (1839-1899)], cityscapes [Camille Pissarro (1830-1903)], genre scenes
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[Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1841-1919), Edgar Degas (1834-1917), Paul

Cezanne (1839-1906), and Berthe Morisot (1841-95)] and both figurative paintings
and portraits [Edouard Manet (1832-83), John Singer Sargent (1856-1925)]. Other
artists associated with Impressionism include, James McNeil Whistler (1834-1903) and
Walter Sickert (1860-1942).

Impressionists sought to faithfully reproduce fleeting moments outdoors. Thus if an

object appeared dark purple - due perhaps to failing or reflected light - then the artist
painted it purple. Naturalist "Academic-Style" colour schemes, being devised in theory or
at least in the studio, did not allow for this. As a result Impressionism offered a whole
new pictorial language - one that paved the way for more revolutionary art movements
like Cubism - and is often regarded by historians and critics as the first modern school
of painting.

In any event, the style had a massive impact on Parisian and world art, and was the
gateway to a series of colour-related movements, including Post-Impressionism, Neo-
Impressionism, Pointillism, Divisionism, Fauvism, Intimism, the American Luminism or
Tonalism, as well as American Impressionism, the Newlyn School and Camden Town
Group, the French Les Nabis and the general Expressionist movement.

Post Impressionism (c.1885 onwards)

Essentially an umbrella term encompassing a number of developments and reactions to

Impressionism, Post-Impressionism involved artists who employed Impressionist-type
colour schemes, but were dissatisfied with the limitations imposed by merely reproducing
nature. Neo-Impressionism with its technique of Pointillism was pioneered by Georges
Seurat and Paul Signac (1863-1935), while major Post-Impressionists include Paul
Gauguin, Vincent Van Gogh and Paul Cezanne. Inspired by Gauguin's synthetism and
Bernard's cloisonnism, the Post-Impressionist group Les Nabis promoted a wider form of
decorative art; another style, known as Intimisme, concerned itself with genre scenes of
domestic, intimate interiors. Exemplified by the work of Pierre Bonnard (1867-1947) and
Edouard Vuillard (1868-1940), it parallels other tranquil interiors such as those by James
McNeil Whistler, and the Dutch Realist-influenced Peter Vilhelm Ilsted (1861-1933).
Another very important movement - anti-impressionist rather than post-impressionist -
was Symbolism (flourished 1885-1900), which went on to influence Fauvism,
Expressionism and Surrealism. Note also that many post-Impressionist artists adopted
the forms and aesthetics of classicism, as a response to the passive naturalism of
Impressionist art. This led to a widespread Classical Revival in modern art, known as the
'return to order', between 1900 and 1930.

Colourism: Fauvism (1900 onwards)

The term "Fauves" (wild beasts) was first used by the art critic Louis Vauxcelles at the
1905 Salon d'Automne exhibition in Paris when describing the vividly coloured paintings
of Henri Matisse (1869-1954), Andre Derain (1880-1954), and Maurice de Vlaminck
(1876-1958). Other Fauvists included the later Cubist Georges Braque (1882-1963),
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Raoul Dufy (1877-1953), Albert Marquet (1875-1947) and Georges Rouault (1871-1958).
Most followers of Fauvism moved on to Expressionism or other movements associated
with the Ecole de Paris.

19th Century/Early 20th Century Sculpture

Sculptural traditions, although never independent from those of painting, are concerned
primarily with space and volume, while issues of scale and function also act as
distinguishing factors. Thus on the whole, sculpture was slower to reflect the new trends
of modern art during the 19th century, leaving sculptors like Auguste Rodin (1840-
1917) free to pursue a monumentalism derived essentially from Neoclassicism if not
Renaissance ideology. The public dimension of sculpture also lent itself to the celebration
of Victorian values and historical figures, which were likewise executed in the grand
manner of earlier times. Thus it wasn't until the emergence of artists like Constantin
Brancusi (1876-1957) and Umberto Boccioni (1882-1916) that sculpture really began
to change, at the turn of the century.

Expressionist Art (c.1900 onwards)

Expressionism is a general style of painting that aims to express a personal interpretation

of a scene or object, rather than depict its true-life features, it is often characterized by
energetic brushwork, impastoed paint, intense colours and bold lines. Early
Expressionists included, Vincent Van Gogh (1853-90), Edvard Munch (1863-1944)
and Wassily Kandinsky (1866-1944). A number of German Expressionist schools
sprang up during the first three decades of the 20th century. These included: Die
Brucke (1905-11), a group based in Dresden in 1905, which mixed elements of
traditional German art with Post-Impressionist and Fauvist styles, exemplified in works
by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Karl Schmidt-Rottluff, Erik Heckel, and Emil Nolde; Der Blaue
Reiter (1911-14), a loose association of artists based in Munich, including Wassily
Kandinsky, Franz Marc, August Macke, and Paul Klee; Die Neue Sachlichkeit (1920s) a
post-war satirical-realist group whose members included Otto Dix, George Grosz,
Christian Schad and to a lesser extent Max Beckmann. Expressionism duly spread
worldwide, spawning numerous derivations in both figurative painting (eg. Francis Bacon)
and abstract art (eg. Mark Rothko). See also: History of Expressionist Painting (c.1880-
1930).
Decorative Arts: Art Nouveau (1890-1910) and Art Deco (1920s-30s)

Art Nouveau (Late 19th Century - Early 20th Century)

Art Nouveau (promoted as Jugendstil by the Munich Secession (1892) and Berlin

Secession (1898), as Sezessionstil in the Vienna Secession (1897), and as Stile Liberty in
Italy, and Modernista in Spain) derived from William Morris and the Arts and Crafts
Movement in Britain, and was also influenced by both the Celtic Revival arts
movement and Japanonisme. It's popularity stemmed from the 1900 Exposition
Universelle in Paris, from where it spread across Europe and the United States. It was
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noted for its intricate flowing patterns of sinuous asymetrical lines, based on plant-forms
(dating back to the Celtic Hallstatt and La Tene cultures), as well as female silhouettes
and forms. Art Nouveau had a major influence on poster art, design and illustration,
interior design, metalwork, glassware, jewellery, as well as painting and sculpture.
Leading exponents included: Alphonse Mucha (1860-1939), Aubrey Beardsley (1872-
98), Eugene Grasset (1845-1917) and Albert Guillaume (1873-1942). See also: History
of Poster Art.

Jewellery Art (c.1880-1917)

For unbelievable examples of authentic artistic jewellery, created by Russia's greatest
goldsmiths, see: Fabergé Easter Eggs.

The Bauhaus School (Germany, 1919-1933)

Derived from the two German words "bau" for building and "haus" for house,
the Bauhaus school of art and design was founded in 1919 by the architect Walter
Gropius. Enormously influential in both architecture and design - and their teaching
methods - its instructors included such artists as Josef Albers, Lyonel Feininger, Paul
Klee, Wassily Kandinsky, Oskar Schlemmer, Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, Anni Albers and
Johannes Itten. Its mission was to bring art into contact with everyday life, thus the
design of everyday objects was given the same importance as fine art. Important
Bauhaus precepts included the virtue of simple, clean design, massproduction and the
practical advantages of a well-designed home and workplace. The Bauhaus was
eventually closed by the Nazis in 1933, whereupon several of its teachers emigrated to
America: Laszlo Moholy-Nagy settled in Chicago where he founded the New Bauhaus in
1937, while Albers went to Black Mountain College in North Carolina.

Art Deco (1920s, 1930s)

The design style known as Art Deco was showcased in 1925 at the International
Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts in Paris and became a highly popular
style of decorative art, design and architecture during the inter-war years (much
employed by cinema and hotel architects). Its influence was also seen in the design of
furniture, textile fabrics, pottery, jewellery, and glass. A reaction against Art Nouveau,
the new idiom of Art Deco eliminated the latter's flowing curvilinear forms and replaced
them with Cubist and Precisionist-inspired geometric shapes. Famous examples of Art
Deco architecture include the Empire State Building and the New York Chrysler
Building. Art Deco was also influenced by the simple architectural designs of The
Bauhaus.

Cubism (c.1908-12)

Invented by Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) and Georges Braque (1882-1963) and

considered to be "the" revolutionary movement of modern art, Cubism was a more
intellectual style of painting that explored the full potential of the two-dimensional picture
plane by offering different views of the same object, typically arranged in a series of
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overlapping fragments: rather like a photographer might take several photos of an object
from different angles, before cutting them up with scissors and rearranging them in
haphazard fashion on a flat surface. This "analytical Cubism" (which originated with
Picasso's "Les Demoiselles d'Avignon") quickly gave way to "synthetic Cubism", when
artists began to include "found objects" in their canvases, such as collages made from
newspaper cuttings. Cubist painters included: Juan Gris (1887-1927), Fernand Leger
(1881-1955), Robert Delaunay (1885-1941), Albert Gleizes (1881-1953), Roger de La
Fresnaye (1885-1925), Jean Metzinger (1883-1956), and Francis Picabia (1879-1953),
the avant-garde artist Marcel Duchamp (1887-1968), and the sculptors Jacques Lipchitz
(1891-1973), and Alexander Archipenko (1887-1964). (See also Russian art.) Short-lived
but highly influential, Cubism instigated a whole new style of abstract art and had a
significant impact the development of later styles such as: Orphism (1910-
13), Collage (1912 onwards), Purism (1920s), Precisionism (1920s,
1930s), Futurism (1909-1914), Rayonism (c.1912-14), Suprematism (1913-
1918), Constructivism (c.1919-32), Vorticism (c.1914-15) the De Stijl (1917-31) design
movement and the austere geometrical style of concrete art known as Neo-Plasticism.

Surrealism (1924 onwards)

Largely rooted in the anti-art traditions of the Dada movement (1916-24), as well as the

psychoanalytical ideas of Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung, Surrealism was the most
influential art style of the inter-war years. According to its chief theorist, Andre Breton,
it sought to combine the unconscious with the conscious, in order to create a new "super-
reality" - a "surrealisme". The movement spanned a huge range of styles, from
abstraction to true-life realism, typically punctuated with "unreal" imagery. Important
Surrealists included Salvador Dali (1904-89), Max Ernst (1891-1976), Rene Magritte
(1898-1967), Andre Masson (1896-1987), Yves Tanguy (1900-55), Joan Miro (1893-
1983), Giorgio de Chirico (1888-1978), Jean Arp (1886-1966), and Man Ray (1890-
1976). The movement had a major impact across Europe during the 1930s, was the
major precursor to Conceptualism, and continues to find adherents in fine art, literature
and cinematography.

Early 20th Century American Art (c.1900-45)

American painting during the period 1900-45 was realist in style and became increasingly
focused on strictly American imagery. This was the result of the reaction against the
Armory Show (1913) and European hypermodernism, as well as a response to changing
social conditions across the country. Later it became a patriotic response to the Great
Depression of the 1930s. See also the huge advances in Skyscraper architecture of the
early 20th century. For more, see: American architecture (1600-present). Specific
painting movements included the Ashcan School (c.1900-1915); Precisionism (1920s)
which celebrated the new American industrial landscape; the more socially aware urban
style of Social Realism (1930s); American Scene Painting (c.1925-45) which embraced
the work of Edward Hopper and Charles Burchfield, as well as
midwestern Regionalism (1930s) championed by Grant Wood, Thomas Hart Benton and
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John Steuart Curry.

Note: Echoes of American Regionalism can be seen in the government approved style
of Socialist Realism (c.1920-80), which flourished in Russia, China and other totalitarian
states during the early (and later) 20th century.

Abstract Expressionism (1945-60)

The first international modern art movement to come out of America (it is sometimes
referred to as The New York School - see also American art), it was a predominantly
abstract style of painting which followed an expressionist colour-driven direction, rather
than a Cubist idiom, although it also includes a number of other styles, making it more of
a general movement. Four variants stand out in Abstract Expressionism: first, the
"automatic" style of "action painting" invented by Jackson Pollock (1912-56) and his wife
Lee Krasner (1908–1984). Second, the monumental planes of colour created by Mark
Rothko (1903-70), Barnett Newman (1905-70) and Clyfford Still (1904-80) - a style
known as Colour Field Painting. Third, the gestural figurative works by Willem De Kooning
(1904–1997). Four, the geometric "Homage to the Square" geometric abstracts of Josef
Albers (1888-1976).

Highly influential, Abstract Expressionist painting continued to influence later artists for

over two decades. It was introduced to Paris during the 1950s by Jean-Paul Riopelle
(1923-2002), assisted by Michel Tapie's book, Un Art Autre (1952). At the same time, a
number of new sub-movements emerged in America, such as Hard-edge painting,
exemplified by Frank Stella. In the late 1950s/early 1960s, a purely abstract form of
Colour Field painting appeared in works by Helen Frankenthaler and others, while in
1964, the famous art critic Clement Greenberg helped to introduce a further stylistic
development known as "Post-Painterly Abstraction". Abstract Expressionism went on to
influence a variety of different schools, including Op Art, Fluxus, Pop Art, Minimalism,
Neo-Expressionism, and others.

Pop Art (Late 1950s-60s)

The bridge between modern art and postmodernism, Pop art employed popular imagery
and modern forms of graphic art, to create a lively, high-impact idiom, which could be
understood and appreciated by Joe Public. It appeared simultaneously in America and
Britain, during the late 1950s, while a European form (Nouveau Realisme) emerged in
1960. Pioneered in America by Robert Rauschenberg (1925-2008) and Jasper Johns
(b.1930), Pop had close links with early 20th century movements like Surrealism. It was
a clear reaction against the closed intellectualism of Abstract Expressionism, from which
Pop artists sought to distance themselves by adopting simple, easily recognized imagery
(from TV, cartoons, comic strips and the like), as well as modern technology like screen
printing. Famous US Pop artists include: Jim Dine (b.1935), Robert Indiana (b.1928),
Alex Katz (b.1927), Roy Lichtenstein (1923-97), Claes Oldenburg (b.1929), and Andy
Warhol (1928-87). Important Pop artists in Britain were: Peter Blake (b.1932), Patrick
Caulfield (1936-2006), Richard Hamilton (b.1922), David Hockney (b.1937), Allen Jones
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(b.1937), RB Kitaj (b.1932), and Eduardo Paolozzi (1924-2005).

Mid-20th Century Sculpture

From the early works of Brancusi, 20th century sculpture broadened immeasurably to
encompass new forms, styles and materials. Major innovations included the "sculptured
walls" of Louise Nevelson (1899-1988), the existential forms of Giacometti (1901-66),
the biomorphic abstraction of both Barbara Hepworth (1903-75) and Henry Moore (1898-
1986), and the spiders of Louise Bourgeois (1911-2010). Other creative angles were
pursued by Salvador Dali (1904-89) in his surrealist "Mae West Lips Sofa" and "Lobster
Telephone" - by Meret Oppenheim (1913-85) in her "Furry Breakfast", by FE McWilliam
(1909-1992) in his "Eyes, Nose and Cheek", by Sol LeWitt (b.1928) in his skeletal box-
like constructions, and by Pop-artists like Claes Oldenburg (b.1929) and Jasper Johns
(b.1930), as well as by the Italians Jonathan De Pas (1932-91), Donato D'Urbino
(b.1935) and Paolo Lomazzi (b.1936) in their unique "Joe Sofa".

For more about the history of painting, sculpture, architecture and crafts during this
period, see: Modern Art Movements.
History of Contemporary Art

The word "Postmodernist" is often used to describe contemporary art since about 1970.
In simple terms, postmodernist art emphasizes style over substance (eg. not 'what' but
'how'; not 'art for art's sake', but 'style for stye's sake'), and stresses the importance of
how the artist comunicates with his/her audience. This is exemplified by movements
such as Conceptual art, where the idea being communicated is seen as more important
than the artwork itself, which merely acts as the vehicle for the message. In addition, in
order to increase the "impact" of visual art on spectators, postmodernists have turned
to new art forms such as Assemblage, Installation, Video, Performance, Happenings
and Graffiti - all of which are associated in some way or other with Conceptualism- and
this idea of impact continues to inspire.

Postmodernist Painting

Painters since the 1970s have experimented with numerous styles across the spectrum
from pure abstraction to figuration. These include: Minimalism, a purist form of
abstraction which did little to promote painting as an attractive medium; Neo-
Expressionism, which encompassed groups like the "Ugly Realists", the "Neue Wilden",
"Figuration Libre", "Transavanguardia", the "New Image Painters" and the so-called
"Bad Painters", signalled a return to depicting recognizable objects, like the human
body (albeit often in a quasi-abstract style), using rough brushwork, vivid colours and
colour harmonies; and the wholly figurative styles adopted by groups such as "New
Subjectivity" and the "London School". At the other extreme from Minimalism is the
ultra-representational art form of photorealism (superrealism, hyperrealism).
Conspicuous among this rather bewildering range of activity are figure painters
like Francis Bacon, the great Lucien Freud (b.1922), the innovative Fernando Botero
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(b.1932), the precise David Hockney (b.1937), the photorealists Chuck Close (b.1940)
and Richard Estes (b.1936), and the contemporary Jenny Saville (b.1970). See
also: Contemporary British Painting (1960-2000).

Postmodernist Sculpture

Sculpture since 1970 has appeared in a variety of guises, including: the large scale
metal works of Mark Di Suvero (b.1933), the minimalist sculptures of Walter de
Maria (b.1935), the monumental public forms of Richard Serra (b.1939), the hyper-
realist nudes of John De Andrea (b.1941), the environmental structures of Anthony
Gormley (b.1950), the site-specific figures of Rowan Gillespie (b.1953), the stainless
steel works of Anish Kapoor (b.1954), the high-impact Neo-Pop works of Jeff
Koons (b.1955), and the extraordinary 21st century works by Sudobh Gupta (b.1964)
and Damian Ortega (b.1967). In addition, arresting public sculpture includes the
"Chicago Picasso" - a series of metal figures produced for the Chicago Civic Centre
and the architectural "Spire of Dublin" (the 'spike'), created by Ian Ritchie (b.1947),
among many others.

Postmodernist Avant-garde

The pluralistic "anything goes" view of contemporary art (which critics might
characterize as exemplifying the fable of the "Emperor's New Clothes"), is aptly
illustrated in the works of Damien Hirst, a leading member of the Young British
Artists school. Renowned for "The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of
Someone Living", a dead Tiger shark pickled in formaldehyde, and lately for his
diamond encrusted skull "For the Love of God", Hirst has managed to stimulate
audiences and horrify critics around the world. And while he is unlikely ever to inherit
the mantle of Michelangelo, his achievement of sales worth $100 million in a single
Sotheby's auction (2008) is positively eye-popping.

On a more sobering note, in March 2009 the prestigious Georges Pompidou Centre of
Contemporary Art in Paris staged an exhibition entitled "The Specialisation of Sensibility
in the Raw Material State into Stabilised Pictorial Sensibility". This avant-garde event
consisted of 9 completely empty rooms - in effect, a reincarnation of John Cage's
completely silent piece of "musical" conceptual art entitled "4.33". If one of the great
contemporary art venues like the Pompidou Centre regards nine completely empty
spaces as a worthy art event, we are all in deep trouble.

20th Century Architecture

One might say that 19th century architecture aimed to beautify the new wave of civic
structures, like railway stations, museums, government buildings and other public
utilities. It did this by taking ideas from Neo-Classicism, Neo-Gothic, French Second
Empire and exoticism, as well as the new forms and materials of so-called "industrial
architecture", as exemplified in factories along with occasional landmark structures
like the Eiffel Tower (1887-89). In comparison, 20th century architecture has been
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characterized by vertical development (skyscrapers), flagship buildings, and post-war

reconstruction. More than any other era, its design has been dominated by the
invention of new materials and building methods. It began with the exploitation of late
19th century innovations developed by the Chicago School of architecture, such as
the structural steel frame, in a style known as Early Modernism. In America,
architects started incorporating Art Nouveau and Art Deco design styles into their work,
while in Germany and Russia totalitarian architecture pursued a separate agenda during
the 1930s. Famous architects of the first part of the century included: Louis
Sullivan (1856-1924), Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959), Victor Horta (1861-
1947), Antoni Gaudi (1852-1926), Peter Behrens (1868-1940), Walter
Gropius (1883-1969) and Le Corbusier (1887-1965). After 1945, architects turned
away from functionalism and began creating new forms facilitated by reinforced
concrete, steel and glass. Thus Late Modernism gave way to Brutalism, Corporate
Modernism and High Tech architecture, culminating in structures like the Georges
Pompidou Centre in Paris, and the iconic Sydney Opera House - one of the first
buildings to use industrial strength Araldite to glue together the precast structural
elements. Since 1970, postmodernist architecture has taken several different
approaches. Some designers have stripped buildings of all ornamentation to create
a Minimalist style; others have used ideas of Deconstructivism to move away from
traditional rectilinear shapes; while yet others have employed digital modeling software
to create totally new organic shapes in a process called Blobitecture. Famous post-war
architects include: Miers van der Rohe (1886-1969), Louis Kahn (1901-74), Jorn
Utzon; Eero Saarinen (1910-61), Kenzo Tange (1913-2005), IM
Pei (b.1917), Norman Foster (b.1935), Richard Rogers, James Stirling (1926-
92), Aldo Rossi (1931-97), Frank O. Gehry (b.1929), Rem Koolhaas (b.1944),
and Daniel Libeskind (b.1946). Famous architectural groups or firms,
include: Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (est 1936); Venturi & Scott-Brown (est 1925); the
New York Five - Peter Eisenman, Michael Graves, Charles Gwathmey, John Hejduk,
Richard Meier; and Herzog & de Meuron (est 1950).