Applied Ergonomics 1977, 8.

3, 135-140

Ergonomics of posture Review of

various problems of standing and
sitting posture

E. Grandjean and W. HOnting

Department of Hygieneand Ergonomics,SwissFederal Institute of Technology, Zurich

Medical and ergonomic field studies indicate that bad standing and sitting postures are
sometimes accompanied by pains in muscle and connective tissues of tendons, joint
capsules and ligaments. There is evidence that such pains can become the symptoms of
chronic diseases attributed to rheumatic disorders.
Recent orthopaedic research revealed that inadequate standing and sitting postures
provoke excessive increases of intradiscal pressure. These orthopaedic findings, together
with ergonomic investigations on sitting behaviour and somatic troubles, provide good
bases for the construction of rest chairs and work seats.

Posture, pains and diseases
In ergonomics we distinguish between static and dynamic
work of the muscles:
Dynamic work is characterized by a rhythmic change of
contraction and relaxation of the muscles. This is a
favourable condition for the blood supply of the working
muscles. (The heart is an example of a muscle which works
dynamically all through life, without interruption and
without fatigue.)
Static work is characterized by slow contractions with
heavy loads or by long,lasting holding postures. In a strong
static contraction, the blood supply is impaired and waste
products accumulate in the muscles. This is the reason for
the acute pain in the statically loaded muscle.
If the static load is repeated frequently and for long
periods of time, chronic pains and troubles may result;
often these pains are not only due to pathological changes
in the muscles, but also in the connective tissues of tendons,
in joint capsules, and in the joint ligaments.
We must conclude that repetitive excessive static loads
may lead to 'wear and tear' effects in joint capsules,
ligaments and tendons. In medicine these phenomena are
attributed to the group of rheumatic diseases. In fact, many
observations confirm that high static load increases the risk
of arthroses of an inflammatory and degenerative nature
(Van Wely, 1970). Another well known example is the
frequent peritendinitus in the lower arms of typists or
workers using inadequate grips on tools (Tichauer, 1976).
Some possible relations between inadequate postures
and pains, due to excessive static loads, are shown in Table 1
Field studies
Grandjean and collaborators (1968, 1968) studied
postures and behaviour of shopgirls in a department store.
Furthermore, the shopgids were asked about somatic
troubles. The results of this field study are shown in Fig. 1
and Table 2, and reveal that the shopgids are exposed to a
considerable static work load. If we add the time of free
standing and that of stooping, we see that static work
is done during more than 5 h per day.
Considering that the shopgirls of our group are relatively
young (50% are below 30 years of age), we must regard the
frequency of 26% with troubles in legs and feet as being
very high. We assume that these troubles are related to the
static postures of the shopgirls.
A systematic study on sitting postures and somatic
troubles in office workers was made by Grandjean and
Burandt(1962).The results are shown in Figs. 2 and 3.
The comparison of the behavioural results with the
simultaneously measured body sizes showed that small
people mainly sat on the front edge of the chair; tall people,
however, more often sat to the back of the chair.
On the other hand, the detailed analysis revealed that
people with pains in neck and shoulders (24%) were mainly
those whose work table was too high. These people tend to

Applied Ergonomics September1977 135

 which was even more strenuous. We do not want to go into
these details here, we merely wish to point out that the
degrees of pain increased markedly during the day in both
Walking 50 min arms as well as in the back and neck. If we compare the
location of these pains with the body postures required by
the task, the relation between posture and pains becomes
obvious.
Interesting observations on physical discomfort in various
parts of the body in relation to the design of a man-machine
situation were published by Corlett and Bishop (1976). The
authors developed a survey procedure including a seven
point scale for the assessment of the general discomfort
Standing 3h 55min
and an anatomical diagram showing 12 parts of the body.
The rank order of the degrees of pain given by the
interviewed subjects for these 12 parts of the body was used
to identify the stressed body regions. A comparison of the
time-related pattern of discomfort was made with several
pedestal spot welders. Discomfort score was markedly
reduced after an ergonomic improvement of the man-
machine situation by adjusting the work heights, the top
Standing I h 50 rain electrode angles and the pedal resistances, changes which
with support
permitted the operators to maintain an upright posture
and exert a minimum force on the pedal.

Orthopaedic research on the effects of posture on

the spine
The type of posture is not only important with respect
Stooping 62 rain to static muscle strain and muscle fatigue, it is even more
important for a healthy spine. Indeed, many medical
studies agree that more than 50% of the adults suffer from
backache during at least one period of their lives. Backache
is the most frequent cause of invalidity in industry.
The main reason for these frequent backaches is a
Fig. 1 Multi-moment study of postures and behaviour of pathological degeneration of the discs, which lie between
24 shopgirls during 24 workdays.
The time values indicate the mean portion of time
spent on each posture or activity during a workday
of 8¼ hours
Sitting on the front edge of the chair 15%
lift their shoulders. We assume that this compensating
posture is the reason for the frequent complaints about
pains in neck and shoulders. Furthermore, the group with
pains in knees and feet consisted mainly of smaller people, Sitting in the middle of the chair 52O/o
tending to sit on the front edge of the chair. We assume
that this sitting posture is the reason for excessive pressures
in the thighs with resulting venous cogestions in the lower
leg.
Sitting tothe back of the chair 53%
In a third field study, Nemecek and Grandjean (1975)
investigated the working conditions of female employees in
a textile factory.The main task of the women investigated
consisted of moving cops weighing about 3 kg with the left Leaning on the backrest 42%
and then with the right hand over a distance of about 90 cm
for each hand. Altogether 2200 - 3000 kg were manipulated
with each hand. These working conditions are shown in
Fig. 4. Supporting arms on the table 40o/0
Besides measuring the pulse rate, we also investigated
with a special questionnaire with opposite items the degree
of pains and complaints in different parts of the body before Fig. 2 Sitting behaviour of office workers.
and after work-shift. The increase of the self-rated complaints Multi-moment study of 378 employees.
during the day-shift is shown in Fig. 5. The given values correspond to the percentage of
In this illustration we distinguish between the results of a observations, whereby some of the items could
previous working method and those of a new procedure, coincide

136 Applied Ergonomics September 1977


In the head 14 °/o
In the neck and shoulders 2 4 %
In the back 57O/o
In the seat 16%
In the thighs 19°/o
In the knees and feet 29%
Fig. 3 Somatic troubles of 378 office employees. Multiple
answers were accepted
the bony vertebrae and act as an elastic cushion between
the vertebrae giving the spinal column its flexibility. The
degeneration of the discs is accompanied by a loss of
mechanical resistance and by a flattening of the discs,
leading to mechanical troubles between the vertebrae, to
nerve irritations and to pains. Unnatural postures, such as
frequent stooping and lifting or carrying loads, wear out
the discs and induce hazards on the supporting system of
spine and trunk.
Recent research of Nachemson and Elfstrtim (1970),
Andersson and 0rtengren (1974) and Nachemson (1974)
in this field gives new insights into the relation between
posture and risks of disc damage in the spine.
As shown in Fig. 6, these authors found that the pressure
inside the discs is considerably increased when the trunk is
bent forwards compared with standing in an upright
position. Furthermore, they showed that the intradiscal
pressure is higher in the sitting than in the standing posture.
This is certainly due to the turning mechanism of the hips
in the sitting position, which produces a kyphosis in the
lumbar region of the spine. The authors point out that a
great increase in intradiscal pressure must be considered
as an unnecessary load and strain on the discs, promoting
pathological changes.
Left hand:
I - 2 s
Fig. 4 Working process in an inspection task of female employees in a textile factory
It is well known in industry and in sport that tt~e knees
must be bent and the spine kept straight when lifting a load.
Nachemson and ElfstrOm (1970) could show that this
recommendation is well justified. In fact, they observed that
the intradiscal pressure is about three times as high when the
knees are straight and the back bent as compared with the
correct way of lifting a toad (see Fig. 7).
Research on sitting posture
Historical relzospect
Today, the sitting position is the most frequent body
posture in industrialized countries: we sit in the car or the
train on the way to or from work, we sit most of the time
at the work place, and in the evening we again sit in front
of the television set. It can be stated without exaggeration
that the sitting position is characteristic for modem times.
Former generations were much less accustomed to the
use of seats. The diligent worker or civil servant did his
work in a standing position; the high desk was the usual
office work place.
The main reason why seats were developed was to reduce
physical strain on the body. Indeed, in the sitting position
we relax the muscles in the feet, legs, and - to some extent
- in the trunk.
Experts on art and cultural history emphasize another
very interesting aspect: Originally the seat was above all a
status symbol. Only the chief of the tribe was allowed to sit
on an elevated stool. The seat was therefore the symbol of
his social standing. Gradually, seats were developed which
show the status value of the owners in their size and
ornamentation. Striking examples of this trend are the
thrones of emperors, kings and rulers.
Today, some designers try to include ergonomic
considerations in the concept of functionalism. This trend
becomes obvious in some seat profiles adapted to the
natural shape of the human body or in the adjustable and
high back-rest of office chairs.
In spite of the efforts of modern design to be more
functional and less ornamental, the importance of status
symbols remains. This becomes apparent in the brochures
and folders of office furniture manufacturers, offering chairs
of very different quality and design according to the
Inspection+ Right hand:
knotting : 2s
I 0 - 12 s
Applied Ergonomics September1977 137
 Criteria Deviations hierarchic order of the employees. A simple wooden model
(opposite pairs) towards increased stress is destined for the typist, a more comfortable chair for the
manager, while the most elaborate fauteuil is reserved for
Fresh - tired
the president.
Relaxed - tense

Awoke- sleepy
Recent results of orthopaedic research on sitting
Vigorous - exhausted
posture
Pains : Yamaguchi and Umezawa (1970) in Japan were the first
(none- very strong)
-- Head
to study systematically the effects of various seat inclinations
on the spine. They recorded the tension between the apophyses
- Right hand (wrist) of the vertebrae and examined which relation of the seat
- Left hand (wrist) angle and the backrest angle produced the lowest tension
in the spine. The main results show that with a horizontal
- Right orrn seat surface, a backrest angle of 125 ° is required to get a
low tension in the spine. With increasing seat angles, the
- Left arm
backrest angle can be reduced without augmenting
- Back distortion of the spine.
- Legs Recently, Nachemson, Andersson and their collaborators
- Feet
(1970, 1974) recorded the pressure in the discs in various
sitting postures. The results shown in Fig. 8 reveal that the
- Neck lowest values are found in a relaxed position. In the writing
i i L i position, when the arms are lying on the table, pressure is
o ~o ~o 30 40 ~o lower than in the typical typing position when the arms
mm
have no support. The highest disc pressure is, of course,
Old working method ~ Newworkin 9method recorded when a load is held with outstretched arms.

Fig. 5 Mean increase of complaints during day-shift of Fig. 9 shows the recorded disc pressure and the electrical
5 female textile workers. Abscissa: Mean deviation activity of some muscles of the back in relation to different
in mm on the bipolar scale backrest angles. The effects are clear: when the backrest
angle is increased up to 110 °, the disc pressure is gradually
lowered, and in a similar way the electrical activity is
Table 1: Possible relations between inadequate postures and decreased, ie, with backrest angles between 110 and 130 °
pains or troubles we can expect a considerable relaxation of the back muscles,
and a low intradiscal pressure.
Posture at the work place Risk of pains in
Andersson and (grtengren (1974) studied the effect of a
Standing Feet and legs (possibly varices) lumbar support on the disc pressure. When increasing the
lumbar support up to 5 cm on the level between ~ and L4
Sitting without back Extensor muscles of the back they observed a considerable degree of the intradiscal
support pressure, and a reduction of the electrical activity.
Seat too high Knees, lower legs and feet
All the results of Nachemson and Andersson prove that
Seat too low Shoulders and neck low intradiscal pressure and low muscle activity are found in
Extended arms Shoulders and upper arms chairs with the following characteristics:
(possibly pariarthritis of the Backrest inclination (to horizontal line) 110-120 °
shoulders) Seat surface inclination 14 °
Inadequate grips on tools Lower arms (possibly Lumbar support 5 cm
peritendinitis) We must assume that with the inclination of the backrest
one part of the body weight is shifted to the backrest, thus
obtaining a decrease of the load on the discs as welt as of
Table 2: Somatic troubles of shopgirls in a department store. muscle strain.
200 interviewed shopgirls (multiple answers were possible)
Sitting posture and discomfort
Troubles Answers (%) With a sort of 'sitting machine' we studied the effects of
In legs and feet 26 various seat profiles on the frequency of complaints of
discomfort in different parts of the body (Grandjean et ai,
Backache 18 1967). The main results of this study on 52 healthy and
Headache 14 38 persons with backaches are compared in Table 3 with
Gastrointestinal tract 15 those of Nachemson and Andersson. Even though
experimental conditions were certainly different in the
Eyes 12 two investigations, the results obtained do not greatly vary.
Other 9 Especially striking is the good concordance for the backrest
inclination.

138 Applied Ergonomics September1977

 Pressure disc. If the load is small, the tissue liquid flows into the
%
disc. Kdimer came to the conclusion that a periodical
30C change of the load on the discs is important for their
275
nutrition and therefore also for their resistance against
pathological changes. The periodical change between high
25C
E and low load of the discs provides an effective pump
.2= 225 mechanism. These observations of Kramer lead to the
-~ ,,~ 20C requirements for a seat permitting frequent changes between
cu
•- w I75 leaning forward and reclining positions.
== 150 Earlier investigations (Grandjean et al, 1973; Wotzka et al,
¢ni:~
= 125 1969) with 12 different multi-purpose chairs showed clearly
._>c
¢~-- IOC that chair profiles with a high backrest gave the best results,
ou
._"2 75
ie, the lowest rate of physical complaints. If such a seat has
,-r,,.o a well-designed lumbar support, subjects have a more
5C
comfortable posture when leaning forward and can relax
25 when reclining.

Position of body

Fig. 6 Relative increase and decrease in intradiscal Table 3: Comparison of orthopaedic and ergonomic research
pressure in different postures compared to the related to seat constructions
standing upright position (= 100%) (according to
Nachemson and ElfstrSm, 1970) Low disc pressure Minimum of
Nachemson (1970) discomfort
Andersson (1974) Grandjean (1964)

Seat inclination
(to horizontal line) 14° 1 6 - 30 °

Z Backrest inclination
(2_ 3o (to horizontal line) 110-130 ° 125-138 °
eJ
uE Height of seat 3 4 - 50 cm
a¢ Depth of seat 41-- 55 cm
(u 2o

I
5
I
I0
Time, s
I
15
I
20
••" IB oc k reloxed

Fig. 7 Pressure recorded from the L 3 disc in a 25-year-old

male lifting 20 kg with straight knees and bent
back (A) and with bent knees and straight back (B) ~ - Iwriting posture
Intradiscal pressure of kp/cm 2 according to
Nachemson and ElfstrSm (1970)

Typing
The results reported in Table 3 are suitable for the design
of a rest chair; work chairs are quite a different problem.

Proposals for an office chair

In the office most people try, whenever possible, to Lifting o weight
change their sitting posture between leaning forward and
reclining positions in order to periodically relax the back -OI 0 OI 02
muscles (see Fig. 2). It is therefore logical to look for a seat
Disc pressure (MPA)
which would suit both positions. This ergonomic
requirement was recently supported by some studies of
Kr~mer (1973), who investigated carefully the nutritional Fig. 8 Disc pressure between Ls and I-4 in different
conditions of the intervertebral discs. It is well known that sitting postures.
the discs themselves do not have a good blood supply. MPA = 10-2 kp/cm 2 (100N/cm 2 )
Kr~lmer showed that nutritive substances are transported Disc pressure 0 is a relative value related to a
by diffusion with tissue liquids into the disc. If the load on reference trunk position. According to Andersson
the disc is heavy, the tissue liquids tend to flow out of the and (~retengren (1974).

Applied Ergonomics September 1977 139

 I Disc pressure L 3 / L 4 ( M P A)
-0.5 -0.3 -0.1 0 0 I
i i i f i I
! 1967 Wohnungsmedizin, 5, 51-56. Entwicklung eines
I
I
I0
V (/=V)
EMG o c t i v i t y in the proximily of T 8
Fig. 9 Disc pressure and electrical activity of back muscles
in relation to different inclinations of the backrest.
According to Andersson and C)rtengren (1974)
Based on the above-mentioned orthopaedic arguments
and on the results of our experiments (Grandjean et al, 1973;
Wotzka et al, 1969), we concluded that an office chair
should have a high backrest, and that it should be possible
to tilt the whole seat shell between an inclination of 2 ° to
the front and 14° to the back. The tiltable seat shell should
be conceived in such a way as to be easily fixed at any
desired angle by the user. The shape of the backrest should
be slightly concave at the top and distinctly convex in the
lumbar region. We have good reasons to believe that such a
chair would give the user a support in the lumbar region
when working, and would allow relaxation of the back
when reclining.
For this proposed chair we must make one serious
restriction: a tiltable seat shell is only appropriate if the
work allows free changes between leaning forward and
reclining sitting postures. This alternation of postures is
certainly possible in many office jobs, but unfortunately,
however, not in every case. Furthermore, many other types
of work require the worker to maintain more or less
constantly the same leaning forward position of the trunk;
assembly work in the watch-making industry is one such
example. In such cases it will be difficult to find a better
solution than the traditional work chairs with adjustable
and fixable backrests.
References
Andersson, B.J.G., and Ortengren, R.
1974 Scand J Rehabilitation Medicine, 3, 104-114;
3, 122-127; 3, 128-135. Lumbar disc pressure and
myoelectric back muscle activity during sitting, Studies
on an office chair.
140 Applied Ergonomics September 1977
Corlett, E.N., and Bishop, R.P.
0.3
1976 Ergonomics, 19, 175-182. A Technique for Assessing
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Grandjean, E., Bi~ni, A., and Kretzschmar, H.
Ruhesessel-Profils fur gesunde und rttckenkranke
Menschen.
Grandjean, E.~ and Burandt, U.
1962 Industrielle Organisation, 31,243-250. Das
Sitzverhalten yon Bllroangestellten.
Grandjean, E., HUnting, W., Wotzka, G., and Seh~rer, R.
1973 Human Factors, 15, 247-255. An ergonomic
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Grandjean, E., Kretzschmar, H., and Wey, K.
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und den Gesundheitszustand beim Verkaufspersonal
eines Warenhauses.
Grandjean, E., Kretzschmar, H., and Wotzka, G.
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Verkaufspersonal eines Warenhauses.
Kdtmer, J.
1973 Biomechanische Ver~nderungen im lumbalen
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1974 Lumbar intradiscal pressure. Results from in vitro
and in vivo experiments with some clinical implications,
7 Wiss Konf. Deutscher Naturforscher und Aerzte,
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and Leonhard, T.
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development of an auditorium seat.
Yamaguchi, Y., and Umezawa, F.
1970 Development of a chair to minimize disc distortion
in the sitting posture, Paper presented at the 4th Int
Congress on Ergonomics, Strasbourg, July 1970,
unpublished (cited in: E. Grandjean "Wohnphysiologie",
Verlag for Architektur - Artemis, Ztlrich, 1973).