1 Physical Geography PDF

1
Module Geoecology
1. Physical Geography
Geoecology
German-Mongolian Institute for Resources and Technology
Physical Geography: Overview 2
1.1 History of the Earth
1.2 Development of Landscapes 1:

Endogenous Processes
1.3 Development of Landscapes 2:

Exogenous Processes
1.4 General Ecology
1.5 Biogeography
Geoecology
1.1 History of the Earth 3
Our solar system was formed about 4.6

million years ago.
Out of the so-called solar nebula (a mixture

of gas, ice grains, and dust), the following
astronomic objects were formed:
1) the sun as the central star
2) the planets including

the earth
3) the moons which circle
around the planets
4) comets and asteroids
Geoecology
At the time of its formation, about 75% of our universe consisted of hydrogen.
4.6 billion years ago, the sun began to form from the hydrogen
(and helium) gas contained in our solar nebula.
Current energy output of the sun: 3.846×1026 W

(equals 200 quadrillion of the strongest nuclear power
reactors)
Via nuclear fusion, hydrogen (currently 73%) is transformed into helium.

Over a long time, the sun will use up this fuel.
Geoecology
Over the next 3 billion years, the sun will increase its size by
40%. All life on earth will disappear.
In around 5 billion years, the usable hydrogen reserves in the

sun will be exhausted.
The sun will become dark red.
In around 9 billion years, the sun will turn into a white dwarf
(a small white star), and ultimately a black dwarf (a small
black body)
Geoecology
In our solar system, there are 4 terrestrial planets which consist mostly of iron and
silicate rocks.
They include…
Mercury Venus Earth Mars
Iron is typically concentrated in the inner core, silicates dominate the mantle and crust.
Example: The earth‘s crust contains about 60.2% SiO 2
Geoecology
Geoecology
Geological
periods
Precambrian
4.6 bill. to 600
mill. years BP
First small
organisms
develop
(bacteria, small
water
organisms)
Oxygen in the
atmosphere is
formed by
photosynthesis
of CO2
Geoecology
Geological
periods
Paleozoic
600 mill. to 245
mill. years BP
Life moves from

the oceans to
land.
Coal is formed.
Geoecology
Geological
periods
Mesozoic
245 mill. to 66
mill. years BP
Dinosaurs
dominate the
earth (early
mesozoic)…
… and disappear
(late mesozoic)
Today‘s oceans,
continents and
old mountain
chains are
formed.
Geoecology
Geological
periods
Cenozoic
66 mill. years
BP until now
Most of today‘s
animal and
plant species
emerge.
Humans begin
to settle the
planet
Geoecology
History of life
on earth
1) Micro-
organisms
(single-celled to
multi-cellular)
2) Water
animals
3) Amphibians
and insects
leave oceans
4) Animals
diversify,
humans develop
Geoecology
In which geological eras did the following

organisms appear for the first time?
Film1.1.1.
Film 1.1. 1. reptiles
Geological Timescale
Geological
The Milky Eras
Way 2. humans
3. algae
4. flowers
Geoecology
In which geological eras did the following

organisms appear for the first time?
Film 1.1. 1. reptiles
Geological Eras 2. humans
3. algae
4. flowers
1.Paleozoic
2. Cenozoic
3. Precambrian
4. Mesozoic
Geoecology
Our solar system was formed about 4.6 billion years ago. The sun as the central star
was formed mostly from hydrogen, which is transformed into helium via nuclear
fusion. In about 5 billion years, the usable hydrogen supplies will be exhausted.
The earth is one out of four terrestrial planets that consist mostly of silicate rocks and
iron.
4. Mesozoic
Geoecology
The geological history of the earth can be divided into four main eras:
Precambrian 4.6 bill. to 600 First small organisms develop; oxygen is

mill. years BP formed by photosynthesis
Paleozoic 600 mill. to 245 Life moves from the oceans to land.
mill. years BP
Mesozoic 245 mill. to 66 Age of dinosaurs. Modern continents
mill. years BP and large mountain chains appear.
Cenozoic 66 mill. years BP Most of today‘s animal and plant species
until today emerge. Humans begin to settle the
planet
4. Mesozoic
Geoecology
1.2 Development of Landscapes 1: Endogenous Processes 17
The earth‘s core consists of a solid
inner core (mostly Fe and Ni,
about 5430 °C) and a liquid outer
core (mostly Fe and Ni, 2730 to
4,230 °C).
The mantle consists of solid (but slightly

gel-like) silicate rocks that are rich in Fe
and Mg. Over long periods of time,
material in the mantle is moving.
The crust consists of oceanic crust

(thinner, more Fe and Mg) and continental
crust (thicker, more Al and SiO2).
Geoecology
Geoecology
Endogenous processes are caused by forces from inside the earth. There are the
following main processes:
1. Volcanism
- release of hot magma from the inside of the earth
2. Tectonic movements
- causing faults, earthquakes,

formation of mountains
Geoecology
1.2.1 Volcanism 20
Example: Mt. Etna, Italy
Oceanic plates are heavier than continental plates. When they move towards each other,
the oceanic plates move below the continental plates (subduction).
In such zones, a part of the oceanic crust melts; this magma is then released through
vulcanos.
Geoecology
1.2.1 Volcanism 21
The very hot magma

near mantle plumes can
melt the crust and form
a hot spot vulcano.
In some parts of the

world, there are
unusually hot
temperatures in the
mantle of the earth, so
called mantle plumes.
The movement of the (oceanic) crust

over a hot spot can result in a chain of
vulcanoes.
Geoecology
1.2.1 Volcanism 22
Hawaii and its
neighboring
islands are typical
examples for hot
spot vulcanoes.
Mt. Kilauea, a hot

spot vulcano, is
the most active in
the world.
Geoecology
1.2.1 Volcanism 23
Volcanism is also found near diverging plates in so-called rift zones.

Geoecology
1.2.1 Volcanism 24
Iceland is located on divergent

plates which form the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
Eyjafjallajoö kull,
last eruption 2010
Geoecology
1.2.1 Volcanism 25
Comparison of volcanic regions (B-D)
B Vulcanoes are found only in regions

which have one of these
D characteristics,
C
Geoecology
1.2.1 Volcanism 26
1. Where are 90% of the world‘s volcanoes

located?
Film 1.2.1 2. Since when has Kilauea been erupting

continuosly?
Volcanism
3. What are advantages of living near
vulcanoes?
Geoecology
1.2.1 Volcanism 27
1. Where are 90% of the world‘s volcanoes

located?
Film 1.2.1 2. Since when has Kilauea been erupting

continuosly?
Volcanism
3. What are advantages of living near
vulcanoes?
1.In the „Ring of Fire“ around the Pacific Ocean
2. Since 1983
3. vulcanoes create fertile soils; geothermal energy can be used
Geoecology
1.2.1 Volcanism 28
There are three reasons for volcanoes to form:
1) subduction of one plate below another plate
2) mantle plumes (or hot spots) in the mantle of the earth
3) divergent plate boundaries (or rift zones)
Geoecology
1.2.2 Tectonic movements 29
There are several large plates which move slowly. This causes volcanism and earthquakes.
Geoecology
Plates can move in 3 ways: away from each other (divergent plates), towards each other
(convergent plates) and parallel to each other (transform fault).
Geoecology
Earth quakes are very common along

transform faults. One example is the San
Andreas Fault in California, where the
North American and Pacific plates move in
opposite directions.
80% of SF destroyed, 300,000 homeless

Geoecology
Converging plates can

lead to the formation of
mountains.
This process is called

orogeny.
Geoecology
Over millions of years, the plates have completely shifted their positions (continental drift)
Geoecology
1. Which scientist first discovered that

continents are moving?
Film 1.2.2 2. How was the continent called that

contained all land 200 million years ago?
Plate tectonics
3. Which big mountain chain was formed by
convergent plates?
Geoecology
1. Which scientist first discovered that

continents are moving?
Film 1.2.2 2. How was the continent called that

contained all land 200 million years ago?
Plate tectonics
3. Which big mountain chain was formed by
convergent plates?
1. Alfred Wegener
2. Pangea
3. Himalayas
Geoecology
There are three types of plate movements:
1) converging plates (plates move towards each other)

2) diverging plates (plates move away from each other)
3) transform faults (plates move parallel to each other, but in opposite directions).
Over long periods of time, plate movements have changed the positions of our
continents, and led to the formation of mountains (orogeny). Over short periods of
time, plate movements can cause earthquakes.
Geoecology
1.3 Exogenous processes 37
Exogenous processes are caused by forces from outside the earth. There are the
following main processes:
3. Deposition of sediments
1. Weathering of rocks
2. Erosion by wind, water, ice

Geoecology
1.3.1. Weathering of rocks 38
When rocks are broken down or changed in their chemistry, this is called weathering.
There are different types of weathering:
1. physical weathering
2. chemical weathering
3. biological weathering
Geoecology
Physical weathering includes the following processes:
a. thermal stress b. frost weathering
Geoecology
Physical weathering includes the following processes:
c. salt weathering d. pressure release
Like freezing water, salts

expand when they crystallize.
Strong effect:
Sodium sulfate: Na2SO4
Magnesium sulfate: MgSO4
Calcium chloride: CaCl2
Geoecology
Chemical weathering includes the following processes:
a. dissolution weathering b. weathering by oxidation
Geoecology
Chemical weathering includes the following processes:
c. weathering by acids (carbonic, nitric and sulfuric acid)
Geoecology
Biological weathering includes any process by which plants or microorganisms

are the cause.
Geoecology
There are three main forms of weathering:
- physical weathering (e.g. by frost, salts, thermal stress, pressure release)

- chemical weathering (e.g. by hydration, oxidation, reaction with acids)
- biological weathering (due to plants, microorganisms or animals)
In nature, usually several of these weathering processes occur at the same time.
Geoecology
1.3.2. Erosion 45
1 3
Erosion can be caused by
1 wind
2 water
3 ice
Geoecology
1.3.2. Erosion 46
1
Large
(=heavy)
3 grains are
rolled by the
wind on the
ground.
2
2
Small (=light)
grains jump
up and down
with the wind
(saltation).
3
1 Fine particles
are
transported in
dust clouds
(suspension).
Geoecology
1.3.2. Erosion 47
Wind erosion is most effective where there are soils without much vegetation cover.
In deserts, wind erosion is a natural

process that leads to sand forms like
dunes.
Sand grains blown by the wind can even
change the shape of rocks.
Geoecology
1.3.2. Erosion 48
Wind erosion
is problematic
on agricultural
land because it
removes
(fertile) soil
cover.
In agricultural
areas, dust
storms often
carry large
amounts of
- nutrients
(N, P, K)
- carbon
- chemicals
like
pesticides
Geoecology
1.3.2. Erosion 49
Almost half of Mongolia‘s territory has a high risk of soil erosion by wind.
Geoecology
1.3.2. Erosion 50
Yellow dust is a
consequence of soil
erosion in Mongolia
and parts of China.
The dust can be

transported via
Korea and the
Pacific Ocean to the
west coast of the
United States.
Geoecology
1.3.2. Erosion 51
1. Which factors led to stronger soil erosion

in the United States?
Film 1.3.2a 2. Which area in the US is mostly affected

by soil erosion?
Wind erosion
3. Describe the consequences of soil erosion.
Geoecology
1.3.2. Erosion 52
1. Which factors led to stronger soil erosion

in the United States?
Film 1.3.2a 2. Which area in the US is mostly affected

by soil erosion?
Wind erosion
3. Describe the consequences of soil erosion.
1. Loss of natural landcover due to overgrazing and agriculture
2. Great Plains
3. - reduced soil fertility

- reduced soil water holding capacity
- reduced crop production
- plant damage
- air and water pollution → negative effect on health
Geoecology
1.3.2. Erosion 53
Rainfall can mobilize soil particles by splash erosion. Particles can move up to 90 cm
from one raindrop!
Geoecology
1.3.2. Erosion 54
Types of water erosion: splash erosion – sheet erosion – rill or gully erosion –
channel erosion (bank and bed erosion)
Geoecology
1.3.2. Erosion 55
Sheet erosion is the uniform removal of soil in thin layers by the forces of raindrops
and overland flow. It can be a very effective erosive process because it can cover large
areas of sloping land and go unnoticed for quite some time.
Sheet
erosion
Geoecology
1.3.2. Erosion 56
Rill erosion is caused by water flow in small and shallow streamlets through the soil.
Sheet
erosion
Rill
erosion
Geoecology
1.3.2. Erosion 57
Gully erosion is erosion in deep channels that are usually formed by strong rain.
They are frequent in drylands. Once started, gullies grow in size (often by the collapse
of side walls) until countermeasures are taken.
Geoecology
1.3.2. Erosion 58
Bank erosion occurs on the sides of rivers and can lead to the collapse of riverbanks
Geoecology
1.3.2. Erosion 59
River erosion
differs in different
river sections.
Steeper slopes in
the upper course
result in vertical
erosion (river
bed erosion).
Less steep
gradients in the
middle course
result in lateral
erosion (river
bank erosion).
Along the lower

course, eroded
material is
deposited.
Geoecology
1.3.2. Erosion 60
1. How much does the erosion rate increase

if wind speed increases from 20 to 30
miles per hour?
Film 1.3.2b
2. What is the difference between rill erosion
Water erosion and ephemeral erosion?
3. How much soil can a single rainstorm erode

on 1 acre (about 4000 m²) of bare land?
Geoecology
1.3.2. Erosion 61
1. How much does the erosion rate increase

if wind speed increases from 20 to 30
miles per hour?
Film 1.3.2b
2. What is the difference between rill erosion
Water erosion and ephemeral erosion?
3. How much soil can a single rainstorm erode

on 1 acre (about 4000 m²) of bare land?
1. The erosion rate triples
2. Ephemeral erosion is rill erosion that occurs in the same places year after year.
3. A single rainstorm can erode about 100 t of soil per acre.
Geoecology
1.3.2. Erosion 62
?
sio
Ril
ion
ro
le
s
ero
ll e
ros
Ri
t
ion
ee
Sh
s io n
e ro
r bank
Rive
Which types of erosion can we see in this picture?

Geoecology
1.3.2. Erosion 63
Both valleys are shaped like a U. Such valleys were shaped by mountain glaciers.
What do these two valleys have in common?
Geoecology
1.3.2. Erosion 64
Glaciers change their underground in two ways: by abrasion (small rocks are carried
by the ice and „polish“ the surface below) and by plucking (small pieces of rock are
frozen into the glacier ice and pulled away).
Both processes can occur simultaneously!
Geoecology
1.3.2. Erosion 65
1. When was the Lake District in

England last covered by glaciers?
Film 1.3.2c 2. a. How and where does a glacier get

formed?
Glacial erosion
b. What happens to this place after a glacier
disappears?
Geoecology
1.3.2. Erosion 66
1. When was the Lake District in

England last covered by glaciers?
Film 1.3.2c 2. a. How and where does a glacier get

formed?
Glacial erosion
b. What happens to this place after a glacier
disappears?
1. 18,000 years ago
2. a. Glaciers get formed when lots of snow accumulates in a depression (a so-salled

corrie)
2.b . The glacier melts and a lake is formed (a so-called tarn)
Geoecology
1.3.2. Erosion 67
Erosion is any process that carries material from one location to another one.
There are three main processes that cause erosion:
- wind (strongest in drylands and on bare soils)

- water (strongest on mountain slopes and on bare soils)
- movement of glaciers (only in cold climates or in high mountain zones).
Geoecology
1.3.3. Deposition of sediments 68
The same forces that cause erosion lead

to the deposition of sediments.
Geoecology
The transport distance of different
particles depends on their size.
Typically, a sand (63 μm to 2 mm)

is transported only over relatively
short distances.
Finer material, so-called silt (2 μm

to 63 μm) and clay (< 2 μm) can be
transported over very long
distances by wind.
Any material that gets transported and then deposited

is called a sediment.
The most important sediment that is transported

by wind is loess. Loess covers result in highly
fertile soils.
Geoecology
Loess was transported over long
distances during and just after the
last ice age.
At that time, there was almost no

vegetation cover, so erosion and
deposition by wind worked very
effectively.
Loess covers can be

several meters thick.
The world‘s most

productive
agricultural soils have
formed on loess.
However, loess can
easily be eroded.
Geoecology
Loess was deposited in several parts of the world, including some regions of Mongolia
and Germany.
Geoecology
In rivers, most of the
deposition occurs in
the lower course
because of reduced
flow velocity.
Sediments get sorted along a river.

In the upper course, rivers are
able to transport large particles
such as gravel. As flow speeds
reduce, gravel gets deposited first,
then sand, silt and clay.
Geoecology
River deltas are the final
deposition zones of
sediments before rivers
enter large lakes or
oceans.
The largest river delta in the world is that

of the Ganges River in India and
Bangladesh.
The largest inland delta in the world is that

of the Selenge River, south of Lake Baikal.
Geoecology
In meandering
rivers, erosion and
deposition occur
within short
distances.
Typically, the
distance that
sediments travel in
meanders is about
6 times the width
of the river.
Geoecology
How was this rock transported here?

Geoecology
Glacier ice
transports
material very
slowly – but
can transport
1 very heavy
rocks.
2
Geoecology
Material that was eroded and transported by wind, water or glaciers and that gets
deposited is called sediment. Generally, smaller particles can be transported over
long distances – with one exception: glaciers can carry even huge rocks from their
head to their end moraines. After they disappear, glaciers reveal ground
moraines. Rivers constantly transport large amounts of sediments over long
distances. Most sediments get deposited in the lower course of the river and in river
deltas. Important sediment deposits that are transported by wind include sand
dunes and fertile loess covers.
Geoecology
1.4. What is an ecosystem? 78
An ecosystem is
...a self supporting system...
Self-supporting: able to exist on its own,

without external influence
...that consists of abiotic and biotic components...
Abiotic = non-living, e.g. air and water

Biotic = living, e.g. plants or animals
- which are linked by nutrient and energy flows...
Nutrient flow: from soil to plant and back to soil

Energy flow: from sunlight to chemical storage
Geoecology
Questions:
1. In an ecosystem, how is a group of
plants or animals living together
called?
Film 1.4.
Ecosystem 2. In the film, which role does the bear play
for nutrient flow?
3. Which types of land ecosystems

are mentioned in the film?
Geoecology
Questions:
1. In an ecosystem, how is a group of
plants or animals living together
called?
Film 1.4
Ecosystem 2. In the film, which role does the bear play
for nutrient flow?
3. Which types of land ecosystems

are mentioned in the film?
1. community
2. The bear eats fruit (nutrients) and later excretes feces (nutrients)
3. Desert, grassland, coniferous forest, rainforest, tundra
Geoecology
1.4.1. Components of Ecosystems 81
How do the biotic/abiotic groups

here differ from the picture above?
The first picture shows

biotic/abiotic factors.
The second picture shows

biotic/abiotic processes.
Geoecology
1.4.1. Components of Ecosystems 82
Ecosystems are self-supporting systems that

consist of biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living)
components that are linked by nutrient and energy
fluxes.
Abiotic components: sunlight, water, minerals, air
Biotic components: plants, animals,

microorganisms
Geoecology
1.4.2. Ecosystem Processes 83
Photosynthesis is one of the most fundamental

processes in ecosystems because
- it converts sunlight into biochemical energy

- it provides oxygen to other organisms
Why would it be problematic if photosynthesis were

the only process in an ecosystem?
→ all atmospheric CO2 would be converted into glucose and O2
Geoecology
Plants gain carbon from CO2 in the air to

build up biomass. However, this process only
happens in green plant parts (with chlorophyll).
All other plant parts actually use up carbon and

release CO2 due to breathing (respiration).
In the end, gains from photosynthesis must be

greater than losses from respiration (otherwise,
plants die).
In dry regions, plants tend to have extensive root

systems, and smaller / less leaves.
This is a disadvantage for the carbon balance,

because losses are higher and gains are smaller.
Geoecology
Geoecology
Actually, there are three different variants of photosynthesis:
Geoecology
For hot and dry climates, there are

two adaptations of photosyntheis:
C4 photosynthesis
CO2 is absorbed in mesophyll cell
Actual photosynthesis takes place

outside the mesophyll cell
CAM photosynthesis
CO2 is absorbed during the night

(less transpiration)
Actual photosynthesis takes place

during the day (with closed
stomata)
Geoecology
Water needed 450 – 950 ml 250 - 350 ml 50 - 55 ml

to produce 1g
of dry biomass
Geoecology
Revision
Question:
Film 1.4.2.a Which plants are shown as examples for

Photosynthesis Types
(a) C3 (b) C4 (c) CAM photosynthesis?
Geoecology
Revision
Question:
Film 1.4.2.a Which plants are shown as examples for

Photosynthesis Types
(a) C3 (b) C4 (c) CAM photosynthesis?
(a) sunflower
(b) corn
(c) pineapple
The transformation of sunlight into chemical energy by living organisms is also called
primary production.
Geoecology
… but less effectively than C4 plants

at high temperatures and strong
light.
C3 plants work more

effectively at low
temperatures.
What is different between the C3 and C4 plant?

Geoecology
Maximum CO2
absorption at 30°C
→ C4 pathway
Maximum CO2
absorption at 17°C
→ C3 pathway
Which photosynthesis methods are used by barley and maize?

Geoecology
There are differences

between different
plants using the C4
pathway. For example,
plant (b) has its
optimum around 30°C,
while plant (c) has its
optimum at about
38°C.
But: C4 plants are

always more efficient
at high temperatures.
Geoecology
Percentage of the
grasses in the
United States
using the C4
photosynthesis
pathway.
Chicago: 9°C
annual mean
In the Northern
US, C3 plants
dominate, in the
Southern US, C4
plants dominate.
Houston: 21°C
annual mean
Geoecology
1
Producer:
Plants take up N
1 from soil and
2 atmosphere
2
Consumer:
Animals eat
plants and
3 transform N
compounds into
proteins
3
Decomposer:
N compounds go
back to soil &
atmosphere
Geoecology
Revision
Questions:
Film 1.4.2.b What is another name for

Energy pyramid (a) primary producers
(b) consumers which only eat plants
(c) consumers at the top of the food pyramid?
Geoecology
Revision
Questions:
Film 1.4.2.b What is another name for

Energy pyramid (a) primary producers
(b) consumers which only eat plants
(c) consumers at the top of the food pyramid?
(a) autotrophs
(b) herbivores
(c) apex predators (tertiary consumers)
Geoecology
In ecosystems, primary production means the

uptake of carbon and nutrients by plants. To
produce biomass, plants use three different
photosynthesis strategies:
C3 pathway (standard): CO2 is directly turned into

organic C in green leaf cells (mesophyll)
C4 pathway: CO2 is absorbed by mesophyll but

transported to cells below the leaf surface to reduce
evaporation
CAM pathway: CO2 is absorbed during the night in

order to reduce transpiration (most water efficient,
but plant growth is slow)
Geoecology
Primary producers take up water, CO2

and nutrients from soils and air to
produce biomass. They are also called
autotrophs.
Herbivores are consumers (animals)

that eat plant biomass; carnivores eat
other animals. Apex predators are at the
top of the food pyramid.
Decomposers are fungi, worms and

microorganisms that „recycle“ dead
biomass from plants and animals. This
way, all carbon and nutrients are
released again to soils and the
atmosphere.
Geoecology
1.4.3. Ecosystem Dynamics 100
Each plant or animal species has some (but limited) tolerance regarding environmental conditions.
Geoecology
Ecosystems rarely stay in an identical state for a very long time. One reason is that
disturbances (both natural and manmade) are common. Example:
Typically after
about 150 years
In Mongolian forests, which are the typical intermediate species after forest fires?
Geoecology
Which part of this forest is the result of a disturbance (e.g. by fire)?
Geoecology
A temporary or permanent disturbance can cause the following changes to an ecosystem:
- one or more species can be lost, e.g. due to extinction or emigration (potentially with
later recolonization)
- the population density of a species can be reduced or increased
- the genetic diversity of a species can be reduced
- arrival of new invasive species
In case of strong or permanent

disturbances, the functioning
of the entire ecosystem can
change. Then, one ecosystem
can be replaced by a different
ecosystem (e.g. forest by
grassland).
Geoecology
Ecological disturbances (disruptions) can have very different long-term effects, and lead to
„death zones“ as well as new ecosystems (that may have even higher biodiversity).
Geoecology
Questions:
1. What is a succession?
2. What is the difference between a

Film 1.4.3 primary and a secondary succession?
Ecosystem dynamics
3. What is a climax?
Geoecology
Questions:
1. What is a succession?
2. What is the difference between a

Film 1.4.3 primary and a secondary succession?
Ecosystem dynamics
3. What is a climax?
1. the development of an ecosystem after a disturbance
2. primary succession: life starts all new after the soil disappeared
secondary succession: life recovers after a disturbance in which the soil was
not lost
3. an ecosystem that has completely recovered from a disturbance
Geoecology
Because of natural and man-made disturbances, ecosystems are dynamic.
The effects of disturbances can be temporary (total recovery) or permanent (ecosystem

change), and include
- species extinction / emigration

- population by invasive species
- changes in species density and (genetic) diversity
- complete change in ecosystem functioning.
The recovery process of an ecosystem after a disturbance is called a succession. When an

ecosystem has completely recovered, a climax is reached.
Geoecology
1.5. Biogeography 108
In this chapter we will look at the following aspects of Biogeography
1.5.1. Levels of
biogeography / ecology
1.5.2. Adaptation to the
environment 1.5.3. Species distribution 1: The
ecological niche
Geoecology
1.5. Biogeography 109
In this chapter we will look at the following aspects of Biogeography
1.5.5. Biomes / vegetation zones

1.5.4. Species distribution 2: Global
migration and differentiation
Geoecology
1.5.1 Levels in Biogeography 110
In biology, a species is defined

as a group of organisms that
are able to reproduce together.
In one species, there can be

several subspecies that look
different (but are still able to
reproduce).
In total, there are about 1.5

million species.
Geoecology
+ more individuals
+ other species
+ abiotic factors
+ all similar
ecosystems (e.g.
oceans)
+ all other biomes

(e.g. oceans +
forests + grasslands
+ ...)
Geoecology
Geoecology
Questions:
Find the right terms for...
1. all grass plants in one garden

Film 1.5.1
Levels in biogeography 2. a forest with trees, moss and
mushrooms
And now think for yourself:
3. All the insects in Terelj National Park
Geoecology
Questions:
Find the right terms for...
1. all grass plants in one garden

Film 1.5.1
Levels in biogeography 2. a forest with trees, moss and
mushrooms
And now think for yourself:
3. All the insects in Terelj National Park
1. population
2. community
3. community
Geoecology
Biogeography looks at microorganisms, plants and animals at the following levels:
1) individuals
2) population of a species (individuals that are able
to reproduce)
3) community (different species that live together)
4) ecosystems (biological communities plus abiotic
environment)
5) biomes (groups of similar ecosystems)
6) biosphere (all biomes combined)
Geoecology
1.5.2 Adaptation to the environment 116
Plants are adapted adapt to

the climatic conditions and
soils that they find in a
specific location.
Example: Cactus
(1) Maximizing water

uptake by large root
network
(2) Minimizing water losses

by thick skin and reduction
of leaf size (thorns!)
(3) Storage of water inside

the plant for dry periods
Geoecology
Plants can increase their water uptake by

(a) developing a wide root network and (b) developing a very deep root network
Geoecology
Why are the leaves so small?

Thorny acacia trees have small
leaves to minimize transpiration.
Geoecology
How are olive trees adapted to hot climate?
Their leaves are very thick and

have a wax cover to reduce
transpiration.
Geoecology
How are olive trees adapted to hot climate?
Atacama desert, Chile Atacama desert, Chile, after one rain event
Desert plants are adapted to react very

quickly to rainfall.
After rainfall, deserts can get filled with
flowers within a few days – but soon after,
the flowers die.
Geoecology
121
Module Geoecology
1. Physical Geography – Part 2

Geoecology
Similarly, animals are

adapted to climate,
underground and
surrounding
vegetation.
Example: Camel
(1) Large feet to walk

in sand
(2) Thick fur as

protection against
heat (cold)
(3) Storage of fat

inside its hump(s)
(4) Color similar to

its surroundings
(protection)
Geoecology
The shape of beaks in

birds depends on their
typical foods.
This is a direct result of

different living
environments.
Geoecology
The body of
fish is adapted
to the type of
water they live
in.
Strategy of
freshwater fish:
collect salts in
their body
Strategy of
saltwater fish:
excrete salts
Geoecology
Which of the following statements are true?
a. Saltwater fish try to get as much salt out of

the water as possible.
Film 1.5.2
Fresh and saltwater fish b. Freshwater fish try to get as much salt out
of the water as possible.
c. Freshwater fish try to excrete salt rapidly

(by their urine).
d. Saltwater fish try to excrete salt rapidly

(by their urine).
e. Freshwater fish live in an isotonic solution.
f. Saltwater fish have very salty urine.
Geoecology
Which of the following statements are true?
a. Saltwater fish try to get as much salt out of

the water as possible. FALSE
Film 1.5.2
Fresh and saltwater fish b. Freshwater fish try to get as much salt out
of the water as possible. TRUE
c. Freshwater fish try to excrete salt rapidly

(by their urine). FALSE
d. Saltwater fish try to excrete salt rapidly

(by their urine). TRUE
e. Freshwater fish live in an isotonic solution.

FALSE
f. Saltwater fish have very salty urine. TRUE
Geoecology
All plants and animals are adapted to the specific environment in which they live.
Adaptations typically focus on the following factors:
1) climate (e.g. minimization of transpiration, adaptation of photosynthesis to

availability of water and sunshine)
2) water (especially salt and fresh water)
3) soil characteristics (e.g. sand)
4) specific foods eaten by consumers
Geoecology
1.5.3 Species distribution 1: The ecological niche 128
The ecological niche refers to the specific conditions and localities where a species lives.
Geoecology
Different warbler types live in different elevation levels of the same tree in order to
avoid competition over food.
What would happen if they all moved to the same level?
Geoecology
Remember: a species is most abundant under optimum environmental conditions.

Geoecology
Populations of a specific species show the highest level of fitness in the center of their
niche.
Towards the outside of the niche, conditions become less favorable. This leads to a reduced
fitness of this species. Even a small disturbance can lead to the disappearance of this
species in such zones.
Geoecology
The niches of different species often overlap. In that case, the strong competitors will
dominate, and the weaker competitors will realize only a part of their fundamental niche.
Geoecology
In the long term,

biological evolution often
reduces the overlap of
realized ecological
niches, leading to a clear
separation.
Geoecology
Some species have a very

broad ecological niche:
they tolerate different
environments and are
generalists.
Other species are more

strongly adapted to their
specific environment and
have a narrow nice.
These species are also
called specialists.
Geoecology
In nature, is it better to be a specialist or a generalist?
There is actually no simple answer to this question.
Sometimes, specialists do better and manage to develop strong populations in a narrow

ecological niche (picture A).
However, at other times, specialists cannot profit from their specialization. Even at
optimum conditions, they don‘t do better than generalists, who cover a wider ecological
niche.
Geoecology
A higher number of species in one place results in higher competition, and typically to
more specialists.
Geoecology
Ecological niches are

characterized by several
environmental variables e.g.
- altitude
- temperature (including
seasonality)
- precipitation (inlcuding
seasonality and form,
e.g. snow)
Geoecology
If we look at several
environmental variables,
the amount of niche
overlap is reduced
considerably.
Geoecology
Questions:
1. Which scientist developed the

concept of the ecological niche?
Film 1.5.3 2. How do the niches of yellow and green

Ecological niche lichens growing on stones differ?
3. What is the competitive exclusion

principle?
Geoecology
Questions:
1. Which scientist developed the

concept of the ecological niche?
Film 1.5.3 2. How do the niches of yellow and green

Ecological niche lichens growing on stones differ?
3. What is the competitive exclusion

principle?
1. George Hutchinson
2. yellow lichens live under drier conditions, green lichens under wetter conditions
on stone surfaces
3. two competing species never exist in exactly the same ecological niche
Geoecology
The specific localities and environmental conditions in which a species lives is called its
ecological niche.
In reality, most species do not occupy their full (fundamental) niche because of
competition from other species. The actual niche of a species is called its realized niche.
Species have two general strategies to survive: generalists adapt to different

environmental conditions (they have a wide niche); specialists are highly adapted to a
specific environment (they have a narrow niche).
Geoecology
Ecological niches are characterized by several environmental variables, including
- climate (temperature, precipitation)

- altitude
- presence of other species (e.g. food, predators)
If we look at several variables, niche overlap gets substantially reduced.
According to the competitive exclusion principle, competing species

never exist in exactly the same ecological niche.
Geoecology
1.5.4 Species distribution 2: Global migration and differentiation 143
The Mongolian wild horse

(takhi, Przewalski Horse)
was naturally found in the
Mongolian steppes until
1966.
In 1992, the first 16 wild

horses (from oversea zoos)
were reintroduced to
Mongolia.
But in which way does the
wild horse differ from
normal horses?
Number of chromosomes:
Normal horse: 64
Wild horse: 66
Geoecology
Ordinary horse: Wild horse:

Equus caballus Equus ferus (przewalskii)
Which of these two horses came first?
Actually, there are three different theories on this.
Geoecology
Geoecology
Theory A:
The normal horse and the Mongolian wild horse have the same ancestor. They evolved at
the same time.
Theory B:
The normal horse and the Mongolian wild horse have the same ancestor. The Mongolian
wild horse evolved first, the normal horse later.
Theory C:
The normal horse and the Mongolian wild horse have the same ancestor. The normal
horse evolved first, the Mongolian wild horse later.
Geoecology
Genetically, the
Mongolian wild
horse is strongly
related to two
African animals:
the African wild ass

(= wild donkey)
… and the zebra
Geoecology
The first ancestors of our modern

horses appeared about 50 million years
ago.
The family of modern horses (to which

the wild horses belong) appeared about
5 million years ago (in North America,
Africa and Asia).
Geoecology
The wild horse is one

example out of many animals
that have relatives in very
different regions.
Other example:
Ostrich, Africa Kiwi, New Zealand
→ Both are flightless birds that have similar genomes

Geoecology
The ostrich and the kiwi have

joint ancestors, and sister
species in many other parts
of the world
Geoecology
Which of these pictures shows a real

camel?
1) Dromedary camel
2) Bactrian camel
3) Llama
– all of these are members of the camel

family.
Geoecology
Where do Mongolia‘s camels

orginally come from?
And who are their relatives in

South America?
Ancestors of today‘s camels
lived on the west coast of the
United States.
From there, they migrated to

South America, Asia and
Africa and separated into
different species.
Geoecology
Questions:
1. Where did scientists discover the first

known fossils of camels?
Film 1.5.4 2. How old were these bones?

Origin of camels
3. How did the camel differ from today‘s
camels?
4. In which ways were the camels of the

past adapted to cold climates?
Geoecology
Questions:
1. Where did scientists discover the first

known fossils of camels?
Film 1.5.4 2. How old were these bones?

Origin of camels
3. How did the camel differ from today‘s
camels?
4. In which ways were the camels of the

past adapted to cold climates?
1. in the arctic tundra of Canada
2. 3.5 million years old
3. it was 30% larger

4. big feet: help to walk on snow
humps: storage of fat (=energy) for a long winter
Geoecology
Originally, all camels

(like today‘s Mongolian
camels) were snow animals!
Geoecology
Many of the animals that we find in different continents today have common ancestors.
Examples:
- wild horses, e.g. takhi in Mongolia and zebra in Africa

- different types of camels, e.g. bactrian camels (two humps) in Mongolia, dromedary
camels (one hump) in Africa
After migration to different parts of the world, differentiation took place because
animals had to adapt to their new environment.
Geoecology
1.5.5. Biomes 157
World temperature map (average annual temperatures)
Now look at Sri Lanka. What is the average annual temperature?
20.5 to 30 °C
Geoecology
1.5.5. Biomes 158
World precipitation map

(total annual precipitation)
How much is the annual precipitation on Sri

Lanka?
about 1475-2474 mm
Geoecology
1.5.5. Biomes 159
Why is it insufficient to know only the average temperature and total annual precipitation?
There can be big seasonal

differences
- in precipitation, e.g. Sri Lanka

- in temperature, e.g. Mongolia
Geoecology
1.2.1. Climate zones 160
In order to describe the main characteristics of a region‘s climate, so called climate

classifications are used. The map above shows one of the most widely used classifications,
which was originally developed by the Russian-German geographer Wladimir Peter
Koö ppen in 1936.
Geoecology
1.2.1. Climate zones 161
Geoecology
1.5.5. Biomes 162
The Koö ppen classification system uses three (or sometimes

two) letters to characterize a regions climate.
Geoecology
1.5.5. Biomes 163
Geoecology
1.5.5. Biomes 164
NDVI:
Normalized Differentiated Vegetation Index.
0: no vegetation with chlorophyll
1: 100% land cover with green vegetation
Geoecology
1.5.5. Biomes 165
NDVI:
High values of UV absorption and IR reflectance indicate efficient photosynthesis and
therefore healthy and growing vegetation.
Geoecology
1.5.5. Biomes 166
NDVI: Annual time series

Look at the NDVI in (a) Sri Lanka and (b) Mongolia. How does it change during a year?
Sri Lanka: always high

Mongolia: zero in winter, increases until August, then decreases
Geoecology
1.5.5. Biomes 167
From where are

these three
forests?
Geoecology
1.5.5. Biomes 168
Global vegetation zones (biomes): distinct biological communities (plants + animals) that
have formed in response to a shared physical climate
Geoecology
1.5.5. Biomes 169
Revision
Question:
Film 1.5.5 Which are the land biomes mentioned in

Biomes this film?
Geoecology
1.5.5. Biomes 170
Revision
Question:
Film 1.5.5 Which are the land biomes mentioned in

Biomes this film?
(a) tropical rain forest

(b) desert
(c) temperate deciduous forest
(d) grassland
(e) chaparral
(f) temperate rain forest
(g) taiga
(h) tundra
Geoecology
1.5.5. Biomes 171
Climate is the key factor that determines global vegetation zones (biomes).
One of the most common climate classifications is the Koeppen-Geiger system

(developed and improved between 1884 and 1961). In this system, the earth is divided
into 5 main zones:
- A: Tropics
- B: Drylands
- C: Mild temperate zone
- D: Snow climates
- E: Polar zone
Geoecology
1.5.5. Biomes 172
Biomes are distinct biological communities that have formed in response to a shared
physical climate.
The most important land biomes are
- Tundra
- Taiga
- Deciduous forest
- Grasslands
- Desert
- High plateaus
- Tropical forest
Geoecology
173
Module Geoecology
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1

1.1 History of the Earth

1.2 Development of Landscapes 1:

1.3 Development of Landscapes 2:

1.4 General Ecology

Our solar system was formed about 4.6

Out of the so-called solar nebula (a mixture

1) the sun as the central star

2) the planets including

4) comets and asteroids

Current energy output of the sun: 3.846×1026 W

Via nuclear fusion, hydrogen (currently 73%) is transformed into helium.

In around 5 billion years, the usable hydrogen reserves in the

Mercury Venus Earth Mars

Life moves from

In which geological eras did the following

In which geological eras did the following

Film 1.1. 1. reptiles

Geological Eras 2. humans

Precambrian 4.6 bill. to 600 First small organisms develop; oxygen is

The mantle consists of solid (but slightly

The crust consists of oceanic crust

- release of hot magma from the inside of the earth

- causing faults, earthquakes,

Example: Mt. Etna, Italy

The very hot magma

In some parts of the

The movement of the (oceanic) crust

Mt. Kilauea, a hot

Volcanism is also found near diverging plates in so-called rift zones.

Iceland is located on divergent

Comparison of volcanic regions (B-D)

B Vulcanoes are found only in regions

1. Where are 90% of the world‘s volcanoes

Film 1.2.1 2. Since when has Kilauea been erupting

1. Where are 90% of the world‘s volcanoes

Film 1.2.1 2. Since when has Kilauea been erupting

1.In the „Ring of Fire“ around the Pacific Ocean

3. vulcanoes create fertile soils; geothermal energy can be used

There are three reasons for volcanoes to form:

1) subduction of one plate below another plate

2) mantle plumes (or hot spots) in the mantle of the earth

3) divergent plate boundaries (or rift zones)

Earth quakes are very common along

80% of SF destroyed, 300,000 homeless

Converging plates can

This process is called

1. Which scientist first discovered that

Film 1.2.2 2. How was the continent called that

1. Which scientist first discovered that

Film 1.2.2 2. How was the continent called that

There are three types of plate movements:

1) converging plates (plates move towards each other)

2. Erosion by wind, water, ice

There are different types of weathering:

Physical weathering includes the following processes:

a. thermal stress b. frost weathering

Physical weathering includes the following processes:

c. salt weathering d. pressure release

Like freezing water, salts

Chemical weathering includes the following processes:

a. dissolution weathering b. weathering by oxidation

Chemical weathering includes the following processes: