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1. Introduction
Traffic is the most important factor in pavement design;
thickness is based on the number of load repetitions (traffic)
1.1 Traffic Characterization Procedures
Traffic Characterization a. Fixed Traffic:
• Thickness governed by single-wheel load (use the highest anticipated
load for design)
• Used for heavy load / low volume pavements (i.e. airfields)
Dr. Christos Drakos b. Fixed Vehicle Traffic:
• Thickness governed by # of repetitions of a standard vehicle or axle-
load
University of Florida • Convert all traffic to 18-kip single axle loads
c. Variable Traffic and Vehicle:
• Loads are divided into groups (load spectra) and the corresponding
stresses and strains are used for design
• More appropriate for mechanistic design methods
Wx ⎡ L18 + L 2s ⎤
4.79 ⎡10 βx ⎤
G
W18 Wx ⎡ L18 + L 2s ⎤
4.79 ⎡10G βx ⎤ W18
= ⎢ G ⎥[L 2 x ]4.33 EALF = = ⎢ G ⎥[L 2 x ]4.33 EALF =
W18 ⎢⎣ L x + L 2 x ⎥⎦ ⎢10 β18 ⎥ Wx W18 ⎢⎣ L x + L 2 x ⎥⎦ ⎢ β18 ⎥ Wx
⎣ ⎦ ⎣10 ⎦
Where: Where:
Wx = axle applications inverse of equivalency factors pt = "terminal" serviceability index (point at which the
W18 = No of 18kip single axle loads pavement is considered to be at the end of its useful life)
Lx = axle load being evaluated (kips)
L18 = 18 (standard axle load in kips) ⎡ 4.2 − p t ⎤ function of the ratio of loss in serviceability at time, t, to
G = Log ⎢
⎣ 4.2 − 1.5 ⎥⎦
the potential loss taken at a point where pt = 1.5
L2s = code for standard axle = 1 (single axle)
L2x = code for axle load being evaluated
L2x = 1 for single axle ⎡ 0.081(L x + L 2 x )3.23 ⎤ function which determines the relationship
L2x = 2 for tandem axle β = 0.4 + ⎢ 3.23 ⎥ between serviceability and axle load applications
⎣ (SN + 1) L 2 x
5.19
L2x = 3 for triple axle (added in the 1986 AASHTO Guide) ⎦
⎡ 0.081( L18 + L2s) 3.23 ⎤ ⎡ 0.081( Lx + L2x) 3.23 ⎤ ⎡ 0.081( L18 + L2s) 3.23 ⎤ ⎡ 0.081( Lx + L2x) 3.23 ⎤
⎛ 4.2 − pt ⎞ β 18 := 0.4 + ⎢ ⎥ β x := 0.4 + ⎢ ⎥ ⎛ 4.2 − pt ⎞ β 18 := 0.4 + ⎢ ⎥ β x := 0.4 + ⎢ ⎥
G := log ⎜ ⎢ ( SN + 1) 5.19 ⋅ L 3.23 ⎥ ⎢ ( SN + 1) 5.19 ⋅ L 3.23 ⎥ G := log⎜ ⎢ ( SN + 1) 5.19 ⋅ L 3.23 ⎥ ⎢ ( SN + 1) 5.19 ⋅ L 3.23 ⎥
⎝ 4.2 − 1.5 ⎠ ⎣ 2s ⎦ ⎣ 2x ⎦ ⎝ 4.2 − 1.5⎠ ⎣ 2s ⎦ ⎣ 2x ⎦
⎛ G ⎞ ⎛ G ⎞
4.79 ⎜ βx 4.79 ⎜ βx
W 18 Wx ⎛ L18 + L2s ⎞ ⎜ 10 ⎟ ( L ) 4.33
W 18 Wx ⎛ L18 + L2s ⎞ ⎜ 10
EALF ⎜
⎜ G ⎟ 2x
EALF ⎜
⎜ G
(L2x)4.33
Wx W 18
⎝ Lx + L2x ⎠ Wx W 18
⎝ Lx + L2x ⎠
⎜ β 18 ⎜ 10 β 18
⎝ 10 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
−1 −1
⎡ ⎛ G ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ G ⎞ ⎤
⎢ L + L 4.79⎜ β x ⎥ ⎢ L + L 4.79 ⎜ β x ⎥
⎛ 18 2s ⎞ ⎜ 10 ⎛ 18 2s ⎞ ⎜ 10
EALF := ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ( L ) 4.33⎥ EALF = 7.935 EALF := ⎢ ⎜ (L2x)4.33 ⎥⎥ EALF = 2.081
⎢ ⎝ Lx + L2x ⎠ ⎜ G ⎟ 2x ⎥ ⎢ ⎝ Lx + L2x ⎠ ⎜ G
⎢ ⎜ β 18 ⎥ ⎢ ⎜ β 18 ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 10 ⎠ ⎦ ⎣ ⎝ 10 ⎠ ⎦
period (we can also calculate ESAL for specific vehicle type) ESALs = ∑ ESAL (i) m = vehicle types Must calculate ESALs for
each vehicle type
i=1
2.2.1 Example:
• 4000 ADT ; 20% Trucks; Rural System/Principal
• Find the # of 2-axle, 4-tire trucks
ADT T
2.2 Average Daily Truck Traffic (ADTT) or (T) 2.3 Truck Factor (TF)
• Minimum traffic information required for pavement Sum of ESALs divided by the number of trucks weighed (count
design; everything else can be found in Tables of trucks, not axles)
• Very important in pavement design ESALs
TF = What is the importance of TF?
– Effort to collect actual data # of Trucks
– Table 6.9; guide to distribution of truck types among total
amount of trucks For the same ESALs; if TF increases Æ Less # of trucks
If less # of trucks produce the same ESALs Æ More severe loads
2.2.1 Example:
• 4000 ADT ; 20% Trucks; Rural System/Principal • Single TF can be applied to all trucks (weighed average); or
• Find the # of 2-axle, 4-tire trucks separate for each truck type if the growth rates are different
• Table 6.10 (Truck Factors)
– If we use all trucks, we do not have to calculate ESALs
# 2-axle, 4-tire trucks = (4000) (0.2) (365) (0.6) =175,000/year
for each truck type
ADT T Table 6.9
ESAL(i) = (ADT0)(Ti)(TFi)(G)(Y)(D)(L)*365
• Asphalt Institute (Table 6.13); (G)(Y) combined
• Distribution of trucks (Table 6.9)
– Ti = 10% (for 2-axle, 6-tire) * 20% (trucks) = 0.02
• Truck factor (Table 6.10)
– TFi = 0.25
• Growth (Table 6.13)
– GY = 29.78
• Lane Distribution (Table 6.14)
– L = 0.94
ESAL(i)=4000*0.02*0.25*29.87*0.5*0.94*365
= 102,175 ESALs/20 years
2.8 Example 2
4-lane Rural/Principal
4000 ADT Determine the total ESALs
20% Trucks
20-year design; r=4%
ESALs = (ADT0)(T)(TF)(G)(Y)(D)(L)*365
• Trucks
– T = 20% (trucks) = 0. 2
• Truck factor (Table 6.10)
– TF = 0.38
ESALs = 4000*0.2*0.38*29.87*0.5*0.94*365
= 1.55*106 ESALs/20 years