Rift Valley University

Labu-Lafto Campus
Civil Engineering Dep’t.

Highway Engineering-II
CENG (4202)
Chapter 3: Traffic Loading on Pavement

Instructor: Ebisa A.
ebisaadamu5@gmail.com
 Traffic Loading on Pavements
2

 Traffic Volume and loading are the major factors which

influence the standard of a road
🞑 Traffic volume: the basic criterion used in the geometric
design
◼ One of the bases for functional classification of roads, ( the
design parameters associated with the specific class are
used for design, for example: width, alignment, and
gradients)
🞑 Traffic loading: the most important factor in pavement
analysis and design, and culvert and bridge structures.
 Traffic Loading on Pavements
3

 The most important traffic loading factors to be

included in the structural design of pavement design
are:
🞑 Loading magnitude
🞑 Loading configuration

🞑 Number of repetitions

🞑 Speed of loading

🞑 Contact pressure
 Traffic Loading on Pavements
4

 Two different procedures of traffic loading are widely

used in pavement design:
🞑 Fixed Traffic: design thickness of pavements is determined
by single wheel load magnitude independent of load
repetitions.
◼ Any wheel configurations are converted to equivalent single wheel
load(ESWL).
◼ Design is performed based on the largest equivalent single wheel
load within all configurations
◼ Commonly used for airport and heavy-wheel load, but light traffic
volume highways
◼ Not commonly used today.
 Traffic Loading on Pavements
5

 Fixed Vehicle: design thickness of pavement is

determined by the number of repetitions of a
standard single axle load (80KN).
🞑 Any axle configuration is converted to equivalent single
axle load (80KN) by multiplying the number of
repetitions of each configuration by its equivalent axle
load factor (EALF)
🞑 The design traffic load is in terms of equivalent single
axle load (ESAL).
🞑 Because of the great variety of axle loads and traffic,
it is the most commonly used method for design today.
 Traffic Loading on Pavements
Fixed Traffic
6

 Fixed traffic: involves converting multiple wheel loads to

an equivalent single-wheel load (ESWL).
🞑 An equivalent single-wheel load is defined as the load on a
single tyre that will cause an equal magnitude of stress,
strain, deflection or distress at a given location within a
specific pavement system to that resulting from a multiple-
wheel load.
🞑 Commonly used for airport and heavy-wheel load, but light
traffic volume highways
🞑 Different criteria used for converting multiple-wheel load to
a single-wheel load including:
◼ Equal vertical stress, Equal vertical deflection, Equal contact
pressure, and Equal tensile strain out of which the first three are
explained here.
 Traffic Loading on Pavements
Fixed Traffic: Equal vertical Stress ESWL
7

🞑 The method of equal vertical subgrade stress is based

upon approximations of stress distribution concepts in
an elastic half- space devised by Boyd and Foster.
 Traffic Loading on Pavements
Fixed Traffic: Equal vertical Stress ESWL
8

Example-1

 Using an ESWL based on Boyd and Foster method. Determine the

allowable bearing capacity of the sub grade, if the thicknesses
provided are just sufficient for overstressing the subgrade.
 Traffic Loading on Pavements
Fixed Traffic: Equal Vertical Stress ESWL
9

🞑 The vertical stress factor σ z/q presented in

Chapter Two can also be used to determine
the theoretical ESWL. For the same vertical
subgrade stress, σz.

🞑 And for the same contact radius, the contact

pressure is proportional to wheel load,
or

🞑 In which ps is the single-wheel load, which is the EAWL to be determined,

pd is the load on each of the duals, and qs and qd are the contact
pressures under a single wheel and dual wheels, respectively
 Traffic Loading on Pavements
Fixed Traffic: Equal deflection ESWL
10

🞑 In this method, the pavement system is considered as homogeneous half-

space and the vertical deflection at a depth equal to the thickness of the
pavement can be obtained from Boussinesq solutions.
🞑 A single-wheel load that has the same contact radius as one of the dual
wheel and results in maximum deflection equal to that caused by the
dual wheel in the ESWL.
🞑 Using the vertical deflection factor F presented in Chapter Two the
deflections due to single and dual wheel loading are expressed as:
 Traffic Loading on Pavements
Fixed Traffic: Equal interface deflection ESWL
11

🞑 In this method , the assumption is that the single wheel

has a different contact radius but the same contact
pressure as the dual wheels.
🞑 The interface deflections for single and dual wheel with
the same contact pressure can be written as:
 Traffic Loading on Pavements
Fixed Vehicle
12

 Fixed Vehicle Procedure:

🞑 The number of repetitions of a standard vehicle or number
of standard single-axle load governs the thickness of a
pavement.
🞑 Axle loads which are not equal to the standard single-axle
load or consist of tandem or tridem axles are converted to
the standard single-axle load by multiplying them with the
corresponding EALF to obtain the equivalent effect of a
standard single-axle load.
🞑 An equivalent axle load factor (EALF): the damage per pass
to a pavement by the axle in question relative to the
damage per pass of a standard single-axle load, usually
the 80KN (18Kip) single-axle load.
 Traffic Loading on Pavements
Fixed Vehicle
13
 Traffic Loading on Pavements
Fixed Vehicle
14

 The summation of the ESAL of all axle load during

the design period results in a traffic loading
parameter for pavement design.
 the most commonly used method for design today.
 EALFs in use today are either based on:
🞑 AASHTO Road Test
🞑 Theoretical analysis
 Traffic Loading on Pavements
Fixed Vehicle: AASHTO Equivalent Factors
15
 Traffic Loading on Pavements
Fixed Vehicle: AASHTO Equivalent Factors
16

 Fixed vehicle procedure-AASHTO Equivalent

Factors:

 Since EALF is not very sensitive to pavement

thickness, a SN=5 may be used for most cases and
a pt value of 2 and 2.5 are assumed.
 Traffic Loading on Pavements
Fixed Vehicle: Theoretical Analysis
17

 Fixed Vehicle Procedure-Theoretical Analysis:

🞑 Fatigue characteristics and permanent deformation parameters
are important factors in pavement design.
🞑 To limit the failure due to fatigue cracking, the allowable number
of load repetition is expressed as:
 Traffic Loading on Pavements
Fixed Vehicle: Theoretical Analysis
18

 The constant f2 was determined by Asphalt institute and Shell

and the values are 3.291 and 5.671 respectively.
 Traffic Loading on Pavements
Fixed Vehicle: Theoretical Analysis
19

 Further, for single axles, it is reasonable to assume that tensile

strains due to the axles in question and the standard single-
axle are directly proportional to axle loads.
 Using 4 as the value of f2 EALFcan be approximated by what
is known as the fourth power rule as:

ERA manual

 Where: Axle=mass of axle in kg n=a power factor that varies depending

on the pavement construction type and subgrade but which can be
assumed to have a value of 4.5
 Traffic Loading on Pavements
Traffic Analysis
20

 Traffic Analysis
🞑 The deterioration of paved roads caused by traffic results from
both to magnitude of the individual wheel loads and their
repetitions.
🞑 It is necessary to consider not only the total number of vehicles
that will use the road but also the wheel loads ( or, for
convenience, the axle loads).
 Points to remember:
🞑 Design Period
🞑 Traffic Volumes
🞑 Traffic forecast
🞑 Axle Load
🞑 Cumulative standard Equivalent Axles (ESAs)
 Traffic Loading on Pavements
Traffic Analysis: Design Period or Life
21

 Design Period or Life

🞑 Design life is the period the pavement will need to be
strengthened so tat it can continue to carry traffic satisfactorily
for a further period.
🞑 Many factors may influence this decision, but some of the points
to consider include:
◼ Functional importance of the road
◼ Traffic volume
◼ Location and terrain of the project
◼ Financial constraints
◼ Difficulty in forecasting traffic
 Traffic Loading on Pavements
Traffic Analysis: Traffic Volumes
22

 Traffic Volumes
Vehicle Classification:
🞑 Small axle loads from private cars and other light vehicles do not cause
significant pavement damage.
🞑 Damage caused by heavier vehicles (commercial vehicles)
🞑 Hence, important to distinguish the proportion of vehicles which cause
pavement damage (commercial vehicles) from total traffic
 Traffic Loading on Pavements
Traffic Analysis: Traffic Forecast
23

 Traffic Forecast
🞑 Traffic forecasting is uncertain process
🞑 The following factors should be considered in the determination
of the annual growth rate, r:
◼ Attracted or diverted traffic due to the improvement of existing road
◼ Normal traffic growth due to the increased number and usage of
motor vehicles
◼ Generated traffic due to upgrading or constructing the new road
facility
◼ Development traffic due to change in land use as a result of the new
facility
🞑 The traffic growth rates used to project the traffic should be
checked whether they are appropriate for the different sections
of the project.
 Traffic Loading on Pavements
Traffic Analysis: Axle Load Survey
24

 Axle Load Survey

🞑 To determine the axle loading, it is important to conduct
axle load surveys at the road side by weighing samples of
vehicles
🞑 Axles load equivalency factor are then determined using:
 Traffic Loading on Pavements
Traffic Analysis: ESA
25

 Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axle (ESA)

🞑 Calculate the EALF for each type of vehicle or axle load using the
RN 31 of TRL ( ERA manual) or AASHTO method
🞑 Either lane of a two-lane highway can be considered as the
design lane, where as for multilane highways, the outside lane is
the design lane. Table 3-2: Lane Distribution Factors (ERA/AASHTO)
🞑 The identification of the design lane is important because in some
cases more trucks will travel in one direction than in the other, or
trucks may travel heavily loaded in one direction and empty in
other direction.
Number of Lanes in Percent Traffic (ESAL) in
each direction design Lane Lane Distribution Factors
(ERA/AASHTO)
1 100
2 80 – 100
3 60 – 80
4 50 – 75
 Traffic Loading on Pavements
Traffic Analysis
26

❑ Determination of Cumulative Traffic Volumes for the design period:

1. Determine the initial traffic volume (AADTo or ADTo )
❑ For each type of car, bus, truck, Truck trailer
2.Estimate the annual growth rate “i/r” expressed as a decimal fraction, and
the anticipated number of years x” between the traffic survey and the opening
of the road.
3.Determine AADT1 the traffic volume in both directions on the year of the
road opening by:

❑ For paved road determine one-directional traffic volume for each type of
vehicle.
4.The cumulative number of vehicles, Tover the chosen design period N ( in
years) is obtained by:

❑ Where Lis lane distribution factor & DDis directional distribution factor:
❑ For paved roads, conduct a similar calculation to determine the cumulative
volume in each direction for each type of vehicle.
❑ Note : The higher of the two direction cum.ESA values used for design.
 Traffic Loading on Pavements
Traffic Analysis
27

 5. Design Traffic (Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axle Load -

CESAL) – is computed by multiplying the total traffic volume
for each vehicle category (Ti) by its corresponding truck factor
(T Fi )
 6. The CESALis used to determine the traffic class to be
employed for pavement design
🞑 ERA Traffic Classes for Flexible Pavement Design
Traffic classes Range (106 ESAs)
T1 <0.3
T2 0.3 – 0.7
T3 0.7 – 1.5
T4 1.5 – 3
T5 3–6
T6 6 – 10
T7 10 – 17
T8 17 – 30
 Thank You!
30

QUESTIONS?