Addis Ababa Science and Technology University
Department of Civil Engineering
3. Traffic Loading and Volume
At the end of this chapter, students will
be able to compute
 Equivalent Single Wheel Load based on
some criterion
 Equivalent Axle Load Factor based on
AASTHO and ERA Manuals
 Traffic Analysis: Determination of the
Cumulative equivalent standard Axles
for the given axle loading and traffic
volume as per ERA Manual
November 2022
Contents
I. Traffic Loading and Volume
• Fixed Vehicle procedure
• Fixed Traffic Procedure
• Fixed vehicle and Traffic
Procedure
II. Traffic Analysis
• Traffic surveys: Axle loads
surveys
• Vehicle classification
• Traffic volume and forecasting
• Determination of CESAL
• Determination of Traffic class
1
 Introduction
 The most important traffic loading factors are:
 Loading magnitude
 Loading configuration
 Number of repetition
 Speed of loading
 Three different procedures are used to consider the effect of traffic
loading in pavement design.
fixed traffic procedure
fixed vehicle procedure
variable traffic and vehicle procedure

2
 Fixed traffic procedure

 In this procedure, deign thickness of pavements are

determined from single wheel load magnitude independent
of load repetitions.
Anywheel configurations are converted to equivalent single
wheel load (ESWL)
Design is performed based on the largest equivalent single
wheel load within all configurations.
Commonly used for airport and heavy wheel load highways , but
not for light traffic volume highways
Not commonly used.

3
 Fixed vehicle procedure
 In this procedure, deign thickness of pavements are determined
from number of repetitions of standard single axle load (80KN).
 Any axle configuration is converted to equivalent single load (80KN) by
multiplying the number of repetitions of each configuration by its equivalent
single axle load factor (ESALF).
 Design is performed based on the combined effect of all type of axle loads in
terms of equivalent single axle loads (ESAL).
 Because of the great variety of axle load and traffic, it is the most commonly
used method.

4
 Variable Traffic and Vehicle procedure

 In this approach, design is performed based on individual

effect of each traffic and vehicle.
 Most commonly used in the mechanistic design approach.
 No need to convert equivalent axle load factor.
 It has been used by Portland Cement Association with design charts.

5
 Fixed Traffic Procedure

 A single wheel load governs the thickness of the pavement and the
number of repetition is not considered as a variable.
 It involves converting multiple wheel loads to an equivalent single wheel
load (ESWL).
 An equivalent single wheel load (ESWL) is defined as the load on a single
tyre that will cause an equal magnitude of stress, strain, deflection or
distress at a given location within a specified pavement system to that
resulting from multiple wheel loads.
 This method has been used most frequently for airport pavements or
highway pavements with heavy wheel loads but light traffic volume.

6
 Fixed Traffic Procedure

 Usuallythe heaviest wheel load anticipated is used for

design purposes.
 The
different criterion used for converting multiple
wheel loads to single to single wheel loads include:
 Equal vertical stress,
 Equal vertical deflection,
 Equal contact pressure and
 Equal tensile strain.

7
 Equal Vertical Stress ESWL

 The method of equal vertical subgrade stress is based up on

approximation of stress distribution concepts in elastic half space.
 The total load, 2Pd, is applied on dual tyres assembly with center to
center spacing Sd and clear distance between tyre edges d
(i.e. d=Sd-2a).
i) By Boyd and Foster method
 For pavement thickness, z, smaller than half the clearance between
dual tyres, i.e., d/2, no stress overlap occurs and thus the stress at
this depth is only one wheel of the dual.
 For thickness greater than twice center to center spacing of tyres,
i.e., 2Sd, the subgrade stress due to the two wheels overlap
completely.
 By assuming a straight line relationship between pavement
thickness and wheel load on logarithmic scales, the ESWL for
intermediate thickness can be easily determined as shown in Figure
3-1. For tandem axle dual wheels, the procedure can be applied
after the ESWL for dual wheels is obtained.
8
 Equal Vertical Stress ESWL

Figure 3-1: ESWL based on vertical stress

 2z 
0.301log   criterion (Boyd & Foster - 1950)
 d 
log( ESWL)  log Pd 
 4S 
log  d 
 d 
 Thickness(Z) smaller than half the clearance, ESWL = Pd
 Thickness (Z)greater than center to center, Sd, ESWL = 2Pd
9
 Example
 A set of dual tires has a total load 2Pd of 40 kN, a contact radius a of 114 mm ,
and a center to center tire spacing Sd of 343 mm, as shown in Figure below.
Determine the ESWL by Boyd and Foster's method for a 343-mm thick pavement.
Sd=343mm
a a=114mm d=Sd -2*a;
d=343-2*114=115mm

h1=343mm  2z 
E 1= E 2 0.301log  
 d 
E2 log( ESWL)  log Pd 
 4S 
log  d 
Solution:  d 
• Given: Pd=20kN, Sd=343mm, d=115mm
• Required: For z=343mm, ESWL=?

=1.5185
ESWL=Antilog(1.5185)=33kN

10
 Equal Vertical Stress ESWL
ii) Bossinesq`theory method
 The location of the maximum stress under dual wheels is not known and can be
determined by comparing the stresses at three points : point 1 under the center of
one tire, point 3 at the center between two tires, and point 2 midway between
points 1 and 3 .The stress factor at each point is obtained by superposition of the
two wheels, and the maximum stress facto бz/qd is found, where qd is the contact
pressure under dual wheels . To obtain the same stress, z  z 
qs 
q    q 
d


 s   qd 
 For the same contact radius, contact pressure is proportioned to wheel
load, To obtain ESWL, Ps: Ps  z / qd

Pd  z / qs
 As shown in the figure Maximum Vertical Stress due to dual wheels may occur at points
1,2&3

11
 Example
 A set of dual tires has a total load 2Pd of 40 kN, a contact radius a of 114 mm ,
and a center to center tire spacing Sd of 343 mm, as shown in Figure below.
Determine the ESWL by Boussinesq's theory method for a 343-mm thick
pavement.
Sd=343mm
a a=114mm d=Sd -2*a;
d=343-2*114=115mm
qd=? qd=?

h1=343mm
E 1= E 2 1 2 3
E2

Solution:
With z/a = 13.5/4 .5 = 3, the stress
factors can be obtained from
Figure 2 .2 and the results for dual
wheels are presented in Table
= ; =

12
 Equal deflection ESWL
i) Foster and Ahlvin's method
–the pavement system is considered as a homogeneous half space
–the vertical deflections at a depth equal to the thickness of the pavement can be obtained
from Boussinesq theory(solutions).
a single wheel load that has the same contact radius as one of the dual wheels and results in
a maximum deflection equal to that caused by the dual wheels is the ESWL.
using the vertical deflection factor F presented in previous chapter, the deflections due to
single wheel load(ws) and dual wheel loading (wd) ( are expressed as:
qs a qd a
ws  Fs , wd  Fd
E E

In which the subscript s indicate single wheel and d dual wheels.
the deflection factor Fd is obtained by superposition of the duals.
to obtain the same deflection, Ws = Wd, then qsFs = qdFd

for the same contact radius, the contact pressure is proportional to wheel load:
Fd
qs Fs  qd Fd , Ps  Pd
Fs

13
 Example
 A set of dual tires has a total load 2Pd of 40 kN, a contact radius a of 114 mm , and a
center to center tire spacing Sd of 343 mm, as shown in Figure below. Determine the
ESWL by Foster and Ahlvin's method for a 343-mm thick pavement.

Sd=343mm
a a=114mm

qd=? qd=?

h1=343mm
E 1= E 2 1 2 3
E2

Solution:
With z/a = 13.5/4 .5 = 3, the stress
factors can be obtained from
Figure 2 .2 and the results for dual
wheels are presented in Table
= ; =

14
 Equivalent Vertical Deflection

ii) Huang`s Layered Theory Method

 Assumption of half space is not safe and yield inadequate thickness since
ESWL is greater for layered systems.
 Since the ESWL for layered systems is greater than that for a homogeneous
half-space, Huang (1968b) suggested the use of layered theory and
presented a simple chart for determining ESWL based on the interface
deflection of two layered systems, as shown in Figure next slide. Given
contact radius a, pavement thickness h1, modulus ratio E1/E2 , and dual
spacing Sd , the chart gives a load factor:

15
 Equivalent Vertical Deflection…
i) Huang`s Layered Theory Method
From the given Sd, hl , and a, determine
the modified radius, a' and the
modified thickness h'1 by

a ' =(48*a)/ Sd

h`1 = 48*h1/Sd
2. Using h'1 as the pavement thickness,
find load factors L1 and L2 from the chart.
3. Determine the load factor L from

Finally using
2 Pd
L
Ps
Ps=ESWL=2Pd/L

16
 Equal Tensile Strain
 tensile stress due to any wheel configuration is converted to equivalent
tensile stress by single load.
q q
e  s Fe , e  C d Fe
E1 E1

Single wheel Dual or dual-tandem

qs  Cqd , ESWL  Ps  CPd

C=conversion factor determined as follows

1. From the given Sd, h1, and a, determine the
modified radius a' and the modified thickness
h`1:

2. Using h`1 as the pavement thickness, find

conversion factors C1 and C2 from Figure shown.
3. Determine the conversion factor for a' by a
straight-line interpolation between 3 and 8 in.
(76 and 203 mm), or
C=C1 +0.2*(a'—3)*(C2 —C1 )
17
 Equal Contact Pressure ESWL

 In this approach, the single wheel has different contact radius but the
same contact pressure as the dual wheels.
 The interface deflection for single and dual wheels with the same contact
pressure can be written as:
&

 For Equal deflection,

 Where &

18
 Fixed Vehicle Procedure

 Infixed vehicle procedure, the number of repetition of a

standard vehicle or standard-axle load governs the
thickness of a pavement.
 Axleloads which are not equal to the standard single-axle
load or consist of tandem or tridem axle are converted to
the standard single-axle by multiplying them with the
corresponding EALF to obtain the effect of a standard
single-axle load.
 Anequivalent axle load factor (EALF) defines the damage
per pass to a pavement by the axle in question relative to
the damage per pass of a standard single axle load,
usually the 80KN or (18kip) or (8160kg by ERA) single-
axle load.

19
 Fixed Vehicle Procedure
 The summation of the equivalent single-axle load of all axle loads
during the design period results in a traffic loading parameter for
pavement design.
 Due to the intractable effect of the great variety of axle loads and
traffic volumes, highway pavements in most cases fail by fatigue
cracking and thus the design methods are based on fixed vehicle
concept.
 EALF depends on the type of pavement, thickness or structural
capacity, and the terminal conditions at which the pavement is
considered failed.
 EALFs in use today are either based on experiences developed from the
AASHTO Road Test or theoretical analysis..

20
 EALFs for Flexible Pavement
 AASHTO Equivalent factors: The following regression equation is one of the most widely
used methods for determining EALF obtained from AASHTO road test:

Where,
Wtx = the number of x-axis load application at the end of time t.
Wt18 = the number of 18kip (80KN) single-axle load application of time t.
Lx = axle load in kip on one single axle, one set of tandem axles, or one set of tridem axle.
L2 = axle code, 1 for single axles, 2 for tandem axles and 3 for tridem axles.
SN = structural number – a function of thickness, modulus of each layer, and drainage
condition of base and sub base.(usually 5)
Pt = terminal serviceability – indicates the pavement conditions to be considered as
failures.(usually 2 or 2.5)
β18 = the value of βx when Lx = 18 and L2 = 1.
21
 Example

 Determine the EALF for a 32 Kip tandem axle and a 48 Kip tridem axle loads using AASHTO.
Assume Pt = 2.5 and SN = 5

 solution:
 wtx  Gt Gt
log 
w

  4.79 log(18  1)  4.79 log( LX  L2 )  4.33 log( L2 )  B  B
 t18  X 18

 4.2  pt   4.2  2.5  0.081( Lx  L2 ) 3.23

where Gt  log   4.2  1.5   log 
 4.2  1.5    0. 2;  x  0.40 
    ( SN  1) 6.19  L32.23
0.081(18  1 ) 3.23 0.081(32  2) 3.23 0.081(48  3) 3.23
18  0.40   0 .5 ;  32  0 . 4   0.470 &  48  0.4   0.470
(5  1) 6.19 13.23 (5  1) 5.19  23.23 (5  1) 5.19  33.23
 wtx   0.2  0.2
For Tandem 32kips : log 
w

  4.79 log(18  1)  4.79 log(32  2 )  4.33 log( 2)  0.47  0.5  0.067
 t18 
 wtx   wt18   1 
   
w   anti log( 0.067 )  1.167; Therefore EALF   w 
   0.857
 t18   tx   1.167 
 wtx   0.2  0.2
For Tridem 48kips : log 
w

  4.79 log(18  1)  4.79 log( 48  3 )  4.33 log(3)  0.47  0.5  0.01363
 t18 
 wtx   wt18   1 
   anti log( 0. 01363 )  0.969; Therefore EALF    
w   w  0. 969
  1.03

 t 18   tx  
 Tridem axle destroys the pavement more than the tandem axle.

22
 EALFs for Flexible Pavement
 Theoretical analysis: Fatigue characteristics and permanent
deformation parameters are important factors in pavement design. To
limit the failure due to fatigue cracking, the allowable load repetition is
expressed as:

Where,

Nf = the allowable number of load repetition for fatigue cracking.

εt = the tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer.

E1 = modulus of asphalt layer, and

f1, f2 and f3 are constants to be determined from laboratory tests

23
 EALFs for Flexible Pavement

 If k represents the constants, ,the equation can be rewritten as

 For the allowable number of x-KN and 80KN axle load repetition, the corresponding
Nfx and Nf18 are expressed as:

 The EALF is then,

 εtx and εt18 are the tensile strains at the bottom of asphalt layer due to xKN and
80KN axle load repetition respectively.

24
 EALFs for Flexible Pavement
 The constant f2 was determined by Asphalt Institute and Shell and the values
are 3.291 and 5.671 respectively.
 A theoretical analysis of EALF was conducted by Deacon (1969)based on an
assumed f2 of 4 which is in the range determined by Asphalt Institute and
Shell.
 For single axles, it is reasonable to assume that tensile strains due to the
axles in question and standard single axle are directly proportional axle
loads.

25
 EALFs for Flexible Pavement

 The other failure criterion is to control permanent deformation

–by limiting the vertical compressive strain on top of the subgrade,
which can be expressed as:

 Suggested values of f5 are

 4.477 by the Asphalt Institute,
 4.0 by Shell, and
 3.71 by the University of Nottingham.
 The use of 4 for f5 is also reasonable.
 Therefore, when Ls and Lx are of the same axle configuration,
 theEALF based on fatigue cracking may not be much different from that
based on permanent deformation and similar equation with the power of 4
can be applied.

26
 EALFs for Flexible Pavement
How to treat multiple axle groups(i.e Tandem and Tridem)
USA & European Approach
 If the EALF for one set of tandem or tridem axles is known (EALF Ls), that for
other axles(Lx) can be determined by the above equation.

Where, Ls is the load on standard axles which have the same number of axles as Lx.

ERA Approach
 ERA pavement design manual, which is based on TRL Road Note 31, relates the damaging effect
of axle loads to the standard 80kN (8160 kg) axle using a power of 4.5 instead of 4.
 For multiple axle vehicles, i.e. tandem or tridem axles, each axle in the multiple-group is
considered separately.
 According to ERA high volume design manual 2013, Equivalent Axle load
Factor (EALF) can be calculated using
where Lx= Axle load magnitude in kilograms

27
 Traffic Analysis
 The structural deterioration of paved roads caused by traffic mainly depends
on (MoW, 1999):
 magnitude of the loads (axle loads)
 number of load repetitions
 The damage that vehicles do to a road depends greatly on the magnitude of
the axle loads and as such the damaging effect of an axle loading follows an
exponential function.
 The damaging effect of all axles expected to traverse the road is converted
into Equivalent Standard Axles (ESA) and added up over a chosen design
period to become the basis for the structural pavement design.
 The cumulative equivalent single axle load(CESAL) is one design parameter
in pavement design.
 Axle Loads - AXLE EQUIVALENCY
Axle load surveys must be carried out to determine the axle load distribution
of a sample of the heavy vehicles using the road. Data collected from these
surveys are used to calculate the mean number of ESA for a typical vehicle in
each class (i.e. mean truck factor). These values are then used in
conjunction with traffic forecasts to determine the predicted cumulative
equivalent standard axles that the road will carry over its design life.
Most of the countries have regulations on the size and weight of vehicles to
ensure road safety and to contain the weight of vehicles within the carrying
capacity of the road pavements and bridges.
 Axle Loads - AXLE LOAD SURVEYS
 The following method of analysis is recommended:
I.  Determine the equivalency factors for each of the wheel loads measured during the
axle load survey in order to obtain the equivalency factors for vehicle axles. The
factors for the axles are totaled to give the equivalency factor for each of the vehicles.
For vehicles with multiple axles i.e. tandems, triples etc., each axle in the multiple
group is considered separately.
II. Determine the mean equivalency factor(truck factor ,TFi) for each class of heavy
vehicle travelling in each direction. It is done by summing equivalency factor for each
class of heavy vehicle weighed then divided by number of vehicles weighed.

It is customary to assume that the axle load distribution of the heavy vehicles will remain
unchanged for the design period of the pavement.
 Design Period
 Determining an appropriate design period is the first step towards pavement
design.
 Many factors may influence this decision, including budget constraints.
 However, the designer should follow certain guidelines in choosing an
appropriate design period, taking into account the conditions governing the
project.
 Some of the points to consider include:
 Functional importance of the road
 Traffic volume  Table 3-1: Design Period (ERA,2013)
 Location and terrain of the project
Road Classification Design Period (years)
 Financial constraints
 Difficulty in forecasting traffic
Trunk Road 20
Link Road 20
Main Access Road 15
Other Roads 10
 Design Period
 It generally appears economical to construct roads with longer design periods,
especially for important roads and for roads with high traffic volume.
 Where rehabilitation would cause major inconvenience to road users, a longer
period may be recommended.
 For roads in difficult locations and terrain where regular maintenance proves to
be costly and time consuming because of poor access and non-availability of
nearby construction material sources, a longer design period is also appropriate.
 Problems in traffic forecasting may also influence the design. When accurate
traffic estimates cannot be made, it may be advisable to reduce the design
period to avoid costly overdesign.
 VEHICLE CLASSIFICATION
 Vehicle classification is an essential aspect of traffic volume evaluation (as
well as evaluation of equivalent axle loads).
 The types of vehicles are defined according to the breakdown adopted by
ERA for traffic counts: cars; pick-ups and 4-wheel drive vehicles such as
Land Rovers and Land Cruisers; small buses; medium and large size buses;
small trucks; medium trucks; heavy trucks; and trucks and trailers.
 This breakdown is further simplified, for reporting purposes, and expressed
in the five classes of vehicles (with vehicle codes 1 to 5) listed in Table 3-2.
 FHWA vehicle classification ERA(2013) vehicle classification

 The simplest classification is given in the next slide

 VEHICLE CLASSIFICATION

Table 3.2. Vehicle Classification(ERA,2002)

Vehicle Type of Description
Class/ Vehicle
It is most often in terms of volumes (e.g.
code
AADT) in each of these 5 classes that the
1 Small car Passenger cars, minibuses (up
traffic data will initially be available to
to 27-passenger seats), taxis,
the designer.
pick-ups, and Land Cruisers,
Small cars do not contribute significantly
Land Rovers, etc.
to the structural damage, particularly for
2 Bus Medium and large size buses
paved roads.
above 27 passenger seats
Even though the small cars count is
3 Medium Small and medium sized trucks included in any regular traffic count
Truck including tankers up to 7.5 survey, their number does not influence
tons load the pavement design of paved roads.
4 Heavy Trucks above 7.5 tons load It is also worth noting that the “heavy”
Truck vehicles used in the development of the
5 Articulat Trucks with trailer or semi- pavement structures essentially
ed Truck trailer and Tanker Trailers correspond, for all practical design
purposes, to vehicle codes 2 through 5.
 Traffic Volumes :

 In order to determine the total traffic over the design life of the road, the
first step is to estimate initial traffic volumes.
 The estimate should be the Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) currently
using the route (or, more specifically, the AADT expected to use the route
during the first year the road is placed in service), classified into the five
classes of vehicles described above.
 Adjustments will usually be required between the AADT based on the latest
traffic counts and the AADT during the first year of service. These
adjustments can be made using the growth factors discussed further below.
 Traffic Volumes - INITIAL TRAFFIC VOLUMES

 The AADT is defined as the total annual traffic summed

for both directions and divided by 365.
 Itis usually obtained by recording actual traffic volumes
over a shorter period from which the AADT is then
estimated.
 It should be noted that for structural design purposes the
traffic loading in one direction is required and for this
reason care is always required when interpreting AADT
figures.
 For long projects, large differences in traffic along the
road may make it necessary to estimate the flow at
several locations.
 Traffic Volumes - INITIAL TRAFFIC VOLUMES
 Trafficcounts carried out over a short period as a basis
for estimating the AADT can produce estimates which are
subject to large errors because traffic volumes can have
large daily, weekly, monthly and seasonal variations.
 Thedaily variability in traffic volume depends on the
volume of traffic, with particularly high variability on
roads carrying less than 1000 vehicles per day. Traffic
volumes vary more from day-to-day than from week-to-
week over the year.
 Thusthere are large errors associated with estimating
annual AADTs from traffic counts of only a few days
duration, or excluding the weekend.
 Traffic Volumes - INITIAL TRAFFIC VOLUMES
 For the same reason there is a rapid decrease in the likely error as the
duration of the counting period increases up to one week.
 For counts of longer duration, improvements in accuracy are less pronounced.
 Traffic volumes also vary from month- to-month so that a weekly traffic count
repeated at intervals during the year provides a better base for estimating
the annual volume of traffic than a continuous traffic count of the same total
duration.
 Traffic also varies considerably through a 24-hour period and this needs to be
taken into account.
 Traffic Volumes - INITIAL TRAFFIC VOLUMES
 It is recommended that traffic counts to establish AADT at a specific site
conform to the following practice: For link and trunk roads, traffic count to
be done quarterly (i.e. in 4 seasons per year). So in each season, do at least
one count.
I. The counts are for seven consecutive days by taking a representative week of the season.
II. The counts on some of the days are for a full 24 hours, with preferably at least one 24-hour
count on a weekday and one during a weekend. Night factor can be established if required.
III. Counts are avoided at times when travel activity is abnormal for short periods due to the
payment of wages and salaries, public holidays, etc.
IV. If possible, the seven-day counts should be repeated several times throughout the year.
Countrywide traffic data should preferably be collected on a systematic basis to enable
seasonal trends in traffic volumes to be quantified. Presently, classified traffic counts are
normally obtained by counting manually.
Since the traffic count is assumed to be over a representative week, then seasonally averaged daily
traffic (SADT) can be estimated as a weekly averaged daily traffic (WADT) :

SADTi= WADTi = ; if traffic count is done on all seasons, then AADT at counting year

AADT0= And also seasonal factor can be established for each season as follows:

SFi = where SFi = season factor for i-th season & SADTi= seasonally averaged daily traffic in season i
 Traffic Volumes - TRAFFIC FORECAST
 Even with stable economic conditions, traffic forecasting is an uncertain
process. Although the pavement design engineer may often receive help
from specialized professionals at this stage of the traffic evaluation, some
general remarks are in order.
 In order to forecast traffic growth it is necessary to separate traffic into the
following three categories:
a) Normal traffic: Traffic which would pass along the existing road or track even if no new
pavement were provided.
b) Diverted traffic: Traffic that changes from another route (or mode of transport) to the
project road because of the improved pavement, but still travels between the same origin
and destination.
c) Generated traffic: Additional traffic which occurs in response to the provision or
improvement of the road.
 Traffic Volumes - TRAFFIC FORECAST
 Normal traffic: - The most common method of forecasting normal traffic is to
extrapolate data on traffic levels and assume that growth will either remain
constant in absolute terms i.e. a fixed number of vehicles per year, or a fixed
percentage increase.
 As a general rule it is only safe to extrapolate forward for as many years as reliable
traffic data exist from the past, and for as many years as the same general economic
conditions are expected to continue.
 As an alternative to time, growth can be related linearly to anticipated Gross
Domestic Product (GDP). This is normally preferable since it explicitly takes into
account changes in overall economic activity.
 Traffic Volumes - TRAFFIC FORECAST
 Diverted traffic: - Where parallel routes exist, traffic will usually
travel on the quickest or cheapest route although this may not necessarily
be the shortest.
 Thus, surfacing an existing road may divert traffic from a parallel and
shorter route because higher speeds are possible on the surfaced road.
 Origin and destination surveys should preferably be carried out to provide
data on the traffic diversions likely to arise.
 Diversion from other transport modes, such as rail or water, is not easy to
forecast. Transport of bulk commodities will normally be by the cheapest
mode, though this may not be the quickest.
 Diverted traffic is normally forecast to grow at the same rate as traffic on
the road from which it diverted.
 Traffic Volumes - TRAFFIC FORECAST

 Generated traffic: - Generated traffic arises either because a journey

becomes more attractive by virtue of a cost or time reduction or because of
the increased development that is brought about by the road investment.
 Generated traffic is also difficult to forecast accurately and can be easily
overestimated.
 The recommended approach to forecasting generated traffic is to use
demand relationships. Some studies carried out in similar countries give an
average for the price elasticity of demand for transport of about -1.0.
 This means that a one percent decrease in transport costs leads to a one per
cent increase in traffic.
 DETERMINATION OF CUMULATIVE TRAFFIC VOLUMES
 In order to determine the cumulative number of vehicles over the design
period of the road, the following procedure should be followed:
 Determine the initial traffic volume (AADT0i) using the results of the traffic survey and any
other recent traffic count information that is available. For paved roads, detail the AADT in
terms of car, bus, truck, and truck-trailer is necessary.
 Estimate the annual growth rate “ri” expressed as a decimal fraction, and the anticipated
number of years “x” between the traffic survey and the opening of the road. If time between
traffic count year (2013 E.C. as a design year) and estimated year of road opening(2017E.c at
the beginning) then x=3years( i.e. 2014,2015,2016). 2017 year volume is to be estimated by the
formula as AADT1i
 Determine AADT1i =the traffic volume in both directions on the year of the road opening by:
x
AADT1i= AADT0i*(1+ri)
Where ri=growth rate for i-th vehicle class
AADT0i =AADT of i-th vehicle class during the counting year( design time)
AADT1i=AADT of i-th vehicle class at the opening year after construction (1st year of service )
x= number of years in between counting year and first year (i.e. design-construction period)
 Determine Mid-life AADT in daily traffic volume both directions on the year at middle of the
N/2
design period. AADTmid-life= AADT1i(1+ri) Where N= Design period usually, 10-20 years
By Mubarek Z. 2022
 DETERMINATION OF CUMULATIVE TRAFFIC VOLUMES
 Cumulative Traffic Volume for each vehicle class (T i) can be determined by:
Ti= 365*(P)*(D)*AADT1i*[(1+ri) N– 1] / ( ri)
Ti = cumulative volume of traffic for the i-th commercial vehicle class in the design lane over the
design period (adjusted for lane distribution and direction).
ri= annual growth rate for the i- th commercial vehicle class
P = Lane distribution factor(take 1 for two lane highways ,others see table 3-2);
D = Directional distribution factor; N = Design Period in years

 If no growth rate (i.e. ri=0), then Ti= 365*P*D* AADT1i*N

 For paved roads, the corresponding daily one-directional traffic volume for each type of
vehicle is determined.
 Determination of Truck factor(TFi)

 Truckfactor can be computed for each vehicle by summing up the number of ESAL
per vehicle
 Average truck factor can be computed for each vehicle category (i)(for example for
Buses, Light Trucks, Medium Trucks, etc.), by summing up the ESAL of all the
vehicles in each category and dividing by the number of vehicles (of that category)
weighed:

Where
TFi= Truck factor for the ith vehicle category
n = number of vehicles weighed (of the ith vehicle category) during the axle load
survey
ESALj= number of equivalent standard axle loads for the jth
vehicle
 Determination of CESAL

 Design Traffic (Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axle Load-CESAL) – is computed

by multiplying the total traffic volume for each vehicle category (Ti) by its
corresponding truck factor (TFi)
Design Traffic Load = CESAL=∑(Ti x TFi)
 The higher of the two directional values should be used for design. If there is
considerable difference , each lanes may be separately designed.
• The CESAL is used to determine the traffic class to be employed for pavement
design
 Traffic Classes for Flexible Pavement Design

Accurate estimates of cumulative traffic are very difficult to

achieve due to errors in the surveys and uncertainties with
regard to traffic growth, axle loads and axle equivalencies.

To a reasonable extent, however, pavement thickness design

is not very sensitive to cumulative axle loads and the method
recommended in this manual provides fixed structures of
paved roads for ranges of traffic as shown in Table below .

As long as the estimate of cumulative equivalent standard

axles is close to the center of one of the ranges, any errors
are unlikely to affect the choice of pavement design.
Depending on the degree of accuracy achieved, a higher
traffic class may be appropriate for some cases.
Traffic Classes for Flexible Pavement Design (ERA,2013)

(ERA,2013)
 Example

 Initial
traffic volumes in terms of AADTs have been established
for 2001 for a section of a trunk road under study, as follows:
Vehicle classification 2001 AADT
 Car 250
Bus 40
Truck 130
Truck-trailer 180
 The anticipated traffic growth rate,ri=5%, and the opening of
the road is scheduled for 2005. In addition, an axle load survey
has been conducted, giving representative axle loads for the
various classes of heavy vehicles, such as given below for truck-
trailers (it is assumed that the loads are equally representative
for each direction of traffic):
 Example…

Axle loads (Kg)

Vehicle No Axle 1 Axle 2 Axle 3 Axle 4
 
1 6780 14150 8290 8370
2 6260 12920 8090 9940
3 6350 13000 8490 9340
4 5480 12480 7940 9470
5 6450 8880 6290 10160
6 5550 12240 8550 10150
7 5500 11820 7640 9420
8 4570 13930 2720 2410
9 4190 15300 3110 2450
10 4940 15060 2880 2800
Required:
1) Determine the mean truck factor for the truck-trailers with the above axle load survey
data. it is assumed that truck factor calculations have been performed for bus and
trucks, giving mean equivalency factors for buses and trucks of 0.14 and 6.67
respectively.
2) Determine the CESAL over the design period and corresponding traffic class of the road .
 Solution…

 The projected AADTs in 2005 can be calculated as (AADTs in 2001) x (1.05) 3,

and the corresponding one-directional volumes for each class of vehicle in
2005 are:
Vehicle classification One-directional traffic volume in 2005
 Car 145
Bus 23
Truck 75
Truck-trailer 104

Selecting, for this trunk road, a design period of 20 years, the cumulative
number of vehicles in one direction over the design period is calculated as:
 Vehicle classification Cumulative no. of vehicles in one direction over 20 years
 Car 365x145[(1.05)20-1]/0.05=1750016
Bus 365x23[(1.05)20-1]/0.05=277589
Truck 365x75[(1.05)20-1]/0.05=905180
Truck-trailer 365x104[(1.05)20-1]/0.05=1255184
 Solution…
 1) Equivalency factors for the sample of truck-trailers, and a mean
equivalency factor for that class of heavy vehicles, can be calculated as
outlined below: n=4.5
  Axle
Axle 2 Axle 3 Axle 4 T.Fi=
Surveyed 1
EALF1 EALF2 EALF3 EALF4
truck trailer no.ESAL per
Load Load Load Load
no. vehicle
11.9
1 6780 0.43 14150 8290 1.07 8370 1.12 14.54
1
2 6260 0.3 12920 7.91 8090 0.96 9940 2.43 11.6
3 6350 0.32 13000 8.13 8490 1.2 9340 1.84 11.49
4 5480 0.17 12480 6.77 7940 0.88 9470 1.95 9.77
5 6450 0.35 8880 1.46 6290 0.31 10160 2.68 4.8
6 5550 0.18 12240 6.2 8550 1.23 10150 2.67 10.28
7 5500 0.17 11820 5.3 7640 0.74 9420 1.91 8.12
8 4570 0.07 13930 11.1 2720 0.01 2410 0 11.18
16.9
9 4190 0.05 15300 3110 0.01 2450 0 16.99
2
15.7
10 4940 0.1 15060 2880 0.01 2800 0.01 15.88
6
Mean equivalency factor for truck-trailers,
Average Truck Factor, TFavg = =11.47
 Solution…
 2) The cumulative numbers of ESAs over the design period are calculated as follows, using
the cumulative numbers of vehicles previously calculated and the equivalency factors:

Vehicle AADToi AADT1i=AADToi*(1+0.05)^3 Ti=365*1*0.5*AADT1i[(1+0.05)^20 -1]/0.05 TFavg, i CESAL i=

class, i (in 2001) (in 2005) Ti*TFavg,i
Car 250 290 1750016 0.00 0.0*10^6
Bus 40 46 277589 0.14 0.0*10^6
Truck 130 150 905180 6.67 6.0*10^6
Truck- 180 208 1255184 11.47 14.4*10^6
trailers
CESAL= =20.4*10^6

 Based on the above analysis,20.4 million passes of ESAs expected over the design period. Thus, the
trunk road under study would belong to the traffic class T8 (i.e.,17 million-30 million ESAs) for
flexible pavement design.