1.

Stresses and Strains in Flexible Pavements

1.1 Stresses due to a point load (Boussinesq’s theory)

When a medium is loaded at the surface by a point load as depicted in Fig. 1.1,
stresses and strains are induced within the medium.

Fig. 1.1 The state of stress in an elastic half space subjected to a point load at the surface

To develop the fundamental equations for the stresses induced, Boussinesq idealised
the medium as a half space (i.e an infinitely large area with infinite depth) with elastic,
homogenous and isotropic properties. The stresses at any point within the medium due
to a point load P at the surface are given by the following equations:

kP 3P
z   (1.1)
z2   r 2 
5/ 2

2z 2 1    
  z  
P  3x 2 z  x2  y2 y 2 z 
x    1  2   2
  3 2  (1.2)
2  R 5  Rr  R  z  R r 

P 3y2z  y2  x2 x 2 z 
y   5  1  2   2  3 2  (1.3)
2  R  Rr R  z  R r 

where =Poisson’s ratio

P= concentrated load
z=depth from the surface
r=radial distance from the line of action of the applied load.

1
It is evident from the above equations that the induced vertical stress (z) in the elastic
half space is independent of the properties of the transmitting medium.

On any horizontal plane (i.e. at a given depth), the vertical stress distribution has a
bell-shaped surface with maximum stresses occurring on the vertical plane passing
through the point of load application (see Fig. 1.2 below).

z

line of action of point load

Fig. 1.2 Stress distribution on a horizontal plane in a loaded elastic half space

The distribution of vertical stress on any vertical plane has the following characteristic
profile (Fig 1.3).

0 

Fig. 1.3 Stress distribution in an elastic half space subjected to point loading at the surface

It is clear from the above figure that the vertical stress is maximum at the surface and
theoretically reduces in intensity to zero at infinite depth although for practical
purposes it can be assumed to approach zero at a finite depth.

1.2 Stresses/strains due to uniform surface loading

1.2.1 Uniformly loaded elastic half-space

The point load equations in practice do not apply to the uniform loading conditions
which exist in flexible pavements. As a result, the equations had to be developed
further by integration to cover uniform surface loading condition.

2
 Fig. 1.4 An elastic half space with a uniform surface load

Fig.1.4 above shows a uniformly loaded half space with the uniform load applied over
a circular area whose radius is a. If the contact stress (uniform pressure) applied on the
surface is o then the stresses and strains at depth z directly below the centre of the
loaded area where stresses () and strains ( ) are maximum are given by the following
equations:

 1 
   1   (1.4)
z 0
 
1  (a / z ) 2  3 / .2


o  2 z 1    z3 
x  y r  1  2   2   (1.5)
2  a  z2  1/ 2
a2  z2   3/ 2


 0 (1   )  z/a z/a 
. z    (1  2  ) 1 ( 1.6)
E 
 1  ( z / a ) 2 
3/ 2
1  ( z / a) 
2 1/ 2


1 1   
r   ( z  E z )   z  (1.7)
E  2 

Note that because of the circular nature of the loaded area, the radial stress (x) is the
same as the tangential stress (y).

The maximum total elastic surface deformation (Δ )or deflection which occurs at the
centre of the loaded area is given by the following equation.

2 o a

E

1 2  (1.8)

3
where E=elastic modulus of the medium
μ=Poisson’s ratio.

1.2.2 Uniformly loaded multi-layer structure

Flexible pavements are multi-layer systems with variable layer quality and cannot be
represented by a homogenous mass (see Fig. 1.5).

Fig. 1.5 A multi-layer structure

In the general case of an N-layer system, the stress-strain conditions may be examined
by making the following simplifying assumptions:

i. The materials in each layer are homogenous, isotropic and elastic.

ii. Each layer is infinite in lateral extent but of finite depth except the lowest layer
(subgrade) which is of infinite depth.
iii. The layers are in continuous contact.
iv. A uniform load is applied on the surface over a circular area of radius a.
v. The surface layer is free of normal and shearing stresses outside the loaded
area.

a. Two-layer structure
A two-layer system represents the simplest form of a multi-layer system. The state of
stress in a two-layer system was examined by Burmister and the results may be used to
provide an insight into the state of stress and strains in a general multi-layer pavement
structure. In practical terms, a two-layer structure is exemplified by a full-depth gravel
pavement (i.e. a layer of gravel material lying on a subgrade) or a full-depth asphalt
pavement.

Work by Burmister established that the induced stresses in a two-layer pavement

structure are dramatically affected by the ratio between the strength of the top layer
and that of the underlying layer, i.e. the E1/E2 ratio (see sketch in Fig. 1.6).

4
 o
0 1 2 o 

h1 E1 E1
2
z=h1
E2 5 E2
sub-grade
z

(a) Uniformly loaded two-layer system (b) Stress distribution under the centre of loaded area

Fig. 1.6 Influence of strength ratio on distress distribution in a two-layer pavement structure

The illustration in Fig. 1.6(a) shows a two-layer pavement structure subjected to a

uniform surface load intensity o applied over a circular area. The stress distribution
curves in Fig. 1.6(b) illustrate the resulting stress variation with depth under the centre
of the circular loaded area for two cases of the strength ratio (E1/E2=2 and 5) indicated
on the corresponding curves. As illustrated, for a strength ratio E1/E2=2, for example,
the stress at the interface of the two layers (located at depth z=h1) is 2. If the
overlying material were to be replaced with a much stronger material such that the
strength ratio increases to say 5 while still maintaining the same pavement thickness
and surface load intensity, the interface stress is reduced from 2 to 1.

In the general case where Layer 2 is the subgrade and Layer 1 a uniform pavement
structure, it is seen that the stress on the sub-grade (interface stress) due to a given
surface load intensity can be reduced considerably by choosing the pavement material
to have high strength relative to that of the subgrade material (i.e. a high E1/E2 ratio).
This forms the rationale for building a flexible pavement as a multi-layered structure
with high quality materials in the upper layers. In addition, because the stress
distribution shows decreasing intensity with increasing depth, subgrade stresses are
also reduced considerably by building thicker layers.

Fig. 1.7 may be used to evaluate the vertical compressive stress on top of the sub-grade
for any two-layer pavement structure with known material properties. The figure may
also be used to establish the thickness of the full-depth pavement that will satisfy a
limiting vertical compressive stress criterion.

5
 Fig. 1.7 Vertical interface stresses for two-layer systems (after Huang)

Deflections may also be useful in controlling the thickness of a pavement. To obtain

the surface deflection in a two-layer pavement due to a uniformly distributed load over
a circular area, the pavement may be considered to be a structure of depth z placed
between the applied surface load and the sub-grade as depicted in Fig. 1.8.

Fig. 1.8 Elastic deformation in a two-layer system

In this case, when it is assumed that =0.5, the total elastic deformation at the surface
is given as:

1.5 o a 2
 (1.9)

E a2  z2  1/ 2

6
where E=modulus of the subgrade.

The development of the above equation assumes that the deflections registered on a
pavement surface are all due to the deformation within the subgrade from depth z to
infinity and none within the pavement structure itself, i.e.,

=p+s=s (1.10)
where,
=total surface deflection
p=deflection within pavement (=0)
s=deflection within the sub-grade from depth z to infinity

This is not strictly true because some component of the total deformation comes from
the pavement layer(s). However, because of the stress distribution properties of the
stronger pavement material, the actual deflections beneath a road pavement are usually
smaller than the theoretical deflections in the subgrade.

To take into account the reinforcing effect of the pavement on surface deflections the
following equation was provided by Burmister.

1.5 o a
 F2 (1.11)
E2
where F2 is a dimensionless factor dependent on strength ratio as well as depth/radius
ratio of the pavement (see Fig. 1.9).

Fig. 1.9 Influence values for deflections in a two-layer system (after Burmister)

7
b. General multi-layer structure
In a more general case, an N-layer structure (typified by a three-layer structure) will
have the following states of stress at the various interfaces that may be of interest to
evaluate.

o

h1, E1, 1 z1

r1

h2, E2, 2 z2

r2
r3
h3=, E3, 3

Fig. 1.10 Critical stresses and locations in a three-layer structure

In the analysis of the state of stress in a multi-layer pavement structure, the magnitude
of the compressive stress on top of the subgrade is of paramount importance and
concern as this has the potential to cause shear failure in the subgrade. In addition, for
pavements with an asphalt concrete layer, it is also important to evaluate the tensile
strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer as this has the potential to cause fracture failure
in the form of cracking which will propagate to the surface.

1.3 Approximate solutions to the stress/strain equations in a multi-

layer system
The stress-strain equations developed for an elastic half space cannot be applied
directly to multi-layer systems for the evaluation of the state of stresses in such
systems. Several approximate techniques including the use of stress factors and layer
equivalencies have been proposed for use to evaluate such stresses. The following two
approximate methods depend on layer equivalencies.

1.3.1 Method of equivalent modulus

This method is applied to transform a multi-layer structure to a two-layer structure
only. At any stage, the upper two layers of the structure are replaced by a material of
thickness equal to the sum of the thickness of the two layers, i.e. (h1 + h2), having an
equivalent modulus Ee given by

3
h 3 E  h 3 E 
E  1 1 2 2  (1.12)
e  h h 
 1 2 

Thus, by repeated application of the method, a general N-layer structure may be

reduced to a two-layer structure by replacing the (N-1) layers above the subgrade with

8
a material having a thickness equal to the combined thickness of the layers and having
an equivalent modulus given as

3
 N 1 3 
  hi Ei 
Ee , N 1   i 1N 1  (1.13)
 
  i 1
hi 
With the method of equivalent modulus, it is tacitly assumed that all the different layer
materials have the same Poisson’s ratio. It must be noted that this methods is incapable
of transforming a multi-layer structure into an elastic half space. However, if desired,
the resulting two-layer structure may be reduced to an elastic half space by applying
the method of equivalent thickness which follows in the next section.

1.3.2 Method of equivalent thickness

This method which is the most widely used approximation technique transforms the
multi-layer elastic structure into its equivalent semi-infinite space using Odemark’s
method of equivalent thickness. Boussinesq’s equations may then be applied to the
semi-infinite space to evaluate stresses, strains and deflections.

The basic assumption underlying the method of equivalent thickness is that the stresses,
strains and deflections developed in a multi-layer structure below a particular layer
will be unaffected by changes in the layer provided its flexural stiffness remains
constant. The flexural stiffness of a layer is given by (E I)/(1 – µ 2) where E is the
elastic modulus, I is the second moment area or moment of inertia of the layer (its
value depends on h3, h is layer thickness) and µ is Poisson’s ratio.

Supposing a layer with thickness hA and material properties EA , µ A is to be replaced

with new materials with properties EB , µ B to a new thickness hB , then if the flexural
stiffness of the replacing layer is to be the same as that of the replaced layer, then the
following expression holds:

E A h A3 E B h B3

(1   A2 ) (1   B2 )

By means of the above expression the thickness (hB) of new material required to
replace what was existing can be evaluated. This thickness is called the equivalent
thickness. Consider a two layer structure as shown in Fig. 1.11 (a) which is to be
transformed into a single layer or an elastic half space.

he2
h1
E1, µ 1 E2 , µ 2

E2 , µ 2 E2 , µ 2

(a) (b)

Fig 1.11 Transformation of a two-layer system into a half space

9
This can be achieved if Layer 1 is replaced with an equivalent layer of thickness he2
having the same material as in Layer 2 (the bottom layer) as shown in Fig. 1.11. If the
flexural stiffness of the equivalent layer is to be the same as the flexural stiffness of old
Layer 1, and noting that the equivalent layer has the same properties as Layer 2 then

E1h13 E2 he32
 (1.14)
(1  12 ) (1   22 )

Hence the equivalent thickness may be obtained from the above as

 E1 1  12 
he 2  h 
13

2 
(1.15)
 E 2 1   2 

If the value of Poisson’s ratio is the same for Layer 1 and Layer 2, Equation (1.15)
reduces to

E
h e2  h1 3
1

E 2

Even though the transformation shown in Fig. 1.11 (b) appears to have resulted in two
layers, in principle the resulting structure is a one layer structure since the material in
the equivalent layer (new upper layer) has the same elastic properties as the material in
Layer 2. Hence in effect there is only one layer which extends to infinity in depth (an
elastic half space).

The values of the stresses and strains at the lower side of the interface are obtained by
applying the Boussinesq equations to a semi-infinite space at a depth z=he below the
surface.

The load applied by a pneumatic tyre is commonly assumed to be uniformly distributed

over a circular area. Provided that the top layer is stiff the Boussinesq equations for a
point load can generally be used with satisfactory results to evaluate stresses and
strains at points away from the vertical line through the centre of the loaded area.

The transformation above can be applied to multiple-layer structures. For example, in a

three-layer structure having moduli of E1, E2 and E3 and thicknesses of h1, h2 and h3=
respectively, Layer 1 can be replaced by its equivalent thickness he2 of material having
properties E2, µ 2 using Eqn. (1.15) or as appropriate. To investigate conditions at the
second interface, Layers 1 and 2 which now contain the same material and are
therefore essentially considered as one layer with a total thickness of (h2+ he2) are
replaced by the equivalent thickness he3 of material having properties E3, µ 3 and given
by the expression

  E1   1   22  E 2  1   32 
he3  h2  h1 3     3   (1.16)
 
   1  1  E 3  1   2
2 2
 E2 

10
Structures having more layers may be treated by applying this procedure
progressively. In a general n-layer structure, the equivalent thickness of the (n-1)
layers above Layer n (sub-grade) may be calculated from the expression

i  n 1  Ei  1   n2 
he,n  f  hi 
3  
2 
(1.17)
i 1  En  1   i 

where f=correction factor generally taken as 0.8 employed to give better agreement
between the values derived by the approximate method and those by exact elastic
theory. Equation (1.17) may be simplified if the Poisson ratio is taken as the same in
all the layers.

The method of equivalent thickness should not be used if

 the ratio of the moduli of contiguous layers is less than two (i.e. Ei/Ei+1  2) or
 the thickness of the top layer is less than half the radius of the surface load contact
area (h10.5a)

The method of equivalent thickness and the Boussinesq equations must be used to
evaluate stresses and strains at the lower side of the interface only as the calculations
apply to the assumed semi-infinite space. From considerations of continuity the
vertical stress (and likewise the horizontal strain) on both sides of each interface are
equal in value. Radial stresses and vertical strains at the upper side of an interface can
be evaluated from those on the lower side and the conditions of continuity using the
equations for three-dimensional stress and strain based on the generalised Hook’s law
which may be written as

z 
1
E

 z   ( x   y )  (1.18)

11
 2 Stresses in Rigid Pavements

2.1 Introduction
Stresses in rigid pavements may result from
1. Wheel loads
2. Changes in temperature
3. Volumetric changes in subgrade.

These changes tend to deform the concrete slab causing stresses of widely varying
intensity to develop. Since the modulus of elasticity of concrete is much greater than
that of the foundation soil, a major portion of these stresses are carried by the concrete
slab itself through what is known as “beam action”. This behaviour may be explained
in an approximate way by considering the stress distribution characteristic as if it were
the case of a two-layer flexible pavement structure for which the reinforcing pavement
material ( in this case the rigid slab) overlying the sub-grade has a very high elastic
modulus such that E1/E2 is extremely high.

2.2 Curling Stresses

These develop when a temperature gradient exists through the depth of the slab and the
tendency of the slab to curl or warp is restrained by the weight of the slab. If there is no
restraint to curling, the slab will deform and take on the shape shown in Fig. 2.1 below.
Note that the figure has been rotated 90o anti-clockwise about the Z-axis to dramatise
the effect of the curling.

Fig. 2.1 A curled rigid slab

Consider a finite slab of dimensions shown in Fig. 2.2 in which curling stresses have
developed.
y

Ly x

Lx
Fig. 2.2 A finite rigid slab

12
The curling stresses in the X and Y directions are given by the following equations:

Et
x  
2(1   2 )
C x  C y  (2.1)

and

Et
y 
2(1   2 )
C y  C x  (2.2)

where
E= modulus of elasticity of concrete
t= temperature difference between surface and bottom of slab
 = coefficient of thermal expansion
 = Poisson’s ratio

Cx, Cy are correction factors (see Fig. 2.3) dependent on Lx/l or Ly/l where l is the
radius of relative stiffness of the slab given by the expression

1/ 4
 Eh3 
l  (2.3)
12(1   )k 
2

in which k= modulus of subgrade reaction

h = slab thickness.

Fig. 2.3 Curling stress coefficients (after Bradbury)

Curling stresses at the slab edges are obtained by putting  =0 in the corresponding
stress equation. For example, in the y-direction

13
 Et
 edge ( y )  Cy
2

2.2.1 Modulus of sub-grade reaction

This is a parameter that measures the supporting strength of soils. Because it is a
strength parameter, its value is affected by density and moisture content of the soil.
The parameter is evaluated in the field through a plate loading test in which pressure is
applied and the corresponding deflection measured.

The modulus is then evaluated as the slope of the pressure (P)-deflection () curve i.e.

P
k


2.3 Stresses from loading

Stresses are developed in a rigid slab whenever vehicles travel near the corners, along
the edges and at the centre of the slab. Where sufficient load transfer across joints
exists these stresses may be reduced to within the strength of the slab otherwise they
may concentrate and become so high as to cause the rupture of the concrete.

2.3.1 Corner loading

The stress and deflection developed due to loading at the corner of a rigid slab are
respectively given by the following expressions;

14
 3P   a 2  
0 .6

 c  2 1     (2.4)
h   l  
 
P  a 2
 C  2 1.1  0.88  (2.5)
kl  l 

where
 c =corner stress
C = corner deflection
a = contact radius of load P

2.3.2 Interior loading

3(1   ) P l
i  (ln  0.6159) (2.6)
2h 2
b
where,
b = a when a 1.724h
b  1.6a 2  h  0.675h.......when.....a  1.724h

P  1  a  a  
2

i  1  ln  0.673   (2.7)
8kl 2  2  2l  l  

2.3.3 Edge loading

For a Poisson’s ratio of  = 0.15 for concrete, the stress and deflection resulting from
edge loading are given respectively by the following expressions:

0.803P  l a 
e   4 log  0.666  0.034 (2.8)
 
2
h a l

0.431P  a
e  1  0.82  (2.9)
 l
2
kl

2.4 Friction Stresses

Stresses can also develop in rigid pavements as a result of uniform temperature
changes that cause the slab to contract or expand. If movement caused by contraction
or expansion is restrained by the friction between the underside of the slab and the sub-

15
grade, friction stresses will develop which in long slabs may be sufficient to cause
cracks. Stresses due to friction are evaluated thus

 C Lf
 C  a
(2.10)
2
where
C = unit weight of concrete
L= length of slab
fa= friction coefficient between underside of slab and subgrade (fa=1.5 )

2.5 Steel stresses

Steel is used in concrete pavements as reinforcements, tie bars and dowels (see Fig.
2.4). These reinforcements do not increase the structural capacity of the slab but are
used for the purpose of tying concrete together should it crack so as to maintain load
transfer across the crack and also to increase joint spacing.

L1

tie bars
L2

direction of travel

reinforcement dowel bars

Fig. 2.4 Use of steel in rigid pavements

2.5.1 Reinforcement
It is assumed that all the tensile stresses from friction force are taken up by the steel
alone. The area of steel required per unit width of slab is given as

 C hLf
AS  a
(2.11)
2 fs
where
AS = area of steel per unit width of slab
fS = allowable steel stress
L = the length of slab for longitudinal reinforcement, or
= the width of slab for transverse reinforcement.
h = the thickness of slab

16
 2.5.2 Tie bars
These are placed along the longitudinal joint to tie two adjacent slabs together so that
the joint will be tightly closed to ensure load transfer across it. For tie bars, the area of
steel required is given by

 C hL 1 f a
AS  (2.12)
fS
where,
L1 = the lane width.

For a given area of steel, it is advisable to choose the smallest size bars.

t= length of tie bar

The length of tie bar is governed by the allowable bond stress and should be based on
the full strength of the bar i.e.

fS d
t 1
b
2

where t= length of tie bar

d= diameter of bar
b = allowable bond stress of bar

In practice, t evaluated from the above expression should be increased by about

75mm or 3 inches to take care of misalignment during construction.

2.5.3 Dowels
Dowel bars are used across a transverse joint to allow load transfer to the adjoining
slab. One end of the dowel bar is fixed and the other end into the adjoining slab is
lubricated to allow for expansion across the joint. Lubrication may be achieved by
wrapping the end to be lubricated in a sheath of polythene material. The following
table sets the recommended dowel sizes and length depending on slab thickness.

Slab thickness ,h, inches (cm) Dowel diameter Dowel length -inches (cm)

5 (13) 12 (30)
6 (15) 14 (36)
7 (18) 14 (36)
h
8 (20) 14 (36)
8
9 (23) 16 (40)
10 (25) 18 (48)
11 (28) 18 (48)
12 (30) 20 (50)

Note that 1inch= 25 mm and dowels are to be spaced 30cm (12 inches) on centres.
17
 3 Structural Design of Flexible Highway Pavements

3.1 Basis for design

A flexible pavement is a structure composed of one or more layers of bound or
unbound materials with or without a bituminous surfacing. Since the intensity of
stresses from traffic loads diminishes with depth the conventional form of construction
for a flexible pavement is a layered system in which the quality of the materials
decreases progressively from the surface layer towards the sub-grade. The basis of
design of flexible highway pavements is to provide:
 Adequate total thickness of materials over the sub-grade to prevent the sub-grade
from failing in compression
 Sufficient strength within each layer to resist stresses induced by traffic loading
and
 Protection against volume changes in the sub-grade

3.2 Design parameters

These are factors that affect the design and determine the thickness of the pavement
structure required for supporting the traffic loading without unacceptable deterioration
in structural strength, surface and riding quality over the design period. These factors
are:
 Traffic
 Sub-grade strength
 Pavement material properties

3.2.1 Traffic
Traffic on highway facilities varies in the number of vehicles and vehicle types.
Vehicles may also vary in the number and configuration of axles and the magnitude of
the loads on the axles. Each of the different types of vehicles or categories of vehicles
such as private cars, buses, rigid trucks and articulated trucks, etc. within a given
traffic stream is weighted differently in terms of the structural damage they cause to a
pavement. For the purposes of the structural design of flexible pavements, only
commercial vehicles (vehicles whose un-laden weight is 1500kg or more) and the
magnitude of the loads on their axles are of interest. Vehicles with un-laden weights
below 1500kg cause no significant structural damage to pavements and are, therefore,
ignored in routine traffic analysis for pavement design.

Fig. 3.1 provides the different types of commercial vehicle axle configuration that are
likely to be encountered on any roadway. The volume and nature of commercial
vehicles using or expected to use a highway facility may be expressed in a number of
ways depending on the level of detail required or the details of traffic flow and vehicles
that are available. Traffic data on commercial vehicles may be expressed in one of the
following forms in order of increasing level of detail or accuracy:
 number of commercial vehicles
 number of commercial vehicles by type
 number of commercial vehicle by axle configuration
 number of commercial axles by type and load on the axle

18
 AXLE CONFIGURATION

PLAN VIEW TRANSVERSE VIEW

RIGID TRUCK
(2 AXLES)
2 2

RIGID TRUCK
(2 AXLES)
2 4

RIGID TRUCK
(3 AXLES)

2 4

ARTICULATED TRUCK
(3 AXLES)

2 4 4

ARTICULATED TRUCK
(NORMAL TANDEM)
[4 AXLES]
2 4 4 4

ARTICULATED TRUCK
(NORMAL TANDEM)
[5 AXLES]
2 4 4 4 4

ARTICULATED TRUCK
(TRIAXLE)
[6 AXLES]
2 4 4 4 4 4

Fig. 3.1: Types of commercial vehicle axle configurations

Expressing design traffic in terms of number of commercial axles by type and load on
the axle allows the most reliable estimates of the damaging effect of traffic on
pavements to be made. Except in axle load studies, such form of data is of course
impractical to collect in routine traffic survey for design purposes. On the other hand,
design traffic data in terms of the number of commercial vehicle types is easy to collect
and presupposes that there is adequate information or data on the damaging potential
of the different types of commercial vehicles to permit the total effect of the
anticipated traffic on the pavement in terms of the number of standard axles to be
evaluated. Such data will exist in the form of average load equivalency factors for
commercial vehicles in general, for a given class of road within a given part of the road
network.

3.2.1.1 Load equivalency factors

An axle load equivalency factor gives the quantitative measure of the structural
damage potential of a commercial axle relative to the damaging potential of the
standard 80kN single axle. The standard way of taking into account the effect on the
pavement’s structure of any combination of axle types and magnitude of axle loads is
to equate the loads to the number of 80 kN (8.2 tonnes or 18,000 lb) single axle loads
required to produce an equivalent effect.
A simplified approach to expressing the cumulative effects of traffic loads in terms of the equivalent
standard 80 kN single axle loads (ESAL) is to base all conversions on truck factors. A truck factor is the
19
damage per pass of a commercial vehicle relative to the damage per pass of the standard single axle.
Considerable information about equivalent axle load estimation was made available through the
AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials) Road Test. A given
single axle loaded to L tonnes may be converted to the equivalent standard axle load (ESAL) by the
expression;

 L
c

ESAL =   (3.1)
 8.2 

where c is an exponent ranging between 3 and 6, with a value of 4.5 being typical. In Australia, c=4 is
commonly adopted and the standard axle load used as a denominator in Eqn (3.1) varies according to
whether the axle is single with single wheels, or single with dual-tyred wheels, or tandem with dual-
tyred wheels.

Using c=4.5, Eqn (3.1) becomes

4 .5
 L 
ESAL=   (3.2)
 8 .2 
In general the ESA for a commercial vehicle with n single axles becomes

 Li 
n 4 .5

ESAL=    (3.3)
i 1  8.2 

In spite of the differences in commercial vehicles by way axle configuration type and load on the axles,
it is possible, for the purposes of analysis to place the vehicles into a finite number of commercial
vehicle categories by axle configuration type irrespective of the magnitude of the axle loads. Consider
the case in which a population of N commercial vehicles is placed into M categories. Let the kth
category be made up of Mk vehicles and characterized by Nk single axles per vehicle without due regard
to axle configuration. Assuming that the commercial axles could all be considered single, then the ESAL
per pass of all the commercial vehicles within this category is given as;

 L i, j 
Mk Nk 4 .5

ESALk=     (3.4)
j1 i 1  8.2 

The average ESAL per pass of a commercial vehicle (truck factor-TF) within this category, TFk,
therefore, becomes;

 L i, j 
Mk Nk 4 .5
1
TFk =   
M k j1 i 1  8.2 
 (3.5)

In the case where legal load limits on axles are well respected by commercial vehicle operators within
the trucking industry, large variations in axle loads within a given category are unlikely and TFk as given
by Eqn (3.5) would characterize the structural damage potential of each vehicle within this category
fairly accurately. By extending the above concept to cover all categories of commercial vehicles within
the traffic stream, an equivalency factor may be obtained that applies to any commercial vehicle
irrespective of axle configurations and loads. Thus based on the commercial vehicle population and
categories above, TF applicable to any commercial vehicle within the population is evaluated thus;

 L i , j, k 
4 .5
M Mk Nk
1
TF=      (3.6)
N k 1 j1 i 1  8.2 

The accuracy of the above expression for the truck factor is further enhanced if the
evaluation is based on a large sample of data collected over a substantial part of the
road network and over a fairly long period of time. Such equivalency factors are useful
20
parameters for estimating the ESAL for design on the basis of just the estimates of
number of commercial vehicles without necessarily knowing the type or category of
commercial vehicle nor the magnitude of the loads on the axles.

3.2.1.2 Design ESAL

If the average daily commercial vehicle traffic is made up of nk vehicles of category k,
then the initial daily commercial traffic in terms of standard axles loads, ESALo, is
obtained thus

ESALo   n TF
k
k k (3.7)

It is important to know at the onset that for a multi-lane carriageway, traffic on the
most heavily-travelled lane is what is used for design. For a single carriageway with
opposing traffic, there must be simultaneous traffic data collection for the two
directions of travel in order to establish the lane that carries the higher traffic and hence
the design traffic. Once the number of equivalent standard axles corresponding to the
average daily commercial traffic for the design lane has been evaluated, the cumulative
number of standard axles for the first year is obtained by aggregating the daily value
over 365 days

i.e. ESAL1  365 ESALo

The cumulative number of standard axles, ESALcum, expected during the design life of
the pavement is obtained by taking into account the traffic growth during the design
period. Given a traffic growth rate of r% per annum and a design life of n years, the
traffic growth during the design period is taken care of by a parameter called the traffic
growth factor, G, which is given by the following expression.

n n
 r   r 
1  100   1 1  100   1
G  (3.8)
 r  r
ln 1 
 100  100

The traffic growth factor is then applied to the first year number of standard axles to
obtain the cumulative number of standard axles for design ESALcum , i.e.,

ESALcum =365GESALo (3.9)

Numerical example

3.2.2 Sub-grade strength

This is a very important factor in pavement design in that it is the sub-grade that the
design should seek to protect from shear failure and excessive deflection. The strength
of the sub-grade provides a basis for the selection of the structure for the pavement.
The strength of the sub-grade is obtained from sub-grade strength evaluation along the
proposed road alignment for a new road or along the existing alignment for an existing
road. The investigation may be carried out by taking samples from appropriate depths
21
along the road alignment at intervals that may range from 250m to 2km depending on
the scale of the road project and the characteristics of the terrain and determining the
CBR values in the laboratory in accordance with the appropriate standards. CBR
values are in percentages and it is customary to quote the values as whole numbers.
CBR values may also be evaluated in-situ using the DCP tests or any appropriate tests
but such values are affected by the prevailing moisture content and do not represent the
appropriate values needed for design.

Due to the natural variability of soils deposits, the strength of the sub-grade will vary
along the road alignment. This means that several and different CBR values will be
obtained from the strength investigation along the proposed route. Depending on the
value selected for analysis purpose, the design can represent under-design or over-
design. If the average value is selected, about one half of the road is over-designed and
one half under-designed. If the mini mum value is selected most of the road section is
over-designed. Some level of risk must be taken in the selection of the CBR for
design. Since the sensitivity of sub-grade strength increases as traffic increases, the
design sub-grade CBR value is selected on the basis of the anticipated traffic levels; a
higher percentile value must be selected for higher traffic to minimise the risk of
failure. When this approach is adopted, then at high traffic levels, the design sub-grade
CBR approaches the minimum CBR value. The table below (Table 3.1) provides a
guide to the selection of design sub-grade CBR based on traffic levels.

Table 3.1: Sub-grade design CBR limits

Traffic Level Traffic Description Design Percentile

(ESAL) (%)
104 or less Light 60
104- 106 Medium 75
106 or more Heavy 90

The following numerical example explains the procedure for determining the design CBR.

22
Numerical Example
The sub-grade CBR values along the alignment of a proposed road which is expected
to carry medium traffic are as follows: 4,6,3,8,12,10,5,7,9,12,14,7. Determine the CBR
for design.

Solution

Step 1

The CBR values must be ranked in ascending order as shown in the table below.

%of CBR values ≥ranked

Number of CBR
Frequency value
Ranked CBR values ≥ranked value
(f) (Percentile)
(n)
(n/∑f)x100
3 1 12 100
4 1 11 91.7
5 1 10 83.3
6 1 9 75.0
7 2 8 66.7
8 1 6 50.0
9 1 5 41.7
10 1 4 33.3
12 2 3 25.0
14 1 1 8.3
∑f =12

Step 2
Plot Percentile values (column 4) against CBR values (column 1) and obtain a curve
which has the characteristics of half a normal distribution curve or half a bell, similar
to the sketch below.

Percentile
100

50

Xp CBR (%)

Step 3
Select the design percentile value using the design traffic expressed in terms of ESAL
and Table 3.1 as a guide. If P is the percentile value of interest then the corresponding
CBR for design is Xp. Correct this value to the nearest whole number. Since traffic is
23
expected to be medium, P=75 and hence the design CBR value is read as X75 rounded
to the nearest whole number.

3.2.3 Strength of pavement materials

The strength of the materials forming the various pavement layers are generally
expressed in terms of their 4-day soaked CBR values. The higher the CBR value, the
higher the strength and hence the higher the quality of the material. The soaked CBR
value is used to characterise the strength of the layer materials because it represents the
strength of the materials in the weakest state when totally inundated (flooded). Where
the elastic modulus, E, of the layer is required, the value may be estimated from the
CBR using the following simple relationship:

E=10CBR MPa (3.10)

where the CBR is in %.

For the Poisson’s ratio, the values in Table 3.2 provide a useful guide.

Table 3.2: Typical Poisson’s ratio for pavement materials

Range of Representative
Type of material values value
 Fine-grained sub-grade soils 0.40-0.50 0.45
 Granular sub-grade soils 0.25-0.40 0.35
 Unbound granular soils 0.25-0.40 0.35
 Cement-stabilised granular soils 0.10-0.30 0.20
 Bitumen-stabilised granular soils 0.30-0.50 0.40
 Asphaltic concrete 0.35-0.50 0.40

Other parameters related to the strength of the layer materials are:

 Particle size distribution
 Atterberg limits.
Specific limits in respective of the CBR, particle size distribution and Atterberg limits
exist that must be satisfied by the layer materials to be acceptable for use in a particular
layer.

3.3 Design methods

Acceptable methods for the design of flexible highway pavements are many and differ
from each other. While some are theoretically based, others are empirically based.
Each design procedure has its own basis for development and may be used for design
where applicable. Most of the procedures have been field-verified and used by
highway agencies for several years. The selection of one procedure over another is
usually based on the highway agency’s experience and satisfaction with the design
results. The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

24
(AASHTO) design method and the Transport and Road Laboratory (TRL) CBR design
method will be presented here.

3.3.1 AASHTO Design method

This design method is empirical and was based on the AASHTO Road Test conducted
in the United States in the early sixties. The pavement system structural requirements
needed to sustain the design traffic loadings for the design period is expressed in terms
of a parameter called the structural number (SN). The structural number may be
considered to be the required bearing capacity of the pavement. The structural number
may be estimated from nomographs but for design ESAL greater than 500,000, the
following empirical relationship may be used for its estimation;

 SN  1
log ESAL cum  9.36 log   1  0.83  log  1.395 log CBR (3.12)
 25.4  R
where,
SN= structural number in mm
CBR=design sub-grade CBR in %
. R=regional adjustment factor with a value =1 for areas with rainfall throughout the
year and value =0.1 for dry and arid conditions, and intermediate values for
intermediate rainfall conditions.

The following equation is then used to relate SN to the to the individual material types
and thickness of the pavement:

SN  a1 D1  a2 D2  ...an Dn (3.13)

where Di=thickness of layer i in mm and

ai=layer coefficient of layer i

The data in the table below provides an indication of the magnitude of layer
coefficients for different pavement materials.

25
 Table 3.3: Typical layer coefficients for layer materials

Layer/Material Layer
coefficient
Surface course
Hot mix asphalt concrete 0.44
Sand mix asphalt concrete 0.35

Base
Natural gravel (CBR>80%) 0.12
Crushed gravel (CBR>80%) 0.13
Dense graded crushed gravel 0.18
Soil cement 0.20
Hot mix asphalt concrete 0.40

Sub-base
Natural gravel (CBR>30%) 0.11
Crushed stone 0.11
Cement/lime-stabilised materials 0.12

For any given structural number, there is an infinite number of pavement material
combinations and thicknesses that will provide satisfactory service. In view of this,
there are guidelines that can be used to narrow down the number of solutions.
Experience has shown that the wearing layer can be 50 to 100 mm thick while the sub-
base can be 100 to 200mm thick. Because the cost of the construction must be
minimised, a knowledge of which of the materials available is the most costly per unit
thickness will also assist with the solution of an initial layer thickness.

3.3.2 TRL CBR Design method

The design categorises traffic in terms of equivalent axles into eight classes (T1-T8)
and the sub-grade strength in terms of CBR into six classes (S1-S6). For any
combination of traffic and sub-grade class, the appropriate pavement structure is
selected from a structural catalogue. The structural catalogue provides the thickness of
the sub-base, base, and wearing course or a surface dressing combination that will suit
the loading conditions and sub-grade strength. Materials to be used for each layer are
specified in quality or character in the corresponding design chart. The accompanying
charts provide the structural catalogue for the design by this method.

Example
Find the structural geometry of a new pavement that is to be surface-dressed and will
carry an anticipated traffic of 2.5 x106 standard axles over the design life if the design
sub-grade CBR is 20%.

Solution
Traffic class=T4
Sub-grade class =S5
Design chart to use: Chart 1: Granular Road Base/Surface Dressing

Structural geometry from chart:

125mm granular sub-base
200mm granular base
26
27
 4 Design of Flexible Airport Pavements

4.1 Introduction
The structure of an airport flexible pavement may consist of untreated or treated
(stabilised) granular base overlain by an impervious or waterproofing riding course
much in the same way as with flexible highway pavements. However, it is
recommended that whenever possible, flexible airport pavements must be constructed
as full-depth asphalt pavements as such a construction apart from not entrapping water
which tend to reduce subgrade strength and impair performance is able to spread loads
over a broader area and requires less pavement structure thickness. Several methods for
design of flexible airport pavements exist but the most comprehensive and very recent
is the method by the Asphalt Institute which will be discussed here.

4.2 The Asphalt Institute Method

This method designs the flexible airfield pavement as a full-depth asphalt structure
based on the multi-layer elastic theory. The design is based on the principle that
application of load to the full-depth asphalt pavement produces two critical elastic
strains: a horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer and a compressive
vertical strain at the top of the sub-grade. Design curves developed in terms of the
maximum allowable values for both critical strains are used to select the thickness of
the full-depth asphalt pavement that will meet the aircraft traffic loading condition.
The design takes into consideration the effect on the strength of asphalt concrete of
temperature condition peculiar to the geographical location of the airport.

4.2.1 Traffic analysis

The different types of aircraft using an airport pavement impose different strains and
the effect of the strain repetitions on the pavement is cumulative. It is assumed that all
aircraft movements are channelised. The strain repetitions imposed on the pavement
depend on aircraft type, gear load, the number of aircraft passes and the transverse
wander characteristics of the aircraft on the design area. The effect of strain repetitions
on the pavement due to a mixture of different aircraft is obtained by equating the
number of strain repetitions to a number of equivalent strain repetitions produced by an
arbitrary standard aircraft (DC-8-63F) which weighs 162 ton at 100% gross weight
through equivalency factors. The aircraft equivalency factors which are functions of
aircraft type, pavement thickness and performance criteria exist also in graphical form.

4.2.2 Thickness design procedure

The procedure for thickness design is shown in a flow diagram in Fig. 4.1. The design
requires the following inputs:

 Design sub-grade elastic modulus

 Mean annual air temperature
 Projected aircraft traffic mix up to the end of the design period

28
The following steps are then followed for the tensile strain and the compressive strain
criteria:

Step1: Allowable traffic value analysis

1. Using the mean annual air temperature, select the appropriate graph from the
family of curves relating TA to subgrade modulus and various levels of allowable
repetitions which corresponds to the temperature. This is to be done for each
strain criterion.

2. Using the design subgrade, determine from the selected graph the thickness of
pavement (TA) that will satisfy the strain criterion for the different lines of strain
repetitions shown on the selected graph. The results may be set out in a tabular
form as shown below.

Number of strain 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000

repetitions
Thickness, TA

Note that this procedure will produce two tables one for tensile strain criteria and
the other for compressive strain.

3. Develop the allowable traffic, Na , curve for each criterion by plotting the data in
each table on a semi-log graph paper with TA on the arithmetic scale.

Step 2: Predicted traffic value

1. Draw up a table (Worsheet No. 1) showing the forecast aircraft movements for 5-
year periods up to the design period. For each period, draw up two columns (A and
B) and record under A the forecast traffic movements within the period and under
B the cumulative number of movements up to the end of the period for all types of
aircraft that will use the facility. See example worksheet below.

Aircraft Traffic Forecast Worksheet No. 1

Forecast period in years

0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20
Type of
aircraft A B A B A B A B
DC-9-15 8,000 8,000 9,500 17,500 17,000 34,500 22,000 56,500
DC-10-10 6,700 6,700 12,100 18,800 18,000 36,800 26,000 62,800
B-727-200 4,100 4,100 8,000 12,100 9,000 21,100 13,000 34,100
B-747 5,200 5,200 6,500 11,700 10,500 22,200 15,000 37,200

2. Transfer the data for the cumulative aircraft passes for the design year onto
Worksheet No. 2 (see sample format below). On this worksheet record for each
aircraft type the number of equivalent DC-8-63F strain repetitions at various
distances from the centreline using the cumulative movements or passes for the
design period. These are determined for each aircraft from the appropriate aircraft

29
 equivalency charts (Fig. D1-D65). For compressive strain criteria, the thicknesses
to consider are; 10, 20, 30, 40in and for tensile strain 10, 30, 50in.

Aircraft Traffic Worksheet No. 2

No. of equivalent DC-8-63F strain repetitions

Assumed thickness: Strain type:

Distance from centreline
Type of Cumulative 5.5ft 9.5 ft 13.5 ft 17.5 ft 21.5 ft
aircraft movements in (1.7m) (2.9m) (4.1m) (5.3m) (6.6m)
design period
DC-9-15 56,500
DC-10-10 62,800
B-727-200 34,100
B-747 37,200
Sum

3. For each assumed thickness, sum the entries under each ‘distance’ column and
circle the maximum value.

4. Develop the predicted traffic, Np , curve by plotting the circled maximum value
against the assumed thickness for each criterion. This curve must be developed on
the same graph on which the Na curve was developed for the corresponding and
each strain criterion.

5. The thickness of full-depth asphalt concrete pavement required to satisfy each

strain criterion is obtained by the simultaneous graphical solution of the plots of
allowable and predicted traffic values i.e. the point of intersection of the Na and Np
curves for each strain criterion (see Fig. 4.2 as a sample output for a given strain
criterion).

6. The simultaneous solution will yield two thickness values; one for the tensile strain
criterion and the other for compressive strain. Select the greater of the two as the
design thickness of the pavement.

30
 Fig. 4.2 Sample Na, and Np curves for a given strain criterion

4.2 Sectional design of critical airport pavement areas

It is recommended to apply the full design thickness to only critical areas of the
runway. This includes about 10% of the ends of the runway where landing and take-off
take place. The central 80% of the runway is considered non-critical. For other non
critical areas, the thickness of the pavement may be reduced by about 10 to 20%. The
figure below gives an indication of the areas of an airport pavement where thickness
reduction may be effected.

31
5 Design of Rigid Airport Pavements

5.1 Introduction
There are several methods available for the structural design of rigid airport
pavements. Each of these designs considers the important factors that affect the ability
of the pavement to perform adequately in service. These factors are
 Aircraft type, character and gear loads
 traffic volume
 concentration of traffic in certain areas of the pavement
 construction material quality

The pavement is designed for capacity operations for the types of aircraft that are
expected to use the facility. Thereafter, the structure of the pavement can be modified
(reduced ) in areas where loading is not expected to be critical.

5.2 The Portland Cement Association (PCA) method

This method was developed on the basis of a combination of the knowledge of and
experience with the performance of existing pavements, full-scale loading tests and
theoretical consideration of stresses and deflections in pavements.

The method uses design charts produced by PCA which have been prepared for each
type of aircraft and its characteristics in terms of landing gear arrangements, load on
the gear, wheel spacing and tire contact area. Thus the chart used for an aircraft must
be the one with the details corresponding to the characteristics of the aircraft.

5.2.1 Parameters for design

 Modulus of sub-grade reaction
 90-day flexural strength (modulus of rupture) of concrete
 aircraft traffic forecasts
Where the 90-day flexural strength of concrete is not available, the 28-day strength is
increased by 10% and the resulting value used in place of the 90-day strength.

5.2.2 Design procedure

The design procedure by the PCA method is very simple and straightforward as
follows:
1. Obtain the design modulus of sub-grade reaction (k). Where a granular base layer is
to be provided to prevent pumping or to regulate the sub-grade, the value of the
design modulus must reflect the effect of this layer.
2. Obtain estimates of the types and frequency of each aircraft anticipated to use the
facility.
3. For each aircraft, select a factor of safety for the design of the particular pavement
area against rupture by loading from the aircraft using Table 5.1 below as a guide.
Higher values must be selected where the aircraft being considered is anticipated to
have frequent operations. (Make reference to step 2 above).

32
 Table 5.1 Factor of safety for rigid airport pavement design

Pavement area Factor of safety

1. Critical areas:
Apron, taxiways, hangar floors, runway 1.7-2.0
ends (330m long each end)
2. Non-critical areas:
Central portion of runways 1.4-1.7

4. Select the design chart corresponding to the aircraft being considered. Fig. 5.1 is
an example of a design chart for Boeing 727 with a dual wheel landing gear,
contact area per tire of 237 psi and wheel spacing of 34 inches.

Fig. 5.2 PCA design chart for Boeing 727 with dual wheel landing gear

5. Determine the allowable working stress to be used in the design chart by dividing
the 90-day strength of the concrete (or its equivalent) by the selected factor of
safety.
6. Enter the appropriate design chart for the aircraft being considered with the
allowable working stress and determine the thickness of pavement required.
7. Repeat steps 3-6 for each critical aircraft anticipated to use the airport. Then select
the most critical thickness (largest) for the particular pavement area.

The outcome of the procedure outlined above may be set out in a tabular form as
follows for three example critical aircrafts say MD-11, B-727, DC-10.
33
 Pavement area
Taxiway and runway ends Central portion of runway
Factor Working Slab Factor Working Slab
Aircraft Gear load Operations1 of stress Thickness of stress Thickness
safety safety
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 6) (7) (8) (9)
MD- 11
DC-10
B-737
1
Describe aircraft operations in column 3 as either frequent or non-frequent (occasional)

34
 6. Rock Aggregates for Road Works

6.1 Introduction

Natural rocks constitute the primary source of aggregates used in highway construction.
These rocks exist in the form of rock outcrops at or near the earth’s surface or gravel
deposits usually along streams channels. In most cases, crushed rock aggregates from
stone quarries may constitute the sole structural layer materials for high performance
roads. Other types of aggregates (considered artificial) that may find limited use in
pavement construction are slug –a by-product from blast furnace and production of steel,
and light-weight aggregates produced by heating clay to a very high temperature.

The importance of aggregates in highway construction lies in the fact that the materials
constitute about 80% of the weight of paving mixtures. For engineering applications,
however, the most important consideration of rock materials, whether naturally-occurring
or artificial, is how well they serve in the various applications such as in the construction
of sub-base, bases, surfacing and other civil engineering works.

6.2 Classification of rocks as source of aggregates

The nature and properties of rocks are determined by the predominant constituent
materials and the manner in which the materials are arranged relative to each other. The
compositional and textural characteristics of any rock are in turn dependent on the
manner of formation of rocks. Thus one way of classifying rocks is to use a criterion
based on geologic origin or mode of formation. In engineering application, however, a
distinction between rock aggregates from different geologic origins is not as important as
the quality of the aggregates relative to the intended use. In this sense, even if aggregates
are of different geologic origins, but they exhibit the same or similar engineering
characteristics, they are put in the same category or class for engineering use purposes.
This gives rise to engineering group classification of rocks in which a group is assigned
the name of the most-commonly known rock within it.

6.2.1 Geologic classification

Rocks may be classified by geologic origin into three main groups as igneous,
metamorphic, and sedimentary.

i. Igneous rocks
These are formed from the cooling of hot magma that flowed from depth to or towards
the earth’s surface. Those that cooled on the earth surface (extrusive rocks) did so rapidly
and tend to have fined-grained crystals as against those that cooled slowly beneath the
earth’s surface (intrusive rocks) which tend to have large surface crystal grains. Well-
known igneous rocks include basalt, granite, porphyry and gabbro. Depending on the
silica content, igneous rocks may be described as acidic, intermediate, basic and ultra-
basic.

1
 Silica content (%) Nature of rock
>66 Acidic
55-66 Intermediate
45-55 Basic
<45 Ultra-basic

Acidic aggregates are generally considered to be water-loving and do not develop a

satisfactory film of asphalt around them in the presence of water when used in
bituminous paving mixture formulations. Such aggregates are likely to cause stripping
failures to occur when used in bituminous pavement constructions. A well-known
example of acidic rock is quartzite. For successful bituminous construction, rocks of
intermediate acidity may be used but it is preferable to use basic rocks.

ii. Metamorphic rocks

These were formed when pre-existing rocks of any type came under extremely intense
heat and/or pressure over geologic times such that the rocks have become altered in
appearance, texture, and mineral composition from those of the original parental
materials through crystallisation. Generally, metamorphic rocks formed under intense
heat such as quartzite often show an interlocking array of mineral constituents that
renders them more useful as aggregates. On the other hand, those rocks formed under
intense pressure tend to develop parallel planes or foliations which are zones of weakness
along which the rocks are easily split. Such rocks, typified by slate, gneiss and schist,
break into flaky aggregates when quarried and are generally not suitable as road stones.

iii Sedimentary rocks

These are rocks formed by the deposition and compaction of fragments of pre-existing
rocks or from the deposition of inorganic remains of marine animals or from water-
soluble materials precipitated under conditions of over-saturation. Sedimentary rocks are
characterized by layered structure developed as a direct result of the mode formation.
These rocks may be grouped according to the predominant mineral present as calcerous
(chalks, limestone, etc), siliceous (sandstone, chert, etc.), or argillaceous (shale, etc.).
The grains of sedimentary rocks may be bonded together by a cementing material which
usually are naturally-deposited mineral matter such as silica, calcite, haematite, etc.

6.2.2 Engineering group classification

This type of classification is based on the qualities of the rock aggregates as either road
building or constructional materials irrespective of geologic origin. Engineering group
classification is very important in serving as a source of aggregate for civil engineering
construction and in giving useful indications about certain index properties useful to
quarrying and construction companies. Some of the major rock classes recognized in this
kind of classification are summarized in Table 6.1.

2
 Table 6.1 Engineering classification of rocks

Engineering group Rock types

The predominant rocks are basic and intermediate rocks of

medium to fine-grained size and may include some
Basalt group metamorphic equivalents such as hornblende-schist. Common
rocks within the group are basalt, dolerite, basic porphyrite ,
quartz dolerite and andesite

Common rocks in this group gneiss, granite, granodiorite,

garnulite, pegmaitite, quartz diorite, syenite. The rocks are
Granite group generally coarse-grained, light in colour and have specific
gravities below 2.8. They are used extensively as road
aggregates.
Rocks include limestone, dolomite and marble. They are light in
Limestone group colour and are used extensively in road works.
Common rocks in the group are basic diorite, basic gneiss,
Gabbro group gabbro, and hornblende-rich rocks. The rocks have dark colour
and high specific gravity values (2.8-3.3). They are used
extensively for road works.
Rocks in this group are acidic and intermediate igneous rocks
Porphry group very close to the granite group. They include porphyry, felsite,
micro-granite and rhyolite. They are usually fine-grained and
used extensively for road works
Rocks in this group are siliceous sedimentary and metamorphic
Quartzite group rocks composed almost entirely of quartz
Contact altered rocks of all kinds except marble and quartzite.
Rocks in the group are hard and dense. They are medium to
Hornfels dark in colour and tend to be medium-grained. They provide
good road aggregates.
This group is mostly composed of laminated rocks such as
Schist group schist, phyllite and slate. Not considered suitable as a source of
road stone because of their instability and tendencies to break in
planar sheets

6.3 ROCK AGGREGATE QUALITY INDICES

The different civil engineering applications to which crushed rocks and naturally-
occurring aggregates are put require certain index quality properties to be met in order to
ensure the soundness and longevity of those constructions of which they form a part. In
effect, quality indices provide a useful indication as to whether a given rock aggregate
can satisfactorily perform in a specific engineering application or not. The following are
the more generally used indices in assessing the quality of aggregates.

i. CLEANLINESS
The presence of foreign or deleterious materials in aggregates makes them unsuitable for
use in highway construction especially in the formulation bituminous paving mixtures.
3
Deleterious materials may be in the form of cay lumps, vegetation, soft particles, etc. the
standard method of determining the presence of deleterious materials is the Sand
Equivalent test carried out on the portion of the aggregates passing the 4.75 mm (No. 4)
sieve.

ii. PARTICLE SHAPE AND TEXTURE

Shape is an important index of aggregate quality since dimensional characteristics
whether of crushed rock or transported rock materials affect the overall performance of
the materials in engineering application especially in road construction. Aggregate shape
affects the workability of concrete mixtures, be it Portland cement concrete or asphaltic
concrete. The descriptive terms for particle shape and associated characteristics are listed
in Table 6.2 below.

Table 6.2 aggregate shape description

Particle shape Characteristics

 Rounded Fully water-worn or completely shaped by attrition

 Irregular Naturally irregular or partially shaped by attrition and

having rounded edges

 Angular Materials posses well-defined edges formed at the

intersection of roughly planar edges

 Flaky Materials of which the thickness is small relative to the

other dimensions

 Elongated Materials usually angular in which the lengths are larger

than the other two dimensions

 Flaky and Materials have the characteristics of both flaky and

elongated elongated shapes

In compacted materials, angular-shaped particles provide greater interlock and exhibit

higher internal friction and hence a greater mechanical stability than do rounded particles.
Rounded aggregates such as beach gravels and sand on the other hand tend to have a
better workability (a property of no strength advantage). In asphalt works, for example,
smooth-textured aggregates may be easier to coat with asphalt but would not exhibit
strong mechanical bonds. Flaky and elongated aggregates break when subjected to
impact load such as compaction. Such aggregate particles also impede compaction and
may prevent the development of adequate strength in asphaltic concrete. An evaluation of
the shape characteristics of aggregates is given by the
 Flakiness Index
 Elongation Index.

The Flakiness Index measures the percentage by mass of aggregate particles whose least
dimension is less than 0.6 times their mean dimension. The Elongation Index measures
the percentage by mass of the aggregate particles whose largest dimension is greater than

4
1.8 times their mean dimension. The mean dimension is the average of two adjacent sieve
sizes between which the aggregate particles being measured are retained.

The surface texture of aggregates is an expression of the nature of the inter-growth of the
minerals forming the rock including the size of the crystals of the minerals and the
probable bond strength resulting thereof. The surface texture of a crushed rock may be
described as follows (see Table 6.3).

Table 6.3 Aggregate surface texture description

Descriptive term Characteristics

 Glassy Conchoidal fracture

 Smooth Water-worn or smooth

 Granular Fracture showing more or less uniform
 rounded grains

 Rough Rough fracture of fine-or medium-grained
rock containing no easily visible
 crystalline constituents

 Crystalline Containing easily visible crystalline

 constituents

 Honeycombed With visible pores and cavities

These categories are based on the impression gained by a simple examination of hand
specimens and are therefore not a precise petrographical index because of the subjective
nature of the description. However. Aggregates for road construction should be rough to
provide inter-particle friction and a good bond with bituminous binders

iii. TOUGHNESS
Aggregates used for road construction may come under compressive load or may
experience polishing by the traction and shearing action of traffic. The toughness of an
aggregate measures the resistance of the material to quality–degrading forces. Several
parameters are available for measuring the toughness of an aggregate. These include the
aggregate
 Aggregate Abrasion Value,
 Polished Stone Value
 Aggregate Impact Value,
 Aggregate Crushing Value
 10% Fines Value
 Unconfined compressive strength

The standard test methods for these are detailed in BS 812: 3.

5
The resistance of aggregates to surface wear is assessed by the Aggregate Abrasion Value
and the Polished Stone Value. These parameters are extremely valuable in evaluating the
suitability of aggregates that will form part of the wearing course of a highway pavement
where degradation by attrition is highest. A very popular test is the Los Angeles Abrasion
test which is most often used to obtain an indication of both the toughness and abrasion
resistance of an aggregate. Typical test values range from 10% for extremely hard
igneous rocks to about 60% for soft limestone and sandstones.

The Aggregate Impact Value gives a relative measure of the resistance of the aggregates
to sudden impact whereas the Aggregate Crushing Value measures the resistance to a
compressive load. Materials with crushing values greater than 25-30% are not
considered suitable for use in pavement construction. Aggregate quality may also be
assessed by its Unconfined Compressive Strength (qu) which is carried out on the solid
rock material. For good quality road stones qu values should be greater than 100MN/m2.

The 10% Fines Value gives a measure of the resistance of the aggregate to crushing and it
is the compressive load required to cause 10% fines (material passing 2.36mm BS sieve)
to be formed during the relevant test. A high value is indicative of a material with high
resistance and hence high quality. The minimum value acceptable of road aggregates is
about 8kN.

iv. POROSITY AND WATER ABSORPTION

Aggregate porosity is closely related to water absorption characteristics and affects the
performance of a mix. Water absorption characteristics give an indication of the probable
water absorption potential of aggregates and may give an invaluable clue to the
performance of marginal aggregates used under saturated conditions especially if such
aggregates have a tendency too lose stability after taking in moisture. In addition, this
quality index provides useful information about bitumen absorption properties of
aggregates. Even tough porosity may improve the bond between asphalt and aggregates,
it may cause inadequate drying of aggregates which can lead to stripping problems in
asphaltic pavements. Porous aggregates affect the economics of asphaltic mixtures as
they tend to require additional asphalt binder to satisfy absorption of the aggregates even
though such additional asphalt will neither be available to contribute to asphalt film
formation around the aggregate nor bond strength development in the asphaltic paving
mixture.

v. WETTABILITY AND AFFINITY FOR ASPHALT

This property affects the stripping of asphalt from aggregates in the presence of water.
Depending on their affinity for water, aggregates may be described as hydrophobic
(water hating) or hydrophilic (water-loving). Aggregates that are hydrophobic have good
attraction for asphalt. Such aggregates have +ve surface charges and are referred to as
basic. On the other hand, hydrophilic aggregates have –ve surface charges and good
attraction for water. Such aggregates will reject asphalt for water in the case of the two
being present and competing for attention by the aggregate. Aggregates in this category
are siliceous and are acidic in nature. A typical example is quartzite.

A test for asphalt affinity (or lack of it) of an aggregate is the stripping test in which the
un-compacted bituminous mixture is soaked in water and the coated particles evaluated
6
visually. Immersion-compression test may also be used to evaluate the potential of the
aggregate to cause stripping problems. In the test, the strength of a compacted paving
mixture after soaking in water is compared to the strength of an identical un-soaked
sample. The reduction in strength is an indication of the quality of the aggregate in terms
of its resistance to stripping in the presence of water. Samples composed of hydrophilic
aggregates will exhibit a higher reduction in strength in the immersion-compression test
than those composed of hydrophobic aggregates.

6.4 AGGREGATE SPECIFIC GRAVITY

The presence of pores in aggregates leads to three different kinds of specific gravity
values that may be used to characterize the performance of aggregates in road building
applications especially in hot-mix asphalt concrete design. These specific gravity values
are apparent specific gravity (Gsa), bulk specific gravity (Gsb) and effective specific
gravity (Gse). The weight-volume relationships defining these specific gravity values are
shown in Fig. 6.1 which is used to denote the equivalent volume of a typical aggregate.

Vap
Vpp-Vap

Vs

Fig. 6.1 Equivalent volume of an aggregate

By definition,

Ws
Gsa  (6.1)
Vs w

Ws
Gsb  (6.2)
(Vs  V pp ) w

7
 Ws
Gse  (6.3)
(Vs  V pp  Vap ) w

where
Vs=volume of solids
Vpp=volume of water permeable pores
Vap=volume of water permeable pores absorbing asphalt
Vpp-Vap=volume of water permeable pores not absorbing asphalt
Ws=weight of aggregate

When an aggregate blend is made up of different size fractions or aggregate types as is

usually the case, the various specific gravity values for the combined aggregates may be
evaluated using the following expression;

100
G (6.4)
P1 P2 P
  ...... n
G1 G2 Gn

where
G=Specific gravity of the blend
G1, G2, ….Gn=specific gravity values of component or fraction 1, 2, …n respectively
P1, P2, ….Pn=% by weight of each component or fraction in the total blend.

Note that the equation is general and may be used to evaluate all the three types of
specific gravity values defined above.

6.4 Aggregate gradation

Aggregate gradation is the distribution of particle sizes as a percent of the total weight
and can be presented graphically on a gradation curve in which the ordinate (vertical
axis) is the total percent passing a given size on an arithmetic scale while the abscissa (x-
axis) represents the particle size plotted to a log scale. The gradation of a material is
important as it affects the strength that can be mobilized when the material is compacted.
Descriptive terms for aggregate gradation include dense-graded or well-graded, open-
graded or gap-graded and uniformly graded (see Fig. 6.2).

8
 Fig. 6.2 Types of aggregate gradation

6.5 Gradation of aggregates for base course construction

Base course materials for high performance roads may be any of the following;
 Mechanically-stable natural gravel
 Cement or lime-stabilised soil
 Crushed rock
 Bitumen stabilized sand or gravel

6.5.1 Natural gravel bases

Natural gravel found suitable for road bases include lateritic gravels and quartzite
gravels, river gravels, decomposed rocks, etc. These materials must be well-graded and
must contain sufficient fines to provide a high density on compaction. The fines should
preferably be non-plastic or meet the following range of Atterberg Limits:

LL=25%
PI<12% (in dry areas) or <6% (in wet areas)
Shrinkage Limit <4%

Suitable materials have a minimum 4-day soaked CBR of 80%. Table 6.4 provides a
guide to the required gradation of natural gravels intended for use in base course
construction.

9
 Table 6.4 Typical gradation limits for natural in base course construction

%Passing
Sieve size Nominal maximum size
37.5mm (1 ½ in) 20mm (3/4 in) 100mm (3/8 in) 5mm (3/16 in)
37.5mm 100 - - -
20mm 80-100 100 - -
10mm 55-80 80-100 100 -
5mm 40-60 50-75 80-100 100
2.36mm (No.7) 30-50 35-60 50-80 80-100
1.18mm (No. 14) - - 40-65 50-80
600μm (No. 25) 15-30 15-35 - 30-60
300 μm (No. 50) - - 20-40 20-45
75 μm (No. 200) 5-15 5-15 10-25 10-25

6.5.2 Crushed rock aggregate base

Crushed rock is employed for the construction of water-bound macadam, dry-bound
macadam, and all-in-aggregate base courses.

i. Water-bound macadam bases

ii. Dry-bound macadam bases
iii. All-in-crushed rock bases

Water-bound macadam base

For bases that are water-bound macadam, the aggregates used must be sound, single-
sized material of 37.5-50mm (1 ½ -2in) nominal size, laid and compacted to a thickness
not exceeding twice the nominal aggregate size. Well-graded, non plastic fines less than
6.3 mm ( ¼ in) maximum size are rolled and watered into the layer of single-sized
aggregates.

Dry-bound macadam base

Aggregates for dry-bound macadam bases must have the same characteristics and be
compacted to a thickness as required of wet-bound macadam bases. The fines used in
filling the interstices of the layer of single-sized aggregates material must be a dry well
graded crushed rock material having sizes ranging from 5mm ( 3/16 in) down to dust.
The fines are vibrated into the interstices of the layer of single-sized aggregates by means
of vibratory rollers and plate compacters.

All-in crushed rock bases

High quality crushed rock bases may be constructed using all-in crushed rock aggregates,
Such materials must conform to the grading limits given in Table 6.5 and must be
compacted in layers each not exceeding 150mm (6 in) thick.

10
 Table 6.5 Grading Limits for all-in crushed-rock aggregate bases

Sieve size % Passing

50mm (2 in) 100
37.5mm (1 ½ in) 95-100
20mm ( 3/4 in) 60-80
10mm (3/8 in) 40-60
5mm (3/16) 25-40
2.36 (No. 7) 15-30
600 μm (No. 25) 8-22
75 μm (No. 200 5-12+
+
Restrict fines content to lower range for high plastic fines and vice-versa

Because of the tendency for all-in aggregates to segregate whilst being transported and
spread, they are usually kept wet during the transportation and spreading processes.

6.7 Design of aggregate gradation

Unlike natural gravel deposits and sands which will possess a particle size distribution
unique to that particular deposit, crushed rock aggregates for use in engineering projects
can be produced to any desired grading from the quarry. In practice, however, to
improve handling characteristics and avoid segregation of coarse and fine materials in
stockpiles, quarried or processed aggregates are separated into sizes before stockpiling.
For engineering applications, therefore, the need to blend aggregates of different sizes in
order to meet the desired specification requirements may arise. In addition, blending of
different aggregates may be necessary if it results in cost savings to the project. The basic
formula expressing the combination of aggregates A, B and C, etc., in a blending
technique is as follows;

p= aA+bB+cC+… (6.5)

where,
p=% of blend passing a particular sieve size
A, B, C,….=the respective % of component materials A, B, C, etc. passing the particular
sieve size
a, b,c,..=the decimal proportions of aggregates A, B, C, etc. respectively in the blend
(a+b+c+..=1.0)

6.7.1 Design by trial-and–error

The most common methods of aggregate gradation design are by trial-and–error. Usually
such methods are aided by experience, plots of individual gradation curves and
specifications limits. With the procedure, a trial blend is selected and calculations for p
(the % passing each sieve) is made using Eq.6.5. The grading calculated from the trial is
compared with the specification requirements and where necessary, adjustments are made
for the next trial. The procedure is repeated until a satisfactory blend is obtained.

11
It is necessary as part of the blending technique to first plot the gradation of the
aggregates to be blended and the specification limits on a gradation chart before actual
blending is attempted. The plots make it easier to
 decide whether a blend can be formed using the available aggregates to meet the
required specifications
 identify the critical sieve sizes and
 select appropriate trial proportions
An important fact to note from such curves is that the gradation for all possible
combinations of any two materials always lies between the gradation curves for the
individual materials and that if the curves for the two materials cross at a point the curves
for all possible combinations of the two materials will also cross that point.

6.7.2 Mathematical method

An equation of the form of Eq. 6.5 is obtained for each sieve size using either the %
passing or retained on a given sieve size. A valid equation can also be written in terms of
the proportions of the individual aggregates forming the blend as

a+b+c+…=1 (6.6)

As many equations as represent the number of unknowns (a, b, c..) may be written and
the resulting set of equations solved simultaneously. Where the specification for a
particular sieve size is a range, the recommended p value to use in Eq. 6.5 in formulating
the equation corresponding to that sieve size must be the mid-range value. Of course any
value within the range may also be used. If in the solution of the simultaneous equations
one of the unknowns turns out to be negative as can happen and which obviously has no
practical significance, the indication is simply that the target specification values (the p
values in Eq. 6.5) used in developing the equations are simply unattainable in whatever
proportions the materials are combined. The values of p should in that case be revised but
still kept within the specifications limits in the next trial. Even when a reasonable
solution (no negative values) appears to have been found, the satisfactory one will be the
solution for which a check of the resulting gradation with the specification limits meets
the requirements for all sieve sizes.

6.7.3 Graphical method

A more efficient method for establishing the required proportions of an aggregate blend
especially where more than two aggregates are involved is by a graphical method. Where
more than two aggregates are to be blended, it is prudent to begin blending the fine and
intermediate materials first. The graphical method of blend design is set out step-wisely
as follows and best understood by referring to Fig. 6.3:

Step 1
Plot the % passing values for aggregate A on the right hand vertical scale representing
(100% of aggregate A on lower horizontal scale). Do the same for the values for
aggregate B on the left hand vertical scale (100% of aggregate B on the upper horizontal
scale; refer to Fig. 6.3).

12
Step 2
Connect points corresponding to the same sieve size on the two vertical scales with a
straight line and label the line with the sieve size for identification purposes. Note that
any vertical line intersecting each sieve size line will define the blend gradation on the
vertical scale and the blend proportions on the bottom and top horizontal scales.

Step 3
For a given sieve size line, mark on the line the points where the line crosses the upper
and lower specifications limits measured on the vertical scale. The portion of the straight
line between the two marks represents the proportions of the aggregates A and B
measured on the horizontal scale that will meet the specification limits for that particular
size.

Step 4
Draw two vertical lines one for the upper and the other for the lower spec. limits such that
the limits for all sizes in the specs, will not be violated. The region on the horizontal scale
bounded by the two vertical lines represents all proportions of possible satisfactory
blends. In practice the mid-point of the horizontal region is selected for the desired blend.
The point of intersection of the vertical through this point with the various size lines will
define the gradation of the blend on the vertical scale.

Step 5
If there are three materials to be blended, the resulting blend after Steps 1-4 is treated as
if it were a single material and then blended with the third material by repeating the
process from the beginning (Steps 1-4).

If at the end of Step 5 the proportion of the various components in the three-component
blend is x% of (A+B) and (100-x)% of C and the A+B blend is itself composed of y% of
A and (100-y)% of B, then the three-component blend (let us call it material D) is made
up in composition as follows:

x 100  x x  y 100  y  100  x

D (A  B)  C  A B  C
100 100 100 100 100  100
where x, y are values in %.

The table below sets out the proportion of the individual materials in the blend.

Component Proportion in blend (%)

Material
xy
A
100
x(100  y )
B
100
C (100  x)

13
Thus, the size fractions of the final blend will consist of the above proportions of the
corresponding size fractions of the individual components.

For a multi-component blend, Steps 1-4 are applied repeatedly each time taking the
resulting blend as a single material before combining with the next material. At each
blending stage, it is important to note the proportions in which the components forming
the blend exist in order that at the end of the process, the exact proportion of the
individual materials composing the final blend may be evaluated.

% of Aggregate B in blend

100 0
100 100
3/4

3/8

#4

#8

# 25

0 0 100 0
% of Aggregate A in blend
any vertical line in this region
will give a blend which will
satisfy specs. for all the sizes

Fig. 6.5 Graphical method for blending two aggregates

14
 7. Asphalt (bituminous) Paving Materials

7.1 Asphalt Cements

Asphalt (also known as bitumen) is the residual product of the distillation of heavy crude
petroleum. The material may also occur in a natural form, but very rarely. The distillation is
a two-stage process carried out under atmospheric followed by vacuum conditions. The
residual asphalt at the end of the vacuum distillation stage is referred to as straight-run
asphalt or sometimes vacuum tower bottoms.

When straight-run asphalts or vacuum tower bottoms are too soft they are given further
treatment in order to increase their hardness to a level acceptable for road building purposes.
This is achieved by subjecting the material to a process known as air-blowing. Air-blowing
converts the asphalt stock to one of modified properties (particularly increased hardness)
through polymerisation by contacting with air (oxygen).

In some cases, vacuum tower bottoms from the distillation process may be treated with
propane solvent to extract heavy oils such as lubricants in a process referred to as propane
de-asphalting. The residual asphalt from this process is a hard glassy product known as
propane-precipitated asphalt. This type of asphalt cannot be used directly for paving
applications but can be blended with any of the types of asphalts already mentioned to obtain
a product of intermediate consistency and the resulting product is referred to as a blended
asphalt. Thus depending on the crude type and available process capabilities, several
manufacturing options are available for the production of asphalts.

7.2 Consistency Parameters

Consistency is a measure of the hardness or the degree of fluidity of an asphalt cement
sample. The most commonly used parameters to describe asphalt consistency are penetration
and viscosity.

7.2.1 Penetration
This is the depth in units of 0.1mm that a standard needle loaded to 100g will penetrate an
asphalt sample for a standard duration of 5 seconds when the temperature of the sample is
maintained at 25oC (see illustration in Fig. 7.1). The harder an asphalt cement the lower its
penetration and vice-versa.

1
 Fig. 7.1 Penetration of asphalt cement

7.2.2 Viscosity
 Viscosity which is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to flow is a
fundamental property of fluids. This parameter is considered the most
appropriate parameter in describing the consistency of asphalts.
Asphalt viscosity may be evaluated when the sample is in a fluid state
at two standardised temperatures; 60oC and 135oC. The viscosity at
60oC commonly called the absolute viscosity and measured in units of
poise corresponds to the viscosity of asphalt in asphaltic pavements
during hot summer weather and represents the consistency of the
asphalt in its most critical state in service. In SI Units, 1 poise=0.1Pa.s.
The viscosity at 135oC is referred to as the kinematic viscosity
(measured in centistokes) since at this temperature the asphalt is
sufficiently fluid to flow under gravitational forces alone. This
viscosity corresponds approximately to the viscosity of asphalts at
mixing and lay-down conditions. The kinematic viscosity is the ratio
between the viscosity and density of the asphalt and has units of m2/s
in SI Units and cSt (centistokes) The SI unit of kinematic viscosity is
the square meter per second [m2/s].
 The Gaussian unit of kinematic viscosity is the stokes [St = cm2/s].
 Ten thousand stokes equal one square meter per second
[10,000 stoke = 1 m2/s].

7.2.3 Softening point

This is the temperature at which an asphalt cement or binder changes from a solid to liquid
state. The harder an asphalt cement, the higher its softening point and vice versa. The
standard method of evaluation of the softening point uses a ring filled with bitumen and then
loaded with steel ball. As such, the softening point temperature is also referred to as the Ring
and Ball temperature (TR&B). Extensive research on asphalt cements has indicated that
2
practically all asphalt cements attain the same consistency at the softening point temperature.
This value is used to advantage to evaluate the temperature susceptibility of asphalt cements
as discussed in the next section.

7.3 Temperature Susceptibility

This measures the effect that changes in temperature will have on the properties of an asphalt
cement. Asphalt cements are thermoplastic, therefore, their consistency changes with
temperature. An asphalt cement that is highly temperature-susceptible undergoes large
changes in properties for small changes in temperature. Such a material is not considered
suitable for use in road construction because it would become extremely soft at high
temperatures and extremely stiff and brittle at low temperatures. A soft asphalt will have
stability problems leading to rut failure; a brittle asphalt is highly prone to cracking when
subjected to tension. There are several indices for the quantitative measure of the
temperature susceptibility of asphalt cements but the most commonly-used is the Penetration
Index (PI). The PI of an asphalt cements is evaluated as follows;

20  50 A
PI  ( 7.1)
1  50 A
where,
log Pen at T1  log Pen at T2
A
T1  T2

and T1 and T2 are two different temperatures.

In practice, PI can be evaluated from a knowledge of the standard penetration value of the
asphalt cement and the softening point temperature. The parameter A in Eqn, 7.1 then
becomes
log(Standard pen.)  log(800)
A
25  TR &B
Asphalts that are considered suitable for road building purposes have PI values ranging
between –2 and +2.

7.4 Stiffness of Asphalt

Asphalt Stiffness (also known as Elastic Modulus) measures the relationship between stress
and strain as a function of time of loading and temperature. This parameter must be known
in order to assess the behaviour and performance of engineering structures such as asphalt
concrete pavements of which the asphalt forms a part. Because asphalt stiffness is dependent
on temperature and time or rate of loading, its characterisation is rather difficult. At very
short times of loading, such as occurs on highway pavements, the behaviour of the material is
almost elastic and the stiffness is analogous to the Elastic Modulus. At longer times of
loading and higher temperatures, the stiffness is simply a relationship between stress and
strain. Asphalt stiffness may be measured directly in the laboratory by creep and relaxation
tests and indirectly by use of monographs.

3
7.5 Grading
Asphalt cements are placed under different standard grades by way of their hardness or
degree of fluidity in order to make it possible for users to differentiate between them and/or
to select the type appropriate for an intended application. Asphalt cements may be graded on
the basis of either penetration at 25oC or viscosity at 60oC.

7.5.1 Penetration Grading

Based on penetration, five standard asphalt grades exist. These are;
 40-50 or 40/50
 60-70 or 60/70
 85-100 or 85/100
 120-150 or 120/150
 200-300 or 200/300 penetration grades.

The numerical values for each grade represent the range within which the penetration for that
particular grade must lie. For example, any asphalt sample whose penetration lies between 40
and 50 (including the lower and upper limits) is classified as a 45-50 pen. grade. Because
asphalt manufacturers would be required to produce a specific grade for application, there is
no question of having an asphalt binder not belonging to any of the above grades, i.e.,
manufacturers control their production methods in order to obtain the required grade.

7.5.2 Viscosity Grading

Grading of asphalts may also be based on the viscosity of the fresh sample at 60oC (the
absolute viscosity). The standard viscosity grades are;
 AC-2.5
 AC-5
 AC-10
 AC- 20
 AC-40
where AC designates "asphalt cement" and the numerical value of each grade represents one
hundredth of the absolute viscosity with a tolerance of 20%. Thus an AC-20 grade, for
example, has an absolute viscosity value that lies in the range 1600-2400 poise.

It is must be noted that there is no direct correspondence between viscosity grades and
penetration grades. Whereas, for example, most 60-70 pen grades will qualify as AC-20
grades and vice versa, AC-20 grades are not equivalent to 60-70 pen. grades. As a result,
specification for asphalts for road construction are based either on penetration or viscosity
but not both. However in some cases, an additional requirement in terms of viscosity for
penetration grades or in terms of penetration for viscosity grades may be imposed on a
particular grade just to restrict the range of possible materials.

7.6 Asphalt Durability and Age-hardening

To serve as a good binder, an asphalt cement must have the following characteristics:
 good adhesion to aggregates
 good viscosities at processing and application temperatures

4
 ability to deform easily without rupture in order to resist stresses whilst existing as a
component of an asphaltic pavement (visco-elastic behaviour)

The durability of an asphalt cement in relation to its performance as a binder is its resistance
to changes (for the worse) in these original properties during in-service use. An asphalt
pavement with a durable binder should be able to support traffic-induced stresses and strains
and detrimental weather conditions for a long time. Characteristic features of a pavement
experiencing durability problems are pavement disintegration, ravelling and all kinds of
cracking. The asphalt binder in such a pavement is considered to have age-hardened or
become brittle.

Age-hardening is a process by which asphalt become brittle as a result of chemical changes

in the asphalt during service conditions. The major cause of aging is oxidation of the
material. Oxidation reactions take place when asphalt comes into contact with atmospheric
oxygen. The process is aided by high temperatures. It is believed that significant hardening of
asphalt takes place in the pugmill during plant production of asphaltic concrete due to the
high mixing temperatures. The high temperatures cause dehydrogenation of the asphalt with
a resultant increase in material hardness. There are also loss of volatiles from the asphalt and
polymerisation reactions which allow the asphalt molecules to combine to form larger
molecules and contribute to asphalt age-hardening. As a result, it is part of quality control in
hot-mix asphalt production to check that production temperatures do not go beyond a certain
range so as to prevent premature aging.

Age-hardening continues in service although at a much lower rate for the first 2-3 years until
the pavement approaches its maximum density under traffic. In that condition, the rate of
hardening is significantly reduced due to the low pavement permeability and the reduced
potential for oxygen to diffuse into the pavement and react with the asphalt.

7.7 Liquefied Asphalts

Asphalts from the distillation process usually exist in a solid form at room temperatures and
lower but may be produced in a liquefied form to enable use without or with a minimum
application of heat. Liquefied asphalts may exist in the form of asphalt emulsions
(bituminous emulsions) or cutback asphalts (cutback bitumen).

7.7.1 Asphalt Emulsions

An asphalt emulsion is a liquefied asphalt obtained by the dispersion of asphalt globules in
water containing an emulsifying agent (a soap-like substance which acts as a stabiliser). The
process of manufacture involves passing hot asphalt cement and water containing an
emulsifying agent under pressure through a colloid mill to produce extremely small (less than
5-10 microns) globules or droplets of asphalt cement which become suspended in the water.
Without the emulsifying agent the asphalt globules will coalesce and stay out of suspension
since asphalt is an organic material and will therefore not normally mix with water. The
emulsifying agent imparts an electric charge to the surface of the asphalt globules which
causes the globules to repel one another. On the basis of the charge carried on the globules,
the emulsified asphalt may be termed cationic (electro-positively charged) or anionic
(electro-negatively charged).

5
When it comes into contact with the surface of an aggregate an emulsified asphalt breaks or
sets (i.e. the asphalt globules react with the surface of the aggregates, lose their charge and
coalesce to form a continuous film on the aggregate as the water evaporates). Depending on
the rate of set or break, an emulsion may be described as rapid setting (RS), medium setting
(MS) or slow setting (SS). In general the rate at which an emulsion-aggregate mixture will set
depends on the following:
 composition of the emulsion
 the porosity of the surface to which the emulsion is applied
 the rate of evaporation of the water which is dictated by wind conditions, relative
humidity and environmental temperature and
 the surface chemistry of the aggregates with which the emulsion comes into contact.

The following grades of anionic and cationic emulsions are available.

Table 7.1 Anionic emulsion types

Rapid Setting Medium Setting Slow Setting

RS-1 MS-1 SS-1

HFRS-2 HFMS-2 SS-2h
RS-2 MS-2
MS-2h

Table 7.2 Cationic Emulsion Types

Rapid Setting Medium Setting Slow Setting

CRS-1 CMS-2 CSS-1

CRS-2 CMS-2h CSS-1h

The “h” designation means a harder base asphalt cement is used in the emulsion. The “HF”
designation refers to a high float residue which is an indication of chemical gelling of the
emulsion residue.

Selection and uses of emulsified asphalts are generally as follows (see ASTM D3628)
Rapid-setting grades: Surface treatments and penetration macadam
Medium-setting grades: Open-graded cold asphalt-aggregate mixtures
Slow-setting grades: Tack coat, dense-graded cold asphalt–aggregate mixtures,
slurry seals.

6
7.7.2 Cutback Asphalts (or Cutbacks)
A cutback is a liquefied asphalt obtained when an asphalt cement is liquefied by dissolution
in an organic solvent (cutter). The type of organic solvent or cutter used will determine the
rate at which the cutback will lose its liquid component and become solid, and hence the type
of cutback. If the cutter used is of high volatility (such as naphtha or gasoline) the resulting
cutback is described as "rapid curing" (RC); if a kerosene-type solvent which is of medium
volatility is used, the cutback is described as "medium curing" (MC). A cutback containing
low-volatile oils (such as diesel or gasoil) is described as "slow curing" (SC). Curing of
cutback-aggregate mixtures occurs simply by the evaporation of the cutter from the cutback
and does not involve any chemical reaction between the aggregates and the asphalt material.

Cutbacks are commercially available in different grades: the thinnest and most fluid grade is
designated by the suffix number 30 which is available in “medium curing” type only (MC-
30). Table 7.3 provides the grades of cutbacks commercially available in the paving industry.

Table 7.3 Grades of cutbacks available

Rapid Curing Medium Curing Slow Curing

Cutbacks Cutbacks Cutbacks
- MC-30 -
RC-70 MC-70 SC-70
RC-250 MC-250 SC-250
RC-800 MC-800 SC-8000
RC-3,000 MC-3,000 SC-3,000

The numbers shown against the various grades represent the minimum kinematic viscosity (in
centistokes) at 60oC for the particular grade. Each grade has an upper viscosity limit which is
double the minimum viscosity (or grade number)). Thus MC-70, SC-70, and RC-70 for
example, all have viscosities at 60oC ranging between 70 and 140 cSt.

7.8 Asphaltic Concrete

The largest use of asphalt cement or binder is for the production of hot-mix asphalt (HMA)
which is primarily used for the construction of flexible pavements. HMA variously referred
to as asphalt concrete, asphalt paving mix or bituminous paving mixture etc. is a mixture of
asphalt cement and graded mineral aggregates. Asphalt concrete is used to provide structural
strength to pavements that come under very heavy loads from traffic on roads and airfields.
Depending on the intended application, asphaltic concrete mixtures may be designed as
“open-graded” or “dense-graded”. Compared to the dense-graded mixtures which are the
traditional and predominant mixtures used in flexible pavement construction, open-graded
mixtures tend to have relatively large stone or higher coarse aggregate content and are more
permeable. Large-stone open-graded mixtures are more suitable for supporting heavy truck
traffic.

7
7.8.1 Aggregate for Asphalt Concrete Design
Aggregates for asphalt concrete mix must be sound and pass the strength and shape
characteristics determined by the following tests:
i) Los Angeles Abrasion test,
ii) Soundness test,
iii) Flakiness Index test
iv) Elongation Index test
v) Aggregate Impact test
vi) Aggregate Crushing test
vii) 10% Fines test.

In addition, the aggregates must also be rough-textured with angular cleavage and perhaps
cubical in shape. The gradation must also represent the most economical blend that satisfies
all specification requirements for the intended use of the asphaltic concrete.

7.8.2 Marshall Mix Design Method.

The Marshall method of mix design is the most widely used method for designing asphalt
concrete mixes. This method is standardised under the designation ASTM D 1559. The
procedure for the method is as follows.

a. Mixture preparation
About 1150-1200g of the graded aggregates meeting specifications are placed in a mixing
pan. The actual quantity of material required is that which will result in a compacted
specimen height of 631.27mm. Usually, it is recommended to prepare a trial specimen prior
to the complete test schedule so that if this height is no met the quantity of aggregates taken
could be adjusted per the following formula:
63.5
Q  Qo (7.2)
h

where Q=the quantity of aggregates required

Qo=quantity used for trial specimen
h=trial specimen height

To provide adequate data, three test specimens must be prepared for each asphalt content and
aggregate combination. The asphalt content is by definition given as

Weight of asphalt
Asphalt content  x 100 (7.3)
Weight of asphalt  Weight of aggregates

A separate pan is required for each specimen. Specimens must be prepared to asphalt
contents that vary in 0.5 % increments with at least two of the test specimens having asphalt
content above the optimum and two below. Usually six different asphalt contents are selected
requiring a total of 18 Marshall specimens to be scheduled.

The weighed aggregates are dried in an oven and maintained at a temperature about 30 oC
above the mixing temperature. The mixing temperature is the temperature which corresponds
8
to asphalt viscosity of 17020cSt. This temperature is obtained from the viscosity-
temperature data on the asphalt cement being used. A quantity of the required asphalt cement
corresponding to the desired asphalt content of the mix is added to the heated aggregates and
then quickly and thoroughly mixed to obtain a uniform coating of asphalt on the aggregates.

b. Compaction of mixture

The whole of the mixture is transferred into the compaction mould for compaction to
proceed. Compaction takes place when the mixture has attained the compaction temperature
which is the temperature corresponding to a viscosity of 28030cSt. This temperature which
is slightly lower than the mixing temperature is obtained from the viscosity–temperature
curve for the asphalt cement sample being used and is usually in the region of 130-140oC.
Samples that cool below the compaction temperature are not recommended for use and must
be discarded. The hammer and mould to be used for the compaction must be heated to
temperatures around 100oC or a bit more. It is recommended that the inside of the mould be
given a light application of oil to aid later extrusion of compacted samples. In compacting,
one face of the specimen receives the required number of blows of the hammer: the faces are
reversed and the same number of blows is administered to the reversed face. The number of
blows per face is dictated by the level of traffic as follows:

Traffic level Number of blows/face

Light 35
Medium 50
Heavy 75

After the compaction, samples are identified and allowed to cool preferably overnight before
being extruded from the compaction moulds.

c. Tests on compacted specimens

i. Bulk density test

This test is to be carried out on the extruded compacted specimen before any destructive test.
Volumes for density evaluation are determined by the water displacement method instead of
the physical dimensions of the sample because of the unevenness of the sample surface due
to the presence of pores and crevices. There are two approaches to the determination of the
compacted volume; one approach uses the saturated surface dry sample and the other uses the
compacted sample with a coating of wax.

Approach 1: Saturated surface dry sample method

In this approach the compacted sample is weighed in air (Wa), then weighed fully submerged
in water (Wsub). After the sample has been removed from water the surface is wiped dry of
any free flowing water. In this condition , the sample is said to be saturated surface dry (i.e. it
is saturated but the surface is dry). The saturated surface dry sample is then weighed in air
(WSSD). At the end of the weighings, the bulk (total) volume of the compacted specimen is
given as

Vmb=WSSD-Wsub
9
Hence the bulk density of the compacted sample becomes

Wa
Bulk density,  mb  7.4
WSSD  Wsub
Approach 2: Wax-coated sample method
In this approach the sample is first weighed in air (Wa), then coated with paraffin wax
(candle) and weighed in air again (Wc). It is then fully submerged in water and weighed
submerged (Wcsub). At the end of the weighings the following volumes obtain if the
weighings are recorded in grams:

Bulk volume of sample  wax  Wc  Wcsub (7.5)

Wc  W a
Volume of wax  (7.6)
G wax
W  W a 
Bulk volume of sample,Vmb  [Wc  Wcsub ]   c  (7.7)
 G wax 

Wa
Hence, bulk denisty of compacted sample  (7.8)
Vmb

ii. Stability and flow test

This is a destructive test and must be carried out only when bulk density determinations have
been completed on the compacted samples. Marshall specimens for the stability and flow test
are conditioned for 30 to 40 minutes in a water bath maintained at 60oC. At the end of the
conditioning period, a specimen is removed from the bath and carefully wiped dry. It is then
positioned in the testing head and the flow meter set in position. A compressive load is
applied at a constant rate of 51 mm/min until failure. The failure load is the stability value
and the corresponding compression measured in one-hundredth of an inch is the flow. In all,
the test should not last more than one minute from the beginning to the end in order to keep
the specimen temperature practically unchanged at 60oC.

d. Voids analysis

The important properties of the compacted specimens of the paving mixture are the bulk
density, and voids in the mixture. Three different kinds of voids are identified. These are;

a. air voids or voids in total mix (VTM)

This is the total volume of the small pockets of air between the coated aggregate particles
throughout the compacted paving mixture, expressed as a percentage of the total
specimen volume.

10
b. volume in mineral aggregates (VMA)
This is the volume of inter-granular voids space between the aggregate particles of a
compacted paving mixture that includes air voids and volume of the asphalt not absorbed
into the aggregate and expressed as a percent of the total volume

c. Voids filled with asphalt (VFA)

This is the proportion of the volume of inter-granular voids space between the aggregate
particles of a compacted paving mixture that has been filled with asphalt.

Fig. 7. 2 represents the equivalent weights and volumes of a compacted Marshall specimen.

Fig. 7.2 Weights and volumes of compacted asphalt concrete

where,
Vmb= bulk volume of compacted specimen
Va=volume of air voids
Vb=volume of asphalt or bitumen
Vba=volume of asphalt absorbed into aggregates
Vma=volume of voids in mineral aggregates
Vmm=voidless volume of compacted mix
Vsb=bulk volume of aggregates
Vse=effective volume of mineral aggregates
Wb=weight of asphalt
Ws=weight of aggregates

By definition,

11
 V mb  V sb
VMA  100 (7.9)
V mb

By substituting weights for volumes, it can be shown that

 (100  Pb ) 
VMA  1001  G mb  (7.10)
 100G sb 
where,
Gmb=bulk specific gravity of the compacted specimen
Gsb=bulk specific gravity of the aggregates
Pb=asphalt (bitumen) content in %

By definition

Va V  (Vsb  Vba  Vb )
VTM  100  100 mb (7.11)
Vmb Vmb

Again, by substituting weights for volumes, it can be shown that

 G 
VTM  1001  mb  (7.12)
 Gmm 
where,
Gmm=theoretical maximum specific gravity of the compacted specimen.

The voids filled with asphalt is given by the expression

VMA  VTM 
VFA  100  (7.13)
 VMA 

In the above equations, Gsb is a constant of the aggregates used but Gmm and Gmb are
dependent on the asphalt content of the compacted specimen and must be evaluated before
the voids calculation for each asphalt content can be made. Gmb is derived directly from the
bulk density values of the specimen. Gmm may be evaluated for each asphalt content by the
standard test ASTM D2041. A more practical way of determining Gmm for each asphalt
content is to use the standard test (ASTM D2041) to determine the value at an asphalt content
close to the optimum. The value so determined is used in the following equation to determine
the parameter Gse which is a theoretical constant of the aggregates.

100
Gmm 
100  Pb P (7.14)
 b
Gse Gb

where,
Gse = the effective specific gravity of the aggregates
Gb=specific gravity of asphalt (values range between 1.01-1.03)

12
Once Gse has been evaluated, subsequent values of Gmm for any other asphalt contents can
then be calculated using Eqn 7.14.

e. Interpretation of test data

Once the density-voids analysis has been completed, the relevant data obtained must be
interpreted. This is accomplished by using the data to prepare the following plots:

 asphalt content vs density or unit weight

 asphalt content vs. Marshall Stability
 asphalt content vs flow
 asphalt content vs air voids (VTM)
 asphalt content vs VMA
 asphalt content vs VFA

As a precaution, it is necessary to check that the plots exhibit characteristics similar to the
corresponding plots in Fig.7.4 shown below.

13
 Fig.7.4 Graphical presentation of asphalt concrete design data by the Marshall method

The following characteristics must be exhibited by the plots

a. Stability increases with asphalt content, reaches a peak and then decreases. With many
recycled mixtures, however, stability may decrease with increasing asphalt content and
not show a peak.
b. Flow increases with increasing asphalt content
c. Density increases with increasing asphalt content up to a peak and then decreases. Note
that peak density and peak stability do not necessarily occur at the same asphalt content.
d. VTM decreases with increasing asphalt content
e. VMA decreases with increasing asphalt content reaches a minimum and then increases.
f. VFA increases with increasing asphalt content.

It is to be noted that peak density and peak stability do not necessarily occur at the same
asphalt content. Maximum stability tends to occur at an asphalt content slightly lower than
for maximum density.
14
Determination of the optimum asphalt content
The optimum asphalt content may be determined by any of the following two methods:

1. Asphalt Institute’s Method

In this method, the following steps are followed.

a. Determine the asphalt content at

 maximum stability
 maximum density
 mid-point of specified air voids range
and find the average of the three values obtained.

b. Enter the appropriate curves in the previous plots and determine the
 stability
 flow
 air voids (VTM)
 VMA and
 VFA
corresponding to the average asphalt content determined previously.

c. Compare the values of the above parameters obtained from the plot with the specification
values or limits. If any of the values fails to meet the specifications, the mixture should be
redesigned, otherwise the mix formulation is accepted.

2. NAPA (National Asphalt Paving Association) Method

In this method emphasis is placed on the air voids in the total mix. The following are the
steps to follow in determining the optimum asphalt content.
i. Determine th e asphalt content corresponding to the median of the specifications air voids
content (usually 4%) and take this value as the tentative optimum asphalt content.

ii. Determine the values of the following parameters at the tentative optimum asphalt content:
 Marshall stability
 Flow
 VMA and
 VFA.
iii. Compare the values of each of the above parameters against the specification values or
limits. If all are within specification requirements, then the tentative optimum asphalt
content is indeed the optimum asphalt content otherwise the mixture should be
redesigned.

f. Selection of Job Mix Formula

The Job Mix Formula is the gradation and the asphalt content which satisfy all specification
requirements and upon which plant mixtures are to be produced for the construction. This is
selected at the final stage of the laboratory design as the mix that was most economical and
gave the most satisfactory results.
15
7.9 Stiffness of Compacted Asphalt Concrete
For engineering calculations relating to asphaltic concrete mixture behaviour under loads, the
stiffness of the mix is used as a term analogous to Young’s Modulus. It is sometimes referred
to as the Resilient Modulus (MR). The stiffness of mixtures just like the stiffness of asphalt
cement is dependent on temperature and duration of loading. The relationship between
stiffness (Smix or MR), time (t) and temperature (T) is expressed as

S mix  M R 
 (t , T ) (7.15)

where , = stress and strain respectively. The dependence of asphalt concrete stiffness on
temperature is illustrated below.

Stiffness

Temp

The following times are considered representative of the duration of the given traffic load
application conditions.
Traffic load Approx. load
Application type duration (s)
Fast traffic 0.01-0.1
Braking and accelerating 0.1-1.0
Parked >>1.0

Mixture stiffness may be determined by conducting indirect tensile tests on the compacted
specimen or estimated from the stiffness nomograph attached using the following data input:

% volume of mineral aggregate (Vg)=100-VMA

% volume of bitumen (Vb)=VMA-VTM
stiffness of bitumen within the mix (Sb)

For the evaluated mix stiffness to be representative of service conditions, the input stiffness
(Sb) of the asphalt binder should be that of the asphalt within the mix and not that of the
original asphalt selected for the mix. Hence the stiffness must be that of the asphalt recovered
from the mixture or that of the Thin Film Oven Test residue.

7.10 Plant Manufacture of Hot-Mix Asphalt (Asphalt Concrete)

Plant productions of HMA involve combining aggregates of different sizes to meet
specifications and mixing them with the selected asphalt at elevated temperatures in the
16
proportion as per the Job Mix Formula in a hot-mix asphalt plant. Aggregates are obtained as
a blend of 2 to 4 separate stockpiles of materials contained in cold bin silos. Materials from
the silos are combined in the required proportions by means of adjustable gate and a variable
speed feeder located at the bottom of each bin. The asphaltic concrete mixture may be
produced in a drum mix facility or in a batch mix plant.

7.10.1 Drum Mix Operations

In a drum mix facility, aggregates proportioned from cold bin silos are brought to a cold feed
elevator by means of a conveyor and thence to a dryer. An automatic weighing system on this
elevator continuously monitors the amount of aggregates plus moisture going into the drum
mixer so that the dry weight of the aggregates can be established in a control room and the
right quantity of asphalt pumped into the drum mixer by the asphalt proportioning system. A
burner at the entry end of the drum heats and dries the aggregates as they travel down the
length of the drum to the discharge end. At a point about a third way to the discharge end,
asphalt cement is added from a storage tank and just about at the same point mineral filler is
also added and the whole mass mixed together to produce uniformly coated mixture. The
HMA exits the drum through a discharge chute onto a conveyor system that transports the
mix into a surge silo for storage or discharge into trucks.

7.10.2 Batch Mix operations

In a batch mix operation, materials proportioned from the cold bin silos are fed by a cold feed
conveyor into a dryer exactly in the case of the drum mix operations. A burner in the dryer
provides the heat energy required for evaporating the moisture in the aggregates. Unlike in
the drum mix, however, where aggregates being dried move in the same direction as the
exhaust gases, aggregate in the batch mixing facility move counter-flow to the exhaust gases.
The hot dust-laden gases from the dryer are passed through a dust collection system so that
dust particles can be removed to cut down on dust emission. Dust so collected is returned to
the filler silo for re-use.

The heated aggregates from the dryer are conveyed via an enclosed elevator to a tower plant
where they are discharged onto vibrating screens that separate the materials into a number of
sizes. The screened aggregates are then stored in hot bins from where a control system
proportions them into a weigh box. The weighed mixture is then discharged into a pugmill
where the required amount of asphalt cement already weighed and stored in a weigh bucket is
introduced after a few seconds of dry mixing. The pugmill is equipped with a counter rotating
twin shaft that helps coat the aggregates with asphalt quickly. The HMA produced is
transferred into a storage silo or discharged directly into trucks for transfer to the lay-down
site.

17
 8. Bituminous Surfacing and Construction

8.1 Introduction
Bituminous surfacing is any surfacing that involves the use of bituminous materials to
waterproof the pavement surface and/or provide structural strength. Such a
construction may consist of an application of a thin film of bituminous binder onto a
base course or pavement surface followed by the spread of a single layer of chippings
as in a chip seal (surface dressing), or it may involve the use of high-strength asphalt
concrete to waterproof and provide structural strength to a pavement. Other types of
bituminous surfacing include slurry seal, fog seals, etc. In all such constructions, the
principal materials are bituminous binders (penetration or viscosity grade, cutbacks,
emulsified asphalts) and aggregates of specified gradation.

8.2 Priming
Priming by itself is not a bituminous surfacing but it is the first step in the
construction of bituminous surfacing. It involves the application of bitumen or
asphalt, which has been made more fluid, to a road base so that the bituminous
material (called primer), will soak and penetrate the surface. The primer should be
fluid enough to penetrate the pavement surface to a depth of between 3 to 10 mm.
Priming of a road base is for any or all of the following reasons;

 coating and bonding of fine dust particles to the surface of the pavement
 plugging capillary pores in the pavement to waterproof the surface
 penetrating and strengthening the surface of the base layer by increasing
cohesion
 coating the surface of the base to provide better adhesion between the surface
and subsequent bituminous surfacing
 providing a strengthened short-term running surface prior to subsequent
paving.

The main types of primers are cutbacks of the MC-30, MC-70, SC-70, SC-250 grades.
Asphalt emulsions are not recommended for priming because of their tendency to
form a skin on the surface of the pavement. The choice of the grade of primer and its
rate of application is usually dictated by the nature of the pavement surface to be
primed, and the period of time that will elapse before the main bituminous surfacing
is applied. The following table provides a guide to the type of primer and rate of
application appropriate for the nature of the surface to be primed.

Pavement surface Primer Recommended

characteristics application rate primer grade
(l/m2)
Tight or dense 0.5 - 1.0 MC-30
Medium porosity 0.5 - 1.0 MC-70
Open textured (high porosity) 0.8 - 1.4 SC-250
1
Extremely porous surfaces may need two applications of the primer. If the rate of
application of the primer to get adequate coverage and penetration exceeds 1.4 l/m2
then a more viscous primer needs to be selected. In the case where the primed surface
will be blinded with sand or quarry dust to allow short-term use by traffic, it is
recommended to increase the rate of primer application by 0.2 l/m2.

Priming should take place when the weather is hot and dry and never when rain is
impending or the weather looks threatening. In addition, surfaces to be primed should
be damp but not too wet. A primed surface should be left for 2 to 3 days to allow the
volatile cutter in the cutback to evaporate otherwise the residual volatiles can affect
subsequent bituminous treatments. A primed surface is blinded with sand or quarry
dust if the road is to be opened to traffic for some short period before the application
of the main bituminous layer. This will serve to prevent vehicle tyres from picking
the sticky residual bitumen remaining on the pavement surface and destroying the
primed surface. Blinding is not necessary if the main bituminous layer will follow
within one or two days during which period traffic will not be allowed on the primed
section.

8.3 Primer-seal
A primer seal results if a primed road base is covered with aggregates. In this case,
the binder used for priming must be more viscous than would be used for normal
priming (see surface dressing binder) since it is intended to serve both as a primer
and as a binding material to hold the chippings onto the road surface. A primer seal
provides a riding surface for traffic for a period longer than would be provided by a
normal primed base that is blinded with sand or quarry dust. In general a primer-seal
construction provides several advantages including the following:
1. Traffic is able to use the primed surface the same day and for a much longer
period without significant surface deterioration even if the main seal coat is
considerably delayed.
2. The construction results in less disruption to traffic.

3. The seal can last up to 24 months and is suitable for situations where
placement of the main seal is expected to be considerably delayed.
4. When the final seal coat is placed, a surfacing intermediate between a single
seal and a double seal is obtained. This leads to an enhanced surface integrity
which improves durability of the chip seal as a whole.
5. It results in minimal loss of chippings as about 95% chip embedment is
achieved. This in turn almost eliminates aggregate whip-off and associated
windshield breakage and results in an environmentally friendly surfacing.

8.4 Surface dressing (chip sealing)

This is a type of bituminous surfacing consisting of an application of a very thin layer
of liquid bituminous binder such as a cutback or emulsified asphalt on a primed
pavement surface and the subsequent spread of single-sized stone chippings. This type
of bituminous construction does not provide any structural strength to a pavement but
2
it enables the strength of the pavement and the sub-grade to be preserved. The thin
layer of bitumen or asphalt acts as a waterproofing seal to prevent the entry of surface
water into the pavement structure. The chippings provide a durable skid-resistant and
dust-free wearing surface as well as a protective cover against damage of the asphalt
film by vehicle tyres. Surface dressings may be used to restore the skid resistance of
an existing pavement whose wearing surface has been polished by traffic.

The construction is generally adequate for lightly trafficked roads with traffic levels
not exceeding 500 veh/lane/day. Where roads carry up to 1,000 veh/lane/day or even
more, a double surface dressing may be appropriate. A double surface dressing is
simply a surface dressing applied on a surface dressing. It is recommended that the
application of the second dressing takes place at least 2-3 weeks after the construction
of the first surfacing to allow traffic help the chippings of the first dressing assume a
stable interlocking structure and become a firm foundation for the second dressing.
But successful performances have been observed for constructions that ignored this
recommendation. The nominal size of chippings to use in the second dressing
must be half that of the first.

8.4.1 Design and construction-GHA’s Method

i. Selection of aggregate size

The current design approach selects aggregate size on the basis of traffic intensity and
whether the chippings are to be used in primer seal construction or the main seal. For
primerseal construction the recommended chipping sizes are 7, 10, and 14mm
whereas only the 10 and 14mm sizes are specified for the main seal. The table below
provides designers with a guide to the selection of aggregate size for the main seal
using information about the average daily traffic expected on the road.

Table 2. Aggregate size selection for main seal

Recommended Chipping Size

Traffic (veh/lane/day)
(mm)
<3000 (very light to light) 10
300-1,200 (light to medium) 10, 14 (10mm preferable)
>1,2000 (medium to heavy) 10, 14 (14mm normal)

Where there are two sizes to choose from, it is recommended to use the smaller
aggregates for roads in urban areas where traffic loads are low and the larger ones on
rural highways where commercial vehicle traffic and axle loads are high.

ii. Pre-coating of chippings (aggregates)

Poor binder–aggregate bond is one of the major causes of loss of cover aggregates in
surface dressings. Loss of cover aggregates leads to damage of the thin bituminous
cover which subsequently results in pitting and pothole formation. To overcome this,
the current design approach specifies the pre-coating of the aggregates for the seal
with a bitumen-based (cutback) material. This includes the aggregates to be used for
3
the primer seal construction and the main seal coat as well. The cutback for the pre-
coating is formulated as 90% gas oil and 10% AC-10 bitumen. The recommended
application rate for uniform coverage is 12 litres/m3. Pre-coating must take place at
least three days before the chippings are to be used and if rain is imminent, adequate
cover must be provided to prevent the pre-coating material form being washed off.

iii. Primer seal construction

Instead of a primed surface a primerseal is constructed. The primer binder to use is an
AC-10 (or 80-100 pen grade) with a 16-20% kerosene cutter. The size of chippings
for the primerseal may be selected from any of the following; 7, 10, and 14mm.
However, for low-medium traffic, 7mm chippings are recommended for use as this
will provide a more uniform and less hungry surface for the final seal.

The rate of primer binder application is a function of the size of aggregate to be used
for the primerseal; the volume of traffic anticipated on the road; the spray
temperature, and the porosity of the pavement surface. The spray temperatures
considered are for either cold or hot applications and are respectively 15oC and 135oC.
The porosity of the pavement surface is placed into four types, namely,
 tightly bonded,
 fine bonded,
 coarse and
 crushed rock.
For both cold and hot binder applications the aggregate spread rate is dependent only
on the size of chippings selected. Table 1 from GHA Spraying Seal Manual provides
an example guide to materials application for a tightly bonded pavement surface with
the primer seal applied cold.

Table 1. A guide to material selection and application for primerseals

Binder Application Rate at 15oC (l/m2)

Size of (Tightly Bonded Surface) Aggregate Spread
Aggregate
Rate (m2/m3)
(mm) Traffic level (veh/lane/day)
<300 300-2,000 >2,000
7 1.35 115
10 1.35 1.25 1.15 100
14 1.45 1.35 1.25 80

Similar tables are available for other surface types and for cold and hot binder
applications.

iv Seal coat construction

A more viscous bituminous binder is specified for use as tack coat for the main seal.
The tack coat may be a cutback or an emulsion but it is more preferable to use a
cationic rapid setting emulsion grade CRS-70 containing 70% AC-10 base bitumen.
The rate at which the aggregate selected is to be applied to the pavement surface
4
following the spraying of the bituminous tack coat is dictated by the Average Least
Dimension (ALD) of the aggregate. Table 2 provides a guide to the chippings
application rate for a broad range of ALD values.

Table 2. A guide to aggregate application rates.

Aggregate ALD Upper Optimum Lower

Size Range
(mm) (square metre/cubic metre)
Sand 2.0 329 282 235
2.5 263 207 141
5mm 3.0 235 188 132
3.5 212 174 127
4.0 193 160 122
7mm 4.5 179 150 113
5.0 165 141 108
5.5 152 133 105
10mm 6.0 143 124 100
6.5 134 120 96
7.0 130 115 91
7.5 125 110 86
8.0 116 107 82
14mm 8.5 112 102 80
9.0 107 97 78
9.5 102 92 75
10.0 98 88 74
10.5 93 83 71
11.0 88 78 69
20mm 11.5 83 74 66
12.0 78 69 64
12.5 74 64 61
13.0 69 59 59
13.5 64 54 56
14.0 59 49 54

v. Rolling (Compaction)
Only pneumatic-tyre rollers of mass between 12 and 15 tonnes and a wheel load
greater than 1 tonne with a tyre pressure of 550kNm2 are specified for use. Steel-
wheeled rollers are not recommended for use as they tend to compact only the high
spots and crush aggregates. Pneumatic-tyre rollers result in kneading compaction and
are able to re-orient the aggregates to lie on their flat side with their least dimension
vertical so that there is also embedment rather than just mere compaction. This results
in a more interlocking aggregate layer for the seal. Where necessary two rollers may
be employed to keep pace with the tack coat application and aggregate spread.
5
8.4.2 Problems associated with surface dressing

Surface dressings that are not properly constructed may experience one or more of the
following problems:
i. Streaking
This is an alternating series of light and dark longitudinal parallel lines on the
road surface due to uneven application of binder on the finished surface. Such
unevenness may result from clogged spray bar nozzles or incorrect height of
spray bar above pavement surface.

ii. Bleeding
This is the flushing to the surface of bituminous binder in the surfacing so that
the passage of a vehicle leaves an imprint of the tyres on the surface. Bleeding
causes pavement surfaces to be shiny and extremely smooth. The problem is
caused by the application of too much binder or by the loss of cover
aggregates.

iii. Loss of cover aggregates

This occurs when there is insufficient embedment of cover aggregates in the
thin asphalt layer. Insufficient embedment may arise if;
 inadequate binder was applied
 dusty and dirty aggregates were used for the surfacing
 the asphalt binder was too hard to develop good bond with aggregates
 the binder or tack coat was applied on a primed or an existing surface that
had a layer of dust on it thus preventing a good bond from developing
between the surface and the new seal coat.

8.5 Fog seal

A fog seal consists of a very light application of binder onto the surface dressings
followed by an application of quarry dust. The binder used is usually emulsified
asphalt sprayed at a rate of 0.6-0.9 l/m2. The fog seal is used to improve retention of
aggregates that under normal sealing operations may not become sufficiently
embedded in the bitumen layer and hence are whipped-off to the sides of the road.
Because of the enhanced chipping retention, surface defects such as potholes are
delayed on surface dressings that have been fog-sealed.

In general the benefits to be derived from a fog seal application on a surface dressing
include:
 complete retention of surface dressing chippings
 longer pavement life from improved retention of cover aggregates
 improvement in the surface riding quality
 windshield breakage and paint chip from whip-off aggregates are completely
eliminated
 noise from vehicle tyres is substantially reduced
 enhanced roadway aesthetics from a well-defined carriageway

6
8.6 Slurry seal
A slurry seal is a bituminous surfacing placed in the form of thick workable slurry of
a mixture of asphalt emulsion, water, aggregate and filler. The slurry, which is
premixed in a specially equipped truck, is spread on the road surface by means of a
spreader box to a thickness of about 5-10mm. When placed, slurry of optimum design
should set in about 30-60mins. Depending on the aggregate gradation used, three
slurry types, namely, type I, type II, and type III may be produced. The following are
the gradation requirements for the three types of slurry. ( Table 8.3).

Table 8.3 Slurry seal aggregate gradation

Slurry type and use

I II III
Crack filling General seal Restoration
and fine seal on medium of skid
Sieve size textured resistance
surfaces
% passing % passing % passing
3/8 in - 100 100
#4 100 90-100 70-90
#8 90-100 65-90 45-70
#16 65-90 45-70 28-60
#30 40-60 30-50 19-34
#50 25-42 18-30 12-25
#100 15-30 10-21 7-18
#200 10-20 5-15 5-15

Type I slurry is suitable for sealing cracks, filling voids and correcting surface defects
on airfields where surface sealing is the primary needs. The slurry is applied at the
rate of 3.3-5.4kg/m2.

Type II slurry is suitable for filling surface voids, correcting severe surface erosion
conditions, providing a wearing surface on bituminous base course or soil-cement
bases, or as a sealer on stabilised base courses. The rate of application is 5.4-
8.2kg/m2.

Type III slurry is suitable for providing a new wearing surface to improve aesthetics
or the skid resistance of a polished surface or building a crown. The rate of
application is 8.2kg/m2 or more.

8.7 Asphalt overlay construction

An asphalt overlay construction is a bituminous surfacing in which hot-mix asphalt
concrete (HMA) is placed as the wearing course and a structural component of a
pavement. Overlay construction may be as low as 50mm thick to as much as full
pavement depth.
7
8.7.1 Preparatory works

Surfaces to be overlaid must be prepared prior to placement of the hot-mix asphalt.

Preparation includes regulating the pavement surface if there are irregularities in the
surface profile or shape, sealing cracks, and planing or grooving surfaces that have
been polished by traffic and are likely to develop poor adhesion with the new
construction. The new flexible construction must have the base course already
primed. The final stage of the preparatory works involves the application of a tack
coat to the surface to be overlaid. The tack coat (a solution of a slow setting asphalt
emulsion and an equal amount of water) is applied to the pavement surface at a rate of
about 0.25-0.7 litres/m2.

8.7.2 Placing of mix

An approximate way of knowing the thickness of loose material to place is to multiply

the desired compacted thickness by 1.25. After placing about 6-9m of the mat, the
operation should be stopped and the unrolled mat checked for uniformity in texture so
that deficiencies can be corrected by making the necessary adjustment in the screed.
During placement of the HMA, the amount of material carried ahead of the screed
should be kept uniform in height as variations in height have the potential of causing
surface roughness

8.7.3 Compaction

Compaction of asphalt paving mixtures is aimed at reducing the volume of air in a

HMA by the application of external energy. The process is intended to achieve a
uniform high density of the asphalt layer. The expulsion of air enables the mix to
occupy a smaller volume thereby leading to an increase in density. Though the
amount of compaction energy put into a field material cannot be determined, its
effectiveness can be determined by measuring the density achieved by the compaction
energy. In view of this, field compaction operations of asphalt paving mixtures are
guided by a roller pattern established using a test section or strip at the beginning of
the operations. The roller pattern enables the number of passes required to achieve a
desired density in a compaction operation to be established.

The compaction process is affected by confining conditions, which in the field are
provided by the surrounding HMA material, the underlying layer and the compactor
contact area in its zone of influence. Because temperature has a profound effect on the
workability of asphalt paving mixtures, compaction should be carried out at the
proper compaction temperature determined on the basis of the viscosity-temperature
characteristics of the asphalt binder used. Whatever the case, compaction should be
carried out before the asphalt mat cools below 80oC; below this temperature, the mix
will become stiff and no amount of compaction can compress it to occupy a smaller
volume. At no time during the compaction operations should rollers be parked on the

8
hot mat since parking will cause depressions that may be difficult to remove even
with additional rolling.

When compacting unsupported mats with constant cross slope, the first pass of the
roller should be on the low edge of the mat with each successive forward pass moving
toward the high edge of the laid mat. Special care must be taken in compacting
longitudinal joints as an improperly compacted joint may be a future location for
water damage, ravelling or even a potential driving hazard. Where possible, especially
when paving two-lane carriageways, the longitudinal joint can be deleted by paving in
echelon. This of course will require the use of two pavers. In other cases, about 50-
75mm of the cold mat adjacent to the new mat to be placed is first cut back to expose
a clean dense vertical face. The face is then tack- coated and the adjoining run placed
to overlap the cut by about 25-50mm. Using lutes, the overlap is pushed back
immediately after placing to form a small ridge along the joint.

Longitudinal joints are the areas to be rolled first and a steel-wheeled roller must be
used. Rolling should take place close behind the paver with the roller compressing the
joint and overlapping onto the fresh asphalt by about 150mm. This is continued until a
smooth joint is obtained. Rolling is then continued on the opposite side and then
worked back toward the joint. During all rolling operations, the next forward pass
should overlap the previous by at least 150mm. Also each roller pass should end
beyond the preceding pass by at least one meter to prevent the development of a
bump. When the general rolling operations have been completed, a visual inspection
has to be conducted to ascertain the condition of the freshly compacted surface. If
rolling was properly carried out, there should be no roller marks, scuffmarks and
undulations.

i. Compaction equipment
Compaction equipment for asphalt works includes steel wheeled rollers, vibratory
steel-wheeled rollers, pneumatic-tyred rollers and plate compactors. To be suitable for
asphalt works, the compacting surfaces of the equipment must be smooth and free
from marks. To prevent the sticking of the asphalt concrete mix to the compactor
tyres, the equipment must be provided with a watering system and a spray bar for the
controlled application of water on the compacting wheel or steel drum and scrappers
and a series of mats mounted on a transverse bar which are kept wet and in contact
with the drum to remove any asphalt mixture that sticks to the wheel. The water
system is used during the breakdown rolling but not for finish rolling.

ii. Compaction pattern

The compaction of the hot mix asphalt involves breakdown rolling (initial rolling)
intermediate rolling and finish rolling. Breakdown rolling is carried out as soon as
possible after the mix is laid. This is usually carried out using steel-wheeled rollers
though pneumatic-tyred rollers can also be used. However the problem that
sometimes arises with using pneumatic-tyred rollers in the initial rolling is the
possibility of having rollers marks that are difficult to remove during the finish
rolling. There may also be sticking of mix to the rubber tyres resulting in surface
deficiencies.

9
The breakdown roller should be operated as close to the paver as practicable in order
to take maximum advantage of the temperature of the mix and thus obtain the
maximum increase in density. Where the speed and productivity of the paver is high
more than one compactor may be deployed in the breakdown rolling. Initial rolling
should normally begin at the lower side of the run with the roller moving
longitudinally and reversing along the same track. The roller should then move
progressively across the run to the opposite side, completing a forward and backwards
passes on each track and with each track overlapping the previous by about 150mm.
Normally two passes of the breakdown roller may be adequate but up to four passes
may be necessary if a thick layer is placed.

Intermediate or secondary rolling is carried out right after the initial compaction and
should only be delayed if the asphalt temperature is higher than the optimum required
for proper compaction so that excessive deformation or shoving by the compacting
drum does not occur. Rolling commences along the longitudinal side of the run and
returns on the same track before moving across the run in full roller width to the
opposite side. Rolling then continues until the required density is achieved. This may
require between 6 to 12 passes depending on the thickness of mat and temperature
conditions. Traditionally pneumatic-tyred rollers are used for intermediate rolling as
they are very effective in removing roller checking (fine hairline transverse cracks)
produced by steel-wheeled rollers during breakdown rolling.

Finish or final rolling is carried out while the mat is still warm enough to allow
removal of all roller marks so as to obtain a smooth uniform finish without causing
shoving and fine or hairline transverse cracks in the surface of the mat. Rolling may
be accomplished by using steel-wheeled rollers or pneumatic tyred-rollers with
relatively high tyre pressure.

iii. Density specifications

Density values are needed to control compaction and to verify a satisfactory void
content or to establish whether the mix is being compacted to too low or too high an
air voids content that can have serious implications for rutting. Densities achieved in
the field may be expressed as some percentage of a target density, which may be
defined to be any of the following:

 theoretical maximum density

 laboratory bulk density
 density of a control strip constructed at the beginning of the project

Thus, for example, the field density to be achieved may be specified as minimum 95%
of laboratory density. There are no special criteria for selecting which of the above to
specify as target density. In fact, all the above types of densities have been specified
for density control on many projects with varying degrees of success and failure. It
appears however that minimum density values are commonly specified with respect to
the laboratory bulk density.

Relative compaction levels that are consistently above 100% may indicate over-
compaction that can have serious consequences on rutting. Over-compacting the
asphalt mat may result in air voids content below 3% which will cause rutting to
10
develop early in the life of the pavement. But generally, relative compaction levels
consistently approaching or exceeding 100% may likely be more the problem of a low
reference density rather than of over-compaction. Therefore the interpretation of the
degree of compaction must be approached with caution.

8.7.4 Quality control and assurance(QC/QA)

Quality control refers to those tests necessary to control a product to determine the
quality of the product being produced. The contractor usually carries this out. During
asphalt overlay operations, QC may be necessary to ensure that material being
supplied to the lay-down crew is consistent and within specifications and/or to detect
at the onset any deficiencies in mix productions if and when they occur so that any
problems attributed to the mix can be fed back to the design laboratory or production
plant for corrections or adjustments to be made.

On the other hand quality assurance are those tests necessary for the owner to make a
decision on acceptance of a project and to ensure that the product being delivered is
indeed what the owner specified. The Engineer’s representative carries out the tests.
A successful QC/QA requires that the Materials Engineer, the paving team and the
personnel at the hot-mix asphalt plant work together.

Tests to undertake
In line with quality control and assurance, the following are considered important
tests to perform during manufacture and placement of asphalt concrete mixtures:

 Aggregate gradation
 Asphalt content
 Temperature
 Compaction and voids analysis
 Density tests (theoretical maximum density and in-situ density)
 Visual inspection

a. Aggregate gradation
Even though several aggregate properties are important, routine testing during
construction is usually limited to gradation only. Aggregates for grading tests must be
sampled from the stockpile, cold feeder belt, hot bins and extracted asphalt mixture.
Gradation of the asphalt mixture is the most important since it is the final product.
Evaluation at other points will however allow the engineer to troubleshoot the
gradation problem and quickly identify the location where it is occurring.

b. Temperature
This parameter is very important during mixture production and during field
compaction. The asphalt concrete must be produced at just the right temperature to
ensure good coating on the aggregate and a satisfactory compaction. Excess
temperature causes oxidation and loss of volatiles to occur to the asphalt cement
reducing mixture durability. An indication of asphalt concrete being produced at an
unacceptably high temperature is the blue smoke syndrome which literally means a
11
bluish smoke coming out of the mixture as it is discharged into a delivery truck.
Monitoring the temperature of the laid mixture is very necessary to ensure that
compaction is carried out at the proper compaction temperature as determined per the
viscosity-temperature characteristics of the asphalt cement. Where the temperature of
the laid mix is high, compaction has to be delayed to allow the mix to come to the
compaction temperature. It is also necessary to ensure that the temperature of the mix
does not fall below a value that makes compaction ineffective. The recommended
minimum temperature for compaction is 80oC.

c. Asphalt content
This is very important in ensuring that the asphalt concrete is being produced per the
Job Mix Formula and also in guaranteeing a satisfactory performance. Asphalt content
has direct effect on mixture properties such as film thickness, voids, stability and
flow. A mixture with low asphalt content may have durability problems whereas one
with high asphalt content is likely to have stability and bleeding problems. Asphalt
concrete from the spreader must be sampled and the solvent extraction test carried out
in order to determine the asphalt content. Improper asphalt content can be caused by
inaccurate aggregate proportioning in the batch or drum mixing facility, improperly
calibrated asphalt cement meter, segregation, and even sampling and testing errors.

d. Laboratory compaction
Samples of the asphalt concrete must be taken regularly and for every batch
production during construction for laboratory compaction and other tests in order to
verify that mixture characteristics or properties meet specification requirements. If the
required density levels are not achieved, the mix may deform under load, harden
prematurely, lose fatigue resistance and be more susceptible to moisture-induced
damage (stripping). The laboratory density values are the standard against which the
level of compaction being achieved in the field is evaluated. The compacted samples
also enable voids analysis to be carried out.

e. Filed density
To check the level of in-place density achieved, nuclear gauges may be used or cores
may be taken for laboratory analysis. The results of the density tests are used to
establish the relative compaction achieved by comparing the field density to the
laboratory density.

f. Visual inspection
As test results can never identify all the problems that may occur, visual inspections
must be carried out during QC/QA evaluations. This way, potential trouble areas can
be identified and corrected or areas that appear deficient can be sampled to determine
if deficiencies really exist.

8.7.5 Testing frequency

Primarily the scale and importance of the project and material variability determine
the frequency of testing. The following is only a guide to the minimum number of
tests to be conducted on an asphalt overlay project.
12
 Test Frequency

1. Stockpile + cold feed gradation 1 per day

2. Visual inspection Regularly throughout the day
3. Lab. compaction + voids analysis +
stability tests, etc. 2 sets per day
4. In-situ density 6-10 per day
5. Temperature (production, Regularly throughout the day
compaction)

13
 9. Pavement Failures and Maintenance

9.1 Pavement failures

Pavements begin to deteriorate when opened to traffic after construction as a result of the cumulative
effect of traffic loading and environmental factors. Fig. 9.1 provides a pictorial representation of the
state of a pavement defined by its present serviceability index (PSI) at any given time.

PSI

maintenance

Years in service

Fig. 9.1 Pavement deterioration and maintenance

The present serviceability index (PSI) is a qualitative rating of the current surface condition of a pavement.
Newly constructed roads can be expected to have PSI values in the range 4.5-5.0 whereas roads in poor
condition have values below 2.0. As indicated in the figure, the deterioration of a road is generally gradual in
the first few years but begin to proceed at a much higher rate with time. With timely intervention in the form of
pavement maintenance, it is possible to return the service condition of the road almost to the as-constructed
state. Pavement failure will manifest visibly in the pavement, at one time or the other, as a defect in
the structure or the surface or both. The defects affect the serviceability, appearance and structural
capacity of a road.

9.1.1 Failure modes

There are three major failure modes that can be associated with pavement defects. These are:
 Structural deformation
 Cracking
 Surface defects

Each of these failure modes has its own peculiar characteristics and manner of impacting upon the
performance of pavements. It must be emphasized, however, that it is not always the case that a given
pavement distress can be ascribed to one particular mode of failure since in general one mode of
failure may induce or lead to other modes. The type of pavement may affect the preponderance of one
mode of failure over the others. For example, whereas in rigid pavements cracking of concrete slabs is
a predominant mode of failure, in unpaved roads the major failure modes are structural deformation
and surface defects with cracking being virtually absent.

When related to the function of the road, the mode of failure will determine whether the failure can be
described as a structural failure or a functional failure. Structural failure refers to all failures that
include a collapse of the pavement structure or a breakdown of one or more of the pavement
components of such magnitude as to make the pavement incapable of sustaining loads imposed upon
its surface. Functional failure on the other hand refers to all types of failures which will not allow the
pavement to carry out its intended function without causing discomfort to passengers or without
causing high stresses in the vehicle that passes over it due to roughness.

1
a. Structural Deformation

To a very large extent, a structural deformation mode of failure has the highest potential to
incapacitate a pavement structurally since it may cause complete collapse of one or more of the
components of the pavement.

b. Cracking
This mode of pavement failure is associated more with paved than unpaved or gravel roads. In paved
roads (mostly asphaltic and rigid), cracking provides evidence of fatigue failure and/or failure under
tensile stresses of the surfacing material. Cracking rarely appears in unpaved roads and only so mostly
in cases where fills in embankments undergo lateral movement and subject the soil material to tensile
stresses and/or where layer materials undergo shrinkage and develop shrinkage or desiccation cracks.

c. Surface defects
Pavement distresses that manifest as surface defects generally affect the ride-ability of the pavement
and in some cases also the structural performance of the pavement. Remedial measures for such
defects are mostly confined to the surfacing and may not require any structural changes to be made to
the pavement.

9.1.2 Characteristics of pavement failures

The following attributes describe the characteristics of pavement failures

Location
The location of a distress is given in terms of two points along the length of the pavement. These
points delineate a pavement section to which the subsequent description of distress pertains.
Generally for long sections the description of distress is not precise. The pavement may then be
divided into various short sections to allow for more accurate description.

Modes and types

There are three ways in which distress occurs. These are called the modes of distress and they are;
structural deformation, fracture or cracking, surface defects. Each of these failure modes has its own
peculiar characteristics and manner of impacting upon the performance of pavements. It must be
emphasized, however, that it is not always the case that a given pavement distress can be ascribed to
one particular mode of failure since in general one mode of failure may induce or lead to other modes.
The type of pavement may affect the preponderance of one mode of failure over the others. For
example, whereas in rigid pavements cracking of concrete slabs is a predominant mode of failure, in
unpaved roads the major failure modes are structural deformation and surface defects with cracking
being virtually absent.

Degree and extent

The degree of a particular type of distress is a measure of how bad it is at a particular point on the
pavement. For example the degree of cracking can be a function of the width of the cracks.

Position and spacing

The position of a distress is defined by the coordinates on the pavement with respect to either edge or
the centerline and the chainage. The spacing of distress is an additional parameter indicating the
geometry of the distress. Its definition varies for the different types of distress but it always represents
a linear measure. For example, for transverse cracks, the spacing indicates the average distance
between the cracks.

2
9.1.3 Causes of pavement failures
Pavements begin to deteriorate when opened to traffic after construction as a result of one or more of
the following:

a. Traffic loading
Flexing of pavement under repeated loading leads to fatigue, cracking and structural failure over weak
subgrades and where the depth of carriageway construction is inadequate to provide sufficient spread
of loads from vehicles.

b. Breaking and turning wheels

These cause the pavement surface to slide or deform and surface material is progressively lost due to
abrasion.

c. Temperature
Extreme temperatures between day and night may cause thermal movement that tends to cause cracks
to develop in a pavement surface. High temperatures can cause stability problems in asphaltic
pavements leading to rutting, ripple formation, corrugation, flow of surface material and in rigid
pavements cracking, spalling, and blow ups.

d. Moisture movements
Water is the greatest enemy of a pavement. When moisture has access into a pavement layer it
weakens the shear strength of the layer materials and reduces the load carrying capacity. Moisture
movement into underlying pavement structure may also cause volumetric changes such as swelling
and shrinkage that can lead to shrinkage or swelling stresses with the potential to cause cracks or
heaving in both rigid pavements and structural asphalt layers.

e. Poor quality materials and construction

Excessive movement of flexible pavement which eventually results in uneven riding quality may be
caused by poor quality pavement materials and poor construction.

f. Weathering
This leads to chemical changes in asphaltic concrete and Portland cement concrete and subsequent
embrittlement especially in asphalt binder leading to cracking and progressive loss of matrix.

g. Rainfall
For unpaved roads, rainfall apart from causing weakening of pavement layer materials causes the
development of erosion gullies through the progressive washing away of materials from the surface
by erosion. Erosion gullies may be particularly pronounced on sections with steep slopes where
because of the slope angle being greater than the surface camber surface runoff moves longitudinally
along the road or diagonally across the road instead of transversely to the side ditches and drains.

i. Reinstatement of public utility openings

Digging across a pavement in order to install or access public utility services is one of the greatest
causes of pavement failures or surface irregularities. Backfilling and compaction of the opening are
never well done leading to lateral as well as vertical movements in adjoining areas so that in time the
damage caused by the opening becomes extended well beyond the width of the original opening.

9.1.4 Defects in bituminous roads

The following are the major defects associated with paved flexible pavements. The names in
parenthesis against each defect are the various names by which the defect is also called or known.

3
Alligator crack (crocodile crack, alligator crazing, fatigue crack, map crack, chicken wire
crack)
Alligator crack is a crack pattern which forms as a series of interconnected, closely spaced sharp-
angled, many-sided cracks which resembles chicken wire or the skin of an alligator. Alligator cracks
in asphalt pavements begin at the bottom of the asphalt surfacing where tensile stresses and strains are
the highest under a wheel load and spread to the surface. Initially, the cracks appear as a series of
longitudinal cracks which after repeated traffic loading then join up to form many-sided crack
patterns.

Causes
Alligator cracks may be caused by
 fatigue failure of the asphalt concrete layer under repetitive axle load applications.
 overstressing of pavement structure due to excessive axle loads
 inadequate structural capacity of pavement
 shear failure in the underlying pavement layers due to insufficient layer strength, poor compaction
or inadequate drainage.
 loss of visco-elastic property of the asphalt concrete due to embrittlement or age-hardening

Block crack (Ladder crack)

Block cracks develop when a series of longitudinal and transverse cracks interconnect to form an
approximately rectangular or square pattern with block sides sometimes exceeding 2 m in extent.

Causes
This pavement distress is caused mainly by
 shrinkage of the pavement sub-grade reflecting through a thin road construction
 thermal contraction and expansion of the asphalt concrete layer
 fatigue cracking in aged or embrittled asphalt concrete.
 use of hard asphalt binder in asphalt concrete mix
 use of poor quality materials
 poor construction

Longitudinal crack (Line crack)

This is a crack that runs approximately parallel to the direction of the roadway. It often occurs at the
joint between adjacent lanes of the asphalt layer and may occur as a series of parallel lines on the
pavement surface.

Causes
Longitudinal cracks may be caused by
 lack of lateral support in embankment fill
 volume changes in clayey or expansive sub-grade soils
 differential settlement between cut and fill that reflects through the asphalt layer
 poorly constructed lane joint in asphalt pavement
 displacement of joint at point of pavement widening
 reflection of joint crack in a rigid or an old asphalt pavement that has been overlaid.

Transverse crack (Low temperature crack, thermal crack, contraction crack)

This is a crack which runs across the whole or part of the road cross section perpendicular to the
roadway direction. When there are many, they usually tend to be approximately equally spaced. They
4
normally occur when the temperature at the surface of the pavement drops sufficiently to produce a
thermally-induced shrinkage stress in the asphalt concrete layer that exceeds the tensile strength of
the asphalt mixture. Thermal cracks usually initiate at the top of the pavement and propagate
downward through the asphalt concrete layer.

Causes
These cracks are caused by
 thermal expansion and contraction of the asphalt concrete
 asphalt age-hardening which causes binder embrittlement and loss of visco-elasticity of the
asphalt concrete layer
 use of hard asphalt binder in asphalt concrete mix
 overheating of asphalt concrete mix during hot-plant manufacture
 use of poor quality materials
 poor construction

Slippage crack (also parabolic crack, shear crack)

This is a crescent (half-moon) or U-shaped crack which develops in areas where vehicles brake, turn
or accelerate. The characteristic feature of this crack is that the top of the U always points in the
direction that the forces are being applied. Thus when the crack is caused by braking, the top of the U
will point in the direction of travel whereas a crack caused by acceleration will have the top of the U
pointing away from the direction travel.

Causes
The defect occurs when
 soft binder-rich surface mixes are subjected to high stresses from braking and acceleration.
 a poor bond exists between the surface course and the underlying base course
 thin wearing courses are laid
 the base course material has low strength (modulus)

Edge crack
This is a longitudinal crack which develops close to the edge of a pavement and which sometimes is
accompanied by transverse cracks towards the shoulder. In some cases, settlement may occur within
the narrow strip of pavement between the edge crack and the edge of the pavement.

Causes
Edge cracks may be caused by
 lateral movement of the pavement material due to insufficient shoulder support especially in areas
of high embankment fill.
 settlement or yielding of sub-grade or base material close to the edge of the pavement.

Reflection crack
This is a crack that develops when discontinuities or cracks in an overlaid asphalt concrete pavement
propagate through the new overlay to the surface. Such cracks may therefore show as longitudinal,
transverse or any other type of crack pattern.

Causes
Reflection cracks may be caused by
 Cracks or joints in an underlying rigid pavement

5
 Low temperature cracks in an overlaid old asphalt concrete layer
 Longitudinal cracks in an overlaid old asphalt surface
 Fatigue cracks in the old asphalt surface

Pothole (also surface hole, chuck-hole)

This is a small (usually less than 0.9m diameter) bowl-shaped hole in the pavement surface with sharp
edges and vertical sides near the top of the hole. Its growth is accelerated by water collecting in the
hole and traffic breaking the edges causing the hole to have a wider diameter with passage of traffic.

Causes
Potholes are caused by
 abrasion and dislodgment of surface material by the action of traffic
 asphalt binder embrittlement and subsequent stripping or raveling of asphalt pavements.
 localized shear failure of the pavement base due to improper compaction, improper aggregate
gradation, use of unsuitable material
 Infiltration of water into pavement

Bleeding (also sweating, fatting up, flushing)

This is the formation of a film of bitumen on a paved road surface, creating a shiny, glass-like,
reflecting surface which becomes sticky during hot weather and slippery during wet weather. Under
hot weather conditions, it may cause passing automobiles to leave an imprint of their tyres on the
pavement surface. The defect is traffic related and occurs mainly in the wheel tracks and may
sometimes cause the tyres of passing vehicles to sound as if they are riding on a wet pavement
surface.

Causes
Bleeding is caused by
 unstable mix or excessive amounts of binder in the asphalt concrete
 low air void content in the asphalt concrete layer
 stripping of aggregates
 use of soft asphalt binder in asphalt concrete formulation
 spillage of petroleum products onto the pavement surface
 excessive application of tack coat

Shoving (also pushing)

This is a permanent longitudinal displacement of a localized area of asphalt pavement surface
normally occurring in soft binder-rich surfacing materials and at locations of the pavement where
heavy vehicles brake or make sharp turns. The defect may also occur in locations of the pavement
where heavy commercial or truck traffic slow down significantly below highway speed. The defect is
almost always associated with slippage cracks and is easily detected at the edge lane markings where
these lines bend outward in the vicinity of the defect

Causes
The defect may be caused when
 the asphalt concrete pavement lacks adequate stability
 the applied forces on the pavement surface due to braking or acceleration exceeds the shear
strength of the asphalt concrete or the underlying layers
 a thin asphalt concrete overlay is placed over granular bases and sub-bases.

6
 the bond between an asphalt wearing surface and the binder course is poor or has been broken.

Corrugations (Ripples, washboard)

Corrugations are surface defects which manifest as transverse undulations that occur at fairly uniform
intervals along the surface of the pavement. They are characterized by alternating ridges and
depressions in a wave-like manner usually about 1-3m apart which if closely spaced may cause
passing vehicles to vibrate. Corrugations are prevalent on unpaved roads and on paved roads occur at
locations or pavement sections such as at intersections where vehicles brake or accelerate.

Causes
Corrugations may be caused by
 tender mix or lack of stability of asphalt concrete due to excess asphalt content or use of soft
binder
 use of mix with excessive amounts of rounded aggregates or excessive fines
 braking and acceleration actions of vehicles particularly at intersections
 wavy compaction at the time of placement of asphalt mat
 uneven spread of gravel layer and subsequent wavy compaction in gravel roads

Ravelling (Weathering, fretting, pitting, disintegration)

This is a pavement defect characterized by the progressive disintegration or the wearing away of the
asphalt concrete layer from the surface downward due to dislodgement of aggregate particles from
the asphalt concrete matrix. The ravelled surface has open rugous (pitted) appearance and is
characterized by loose debris on the surface of the pavement in the immediate vicinity of the distress.

Causes
Ravelling may be caused by
 abrading of asphalt films from aggregate particles that were insufficiently or poorly coated with
asphalt during mix production.
 segregation of the asphalt concrete matrix at the time of placement of the asphalt mat so that
there is concentration of coarse aggregate without sufficient fines to aid continuous inter-particle
contact and bonding.
 poor mat compaction resulting in low asphalt concrete density
 asphalt age-hardening and embrittlement leading to brittle fracture of asphalt films and
subsequent dislodgement of coated aggregate from asphalt concrete matrix under traction forces.
 use of high dust to asphalt ratio in asphalt concrete mix formulation.
 use of hard grade asphalt for asphalt concrete manufacture.
 low asphalt content in asphalt concrete.

Rutting
A rut is a longitudinal depression in the wheel tracks often accompanied by pavement uplift along its
sides when pavement materials are displaced.

Causes
Rutting may be caused by
 permanent deformation in any of the pavement layers or sub-grade as a result of continuous
wheel tracking over a narrow width of the pavement.
 continued densification of pavement layer materials under traffic after initial compaction or as a

7
 result of plastic deformation of surfacing materials subjected to repeated trafficking or
channelization.
 insufficient compaction of pavement layers during construction.
 improper asphalt concrete mix design for asphalt pavements
 use of excessive amounts of rounded aggregate in asphalt concrete mixes in asphalt pavements
 use of soft bituminous binder in asphalt concrete formulation
 inadequate structural capacity of pavement.

Shear failure
This defect is the collapse of a component of the pavement structure in shear due to stresses
exceeding the shear strength of the layer. The distress is recognizable by a depressed area and an up-
heaved area.

Causes
Shear failure may be caused by any or a combination of the following
 excessive wheel loads
 inadequate base/sub-base compaction during construction
 weak sub-grade layer
 use of poor quality materials in pavement layers
 inadequate pavement drainage

Edge failure
This is the progressive disintegration or breakage of the pavement structure from the edge inwards,
for paved roads usually where there are no kerbs and where vehicle over-run is common, such that
pieces of the pavement are broken, become loose, are dislodged and then displaced resulting in the
reduction of the pavement across its width.

Causes
Edge failure may be caused by
 lack of lateral support at the edge of the pavement in embankment zones
 insufficient base thickness
 base failure
 excessive loads applied at the edge of the pavement
 inadequate compaction at the edge of the road
 inadequate or poor drainage
 narrow carriageway encouraging vehicle overrun at the edges

Depressions (sag, settlement)

Description
A depression is a localized pavement defect characterized by a grade that is slightly lower than that of
the surrounding area and which highlights the presence of a soft spot in the underlying pavement
structure particularly in the sub-grade or a poorly compacted reinstatement of utility opening.

Causes
A depression may be caused by
 failure of a soft spot in the underlying pavement layers
 consolidation of a soft spot in the sub-grade

8
 poor compaction after re-instating utility opening

Loss of skid resistance (Polishing, wear loss, loss of texture)

This is a surface defect characterized by loss of surface texture or lack of adequate friction between
the pavement surface and tyres of vehicles to the extent that the surface looks shiny and becomes
slippery during wet weather. The defect is traffic-related and may sometimes cause the tyres of
passing vehicles to sound as if they are riding on a wet pavement surface.

Causes
Loss of skid resistance may be caused by any or a combination of the following:
 bleeding of the asphalt concrete surface.
 polishing of surface aggregates by traffic action when aggregates with low polish or wear
resistance are used in asphalt concrete.
 use of small size aggregate and excessive fines in asphalt concrete mix.
 loss of surface texture due to the embedment of coarse aggregates in asphalt matrix as a result of
traffic action especially where soft or binder-rich mixes are involved.
 use of rounded or naturally worn aggregates in asphalt concrete.

Loss of cover aggregates

De-bonding or breakage of surface dressing aggregates such that the waterproofing bituminous layer
becomes prone to damage by vehicular action.

Causes
Cover aggregates on surface dressings may be lost by any of the following
 use of dusty aggregates for the dressing
 lack of strong bond between aggregates and bituminous binder
 use of insufficient binder for dressing
 erratic distribution of binder
 binder embrittlement due to age-hardening
 poor quality surfacing

De-lamination
This is the separation of the wearing course of the pavement from the underlying layer with
subsequent loss of a discrete and large area of the wearing course at the affected area. This is a
surface defect that affects the structure of the asphalt pavement. This usually occurs where a very
thin (veneer) layer of asphalt wearing course has been placed over a base course or a rigid pavement.

Causes
De-lamination may be caused by
 loss of bond between the asphalt wearing course and the underlying asphalt base course.
 the existence of a thin layer of dust on the binder course at the time of placement of the wearing
course.
 seepage of water through cracks to undermine bond between wearing course and underlying layer
 the presence of weak and loose layer immediately underlying wearing course

9
Stripping
This is an asphalt pavement distress characterized by the loss of bond between the aggregates in an
asphalt concrete matrix due to the displacement of the asphalt coating on the aggregate surface by
water. The defect typically begins at the bottom of the asphalt concrete layer and progresses upwards.
The distress may sometimes be very difficult to identify because it can manifest as rutting, shoving,
corrugations, ravelling or cracking but is typically and visibly evidenced by partially coated or
uncoated aggregates.

Causes
Stripping may be caused by any or a combination of the following factors:
 presence of water in aggregates during asphalt concrete manufacture.
 use of hydrophilic aggregate in asphalt concrete.
 infiltration of water into the asphalt concrete layer.
 poor drainage of the pavement base course.
 poor compaction of asphalt concrete resulting in an open-textured surface.

Adverse camber
This is an irregular transverse profile of the carriageway where the camber or the crossfall is steeper
than current design parameters.

Causes
Adverse camber may be caused by
 overlaying or resurfacing of the middle portions of a pavement excluding the edges in order to
maintain kerb upstand
 subsidence
 widening or re-aligning a road without subsequent re-profiling

9.1.5 Defects in rigid pavements

Longitudinal crack
Longitudinal cracks are planes or lines of discontinuities that manifest in the rigid pavement surface
as thin lines that run approximately parallel to the longitudinal axis of the pavement.

Causes
The cracks are generally caused by the same factors that cause the formation of cracks in general and
include
 contraction and expansion of the concrete slab
 warping stresses in concrete developed from temperature changes
 inadequate sub-grade support
 inadequate steel reinforcement
 excessive slab length
 inadequate slab thickness
 low concrete strength
 lateral movement of base support or layer
 expansion and shrinkage of base material

Transverse /diagonal crack(Contraction crack, thermal crack)

This is a crack which runs across the whole or part of the rigid pavement slab transverse or diagonal
10
to the roadway direction. Transverse cracks normally occur when the temperature at the surface of the
pavement drops sufficiently to produce a thermally-induced shrinkage stress in the rigid pavement
slab that exceeds the strength of the slab.

Causes
 contraction and expansion of the concrete
 warping stresses in concrete developed from temperature changes
 inadequate sub-grade support
 inadequate steel reinforcement
 excessive length of slab
 inadequate slab thickness
 inadequate concrete strength

Faulting (Stepping, step-fault, step off)

This is a differential vertical displacement oftentimes at joints and cracks between abutting slabs
resulting in step deformation.

Causes
 differential settlement of adjoining slabs
 loss of sub-base material through pumping
 poor sub-base or sub-grade support
 curling or warping of slab due to temperature gradient across the depth of the slab

Spalling
This is the breaking into angular pieces of concrete material from the edges of cracks, joints, and
corners of the concrete slab or the flaky breakage of material from the surface of the slab.

Causes
Spalling may be caused by
 use of poor quality concrete
 corrosion of reinforcement bar
 loading at the edges of joints and cracks

Blow-up (Buckling)
This is a localized upward movement of rigid pavement slabs which occurs at a transverse joint or
crack. The occurrence of the defect is mostly accompanied by transverse edge shattering.

Causes
Blow-ups may be caused by
 expansion of adjacent slabs under hot weather conditions
 inadequate provision for expansion joints between slabs

Pumping (Blowing)
This is a process accentuated by passing traffic by which a mixture of water, clay and fine-grained
soil is pumped out or exudes from underneath a rigid pavement slab through cracks, joints and the
edges as the slab is repeatedly caused to deflect downwards by passing vehicles.

11
Causes
Pumping may be caused by
 infiltration of water into sub base through cracks and joints in the concrete slab without the
possibility of drainage
 high fines content in sub-base material

Scaling (Ravelling, abrasion, disintegration)

This is the progressive loss of mortar and aggregate from slab surface

Causes
This surface defect may be caused by any or a combination of the following;
 use of poor quality aggregate
 inadequate curing of concrete
 poor concrete quality
 overworking of surface during construction

9.1.6 Defects in unpaved roads

The following are the major defects or failures associated with unpaved roads.

Rutting
A rut is a surface defect and is characterized by a longitudinal depression in the wheel tracks often
accompanied by pavement uplift along its sides when pavement materials are displaced.

Causes
Rutting may be caused by
 permanent deformation in any of the pavement layers or sub-grade as a result of continuous
wheel tracking over a narrow width of the pavement.
 continued densification of the gravel layer under traffic
 insufficient initial compaction of pavement layers during construction.
 loss of gravel material from within wheel tracks
 inadequate structural capacity of pavement
 loss of strength due inadequate drainage

Erosion gullies
These are channels which run almost longitudinally or sometimes diagonally on the surface of gravel
roads created by the erosion of surface material by rain water running on the surface of the gravel or
earth road. Erosion gullies most often follow wheel tracks and characteristically turn diagonally to
join side drains.

Causes
Erosion gullies are caused by
 the erosion of surface material by rain water running on the surface of the gravel pavement.

Slippery Surface
This is a surface defect characterized by slipperiness during wet weather causing danger to vehicles
on steep slopes and sharp curves.
12
Causes
 use of clayey soil in forming base course
 complete loss of gravel cover on clayey sub-grades

Loose gravel
This is a surface defect characterized by the presence of loosely compacted gravel or gravel in
windrows along the center of unpaved roads, wheel tracks and/or along the shoulders in parallel
orientation to the direction of traffic.

Causes
The defect is caused by
 inadequate compaction of the gravel layer
 use of gravel materials with insufficient fines to bind the coarse particles during placement and
compaction
 segregation of coarse aggregates from fine particles by traffic action and subsequent whipping of
coarse aggregates to the centre and road sides.

9.1.7 Defects in shoulders and roadsides

The following are the major defects associated with pavement shoulders and roadsides.

Shoulder drop-off
This develops when there is elevation difference between pavement edge and shoulder such that the
riding surface of the pavement stands high above the shoulder level.

Causes
This defect may be caused by
 erosion of the shoulder if it is unpaved
 settlement of the shoulder relative to the pavement
 building up the pavement without due adjustment to the level of the shoulder

Excessive shoulder height

This is a defect typical of gravel roads and characterized by the shoulder having an accumulation of
gravel such that the road edge is lower in elevation than the shoulder. This defect may be seen as the
opposite of a shoulder drop-off.

Causes
This pavement defect may be caused by any of the following
 formation of gravel wind-row on the shoulders of pavements that were formed with materials
containing excessive amounts of gravel
 deposition of detritus and eroded material on the shoulder by rainwater
 poor construction and improper maintenance

Vegetation overgrowth (Vegetation encroachment)

This is growth of vegetation on the sides of the roadway such that vegetation or weeds overrun the
shoulders and encroach upon the edge of the roadway sometimes causing a reduction in sight
distance.

Causes
13
Vegetation encroachment results when
 there is lack of routine maintenance
 there are long intervals between periods of grass cutting particularly in areas with high rainfall
and rapid vegetation growth.

9.2 Maintenance
Maintenance is an intervention measure designed to arrest the deterioration of a road and to restore
the service condition to the as-built state or, at least, very nearly so. The type and scale of the
maintenance activity will depend on the type of pavement failure being considered.

9.2.1 Types of maintenance

There are two types of road maintenance works: routine and periodic maintenance

a. Routine Maintenance
This is the work that is performed as needed throughout the year and includes the day-to-day
maintenance of the road. Routine maintenance activities are carried out independent of the level of
traffic on the road. If routine maintenance is neglected or not done properly, or money diverted to
other maintenance categories, the condition of the road will quickly deteriorate. The following
activities listed in Table 9.1 are routine maintenance activities

Table 9.1: Types of Routine Maintenance Activities

Paved Roads Unpaved Roads

o Grass cutting o Grass cutting

o Pothole patching o Pothole Patching
o Repair of depressions, ruts, o Dry Grading without compaction
corrugations o Wet Grading with compaction
o Edge failure repairs o Spot improvement
o Crack Sealing o Ditch cleaning
o Grading gravel and high shoulders o Culvert de-silting
o Refilling of shoulder drop-offs o Cleaning, repairing and repainting of
o Spot improvement signs
o Ditch cleaning
o Culvert de-silting
o Cleaning, repairing and repainting of
signs

b. Periodic Maintenance
This is the work required only over a long period of time or once every few years to preserve the structural
integrity of the road. If routine maintenance are undertaken at the right time and effectively, periodic
maintenance may become warranted after a very long time. Table 9.2 contains the list of activities
classified as periodic maintenance.

Table 9.2: Types of Periodic Maintenance Activities

Paved Roads Unpaved Roads

o Resealing o Re-gravelling
o Resurfacing o Rehabilitation
o Rehabilitation o Upgrading

14
9.2.2 Condition survey
In order to assess the maintenance needs of a road it is necessary to undertake condition survey. The
survey involves visual inspection of the condition of the pavement and rating of the condition. The
rating of the pavement condition is based on the pavement’s distress features such as cracks, potholes,
fretting, spalling, raveling, pavement surface distortions, edge failure, patched up areas etc. The
survey will include a description of the characteristics and attributes of the defects in terms of
location, type, extent or severity level, position on the road and spacing. The recognition of defect
types and their severity is helpful in determining the degree to which the current condition of a road
departs from the acceptable standard and in determining where and when an intervention activity may
be needed and the maintenance activity for remedying the distress. For pavements that need
structural strengthening, it is based on the condition survey that a structural evaluation or survey
programme may be drawn up for execution.

9.3 Maintenance management

In order that a network of roads will be effectively and efficiently maintained, information must be
available to management regarding what maintenance activities need to be undertaken, where within
the network, when and at what frequency. This may be achieved by setting up a maintenance
management system that has the following components.

1. Road classification by traffic volume

2. Network referencing
3. Network inventory
4. Maintenance rating system
5. Inspections and reporting

9.3.1 Maintenance Rating System

Since the recognition of a defect, determination of the cause and the prescription of a suitable remedy
are all subjective, it may be possible for different people looking at the same defect to have different
solution strategies. This can lead to poor value for money when for example maintenance is
undertaken at one place whilst the need is far greater at another. This calls for a maintenance rating
system so that maintenance needs will be assessed objectively. The rating system must have standards
and warning levels of deterioration. In addition a system of assessing the road must be developed.

The road system must be divided into categories with an inventory made of each road’s width, length, drainage,
signs, markings, etc. The information about the condition of the road is then compared with set standards in
order to assess the road. This makes it possible to summarize the scale and cost of remedial works needed to
return the road to an acceptable standard for its particular category.

9.3.2 Inspections and Reporting

Routine inspections should be carried out on all roads according to regular schedules in order to
assess current maintenance needs and update road inventory. In general, defects categorized
according to priority are reported to help management

 to produce schedules of inspections to be carried out and their timing

 to produce estimates of maintenance resource requirements and cost
 to produce schedules of regularly occurring maintenance to be carried out
 to produce programmes of work
15
 to monitor the effectiveness of maintenance activities, standards, and strategies

The frequency of inspection may range from about 24 hours for urban principal roads, main shopping
areas, residential streets to about 2 times per year for rural non-principal roads.

9.4 Maintenance activities

The following are the general procedures for some important maintenance activities:

Pot-hole Patching by Pre-mix or Hot-mixed Asphaltic Concrete

Classification: Routine Maintenance (Paved Roads)

Procedures:
a) Mark out area to be patched at least 150mm from the edge of the pot-hole and within sound
and undamaged pavement with paint. Include all failed areas within square or rectangular
area with at least two sides parallel to the direction of traffic flow.
b) Cut along the lines marked on the pavement surface so that the cut sides are vertical and the
bottom of the pot-hole is level and to a depth equal to:
the depth of the existing asphalt pavement that has been overlaid but of which the overlay
has failed
or
a minimum of 100-200 mm or at least equivalent to one and a half (1½) times the depth of
existing pot-hole, ensuring the excavation is in sound insitu material.
c) Remove loose and failed material, and ensure dust is swept or blown out of the excavated
hole.
d) Compact the bottom of the pot-hole prior to placing base material to ensure soundness and
flatness of the base
e) Back-fill hole in layers with approved base material not exceeding 150mm depth of loose fill
and compact ensuring uniformity of compaction over the whole area
f) Compact base material using suitable tampers or compaction equipment, starting around the
edges and working into the centre of the pothole and ensuring that all edges and corners are
compacted uniformly and in acceptable layer thickness up to the bottom of the nominated
depth of pre-mix or hot-mixed asphaltic concrete to be laid
g) Apply Emulsion at a Nominated Application Rate to all vertical faces and to the base of the
pot-hole and allow to break.
h) Wait until the emulsion breaks by turning from brown to black before adding asphaltic
concrete mix.
Note: Place the asphaltic concrete mix in holes in layers of 30mm for Pre-mix asphaltic concrete and
two and a half (2½) times the nominal size of the chippings used to manufacture the Hot-mixed
asphaltic concrete
i) Compact with suitable compaction equipment, with an emphasis on all corners and edges.
Always compact from the outside of the patch to the centre.
j) Repeat for each subsequent layer of asphaltic concrete mix placed until the final layer is laid
loose 25mm higher than the existing pavement
k) Rake and tamp any excess mix back from the existing pavement to the edge joint of the patch
making a vertical face of 45° and rake the top of the patch to a uniform level surface.
l) Firstly, compact only the outer 100mm of the patch around the whole perimeter to ensure that
the joint matches the existing pavement and that correct sealing of the joints occur.
m) Continue compacting towards the centre of the patch until the whole patch is uniformly
compacted without any depressions and allowing for the finished patch to be approximately
12mm above the existing pavement to accommodate for base subsidence.
16
 n) Seal the edges of the patch with emulsion, spraying 50mm onto the old pavement and 50mm
onto the new patch and seal with 5mm chippings (aggregates) to waterproof the joint
o) Clean up and remove all spoil and waste materials from the site..

Quality of Work:
 All cutting, backfilling and Asphaltic Concreting of pot-hole patches to be completed
on the same day that the areas were worked on.
 Ensure successive base layers are compacted around all edges and corners and that
the base finishes at the nominated depth that the patch is to be filled with asphaltic
concrete
 Ensure that the finished level of the asphaltic Concrete patched pot-hole matches the
line and grade of existing pavement, allowing the finished patch to be approximately
12mm above the existing pavement to accommodate for base subsidence
 Ensure that the finished Patch has a uniform texture with good skid resistance and
that the finished patch drains satisfactorily to the road shoulders.

Repair of Depressions, Ruts, Shoving and Corrugations

Classification: Routine Maintenance (Paved Roads)

Procedures:
a) Determine and mark out with paint the area to be repaired, by using a string-line or a 4-meter
straight edge, laid on the pavement surface at the original grade on either side of the
depression, rut, shoving or corrugation and at least 150mm from the outer limits of the failure
within sound and undamaged pavement.
b) Cut along the lines marked on the pavement surface to form a rectangle, so that the cut sides
are vertical and to a depth of 300mm and finishing in sound material with the bottom of the
failure flat and level.
c) Remove loose and failed material, and ensure dust is swept or blown out of the excavated hole.
d) Compact the bottom of the excavated failure prior to placing base material to ensure soundness
and flatness of the base
e) Back-fill hole in layers with approved base material not exceeding 150mm depth of loose fill
and compact ensuring uniformity of compaction over the whole area
f) Compact base material using suitable tampers or compaction equipment, starting around the
edges and working into the centre of the failure and ensuring that all edges and corners are
compacted uniformly and in acceptable layer thickness up to:
 1. Line and grade of the existing pavement if the patch is to be Bituminous Surface
Dressed, allowing the finished patch to be approximately 12mm above the existing
pavement to accommodate for base subsidence
Or
 2. the bottom of the nominated depth of Asphaltic Concrete to be laid.
Bituminous Surface Dressing of Repaired Depression, Rut, Shoving or Corrugation
g) Apply Cut-back AC-10 Bitumen or Emulsion at a Nominated Application Rate
h) Spread Chippings (aggregates) of 14mm or 10mm as nominated in a single and uniform layer.
i) Roll or tamp chippings with suitable compaction equipment, ensuring chippings are not
crushed.
j) Note: For Multiple Surface Treatment, apply a second coat of Cut-back AC-10 or Emulsion at
a the Nominated Application Rate & apply a second layer of 10mm or 7mm chipping as
nominated in a single uniform layer and roll or tamp.
Pre-mixed or Hot-mixed Asphaltic Concrete Repaired Depression, Rut, Shoving or
Corrugation
17
 k) Apply Emulsion at a Nominated Application Rate, to all vertical faces and to the base of the
pot-hole and allow to break.
l) Wait until the emulsion breaks by turning from brown to black before adding Asphaltic mix.
Note: Place the asphaltic concrete mix in holes in layers of 30mm for Pre-mix and two and a half
(2½) times the nominal size of the chippings used to manufacture the Hot-mixed asphaltic concrete

m) Compact with suitable compaction equipment, with an emphasis on all corners and edges.
Always compact from the outside of the patch to the centre.
n) Repeat for each subsequent layer of asphaltic mixture placed until the final layer is laid loose
25mm higher than the existing pavement
o) Rake and tamp all the mix back from the existing pavement to the edge joint of the patch
making a vertical face of 45° and rake the top of the patch to a uniform flat surface.
p) Firstly, compact only the outer 100mm of the patch around the whole perimeter to ensure that
the joint matches the existing pavement and that correct sealing of the joints occur.
q) Continue compacting in towards the centre of the patch until the whole failure is uniformly
compacted without any depressions.
r) Seal the edges of the patch with emulsion, spraying 50mm onto the old pavement and
50mm onto the new patch and seal with 5mm chippings to waterproof the joint.
s) Compact with suitable compaction equipment, with an emphasis on all corners and edges.
Always compact from the outside of the patch to the centre.
t) Repeat for each subsequent layer of asphaltic mixture placed until the final layer is laid loose
25mm higher than the existing pavement
u) Rake and tamp all the mix back from the existing pavement to the edge joint of the patch
making a vertical face of 45° and rake the top of the patch to a uniform flat surface.
v) Firstly, compact only the outer 100mm of the patch around the whole perimeter to ensure that
the joint matches the existing pavement and that correct sealing of the joints occur.
w) Continue compacting in towards the centre of the patch until the whole failure is uniformly
compacted without any depressions.
x) Seal the edges of the patch with emulsion, spraying 50mm onto the old pavement and
50mm onto the new patch and seal with 5mm chippings to waterproof the joint. Clean up and
remove all spoil and waste materials from the site.

Quality of Work:
 All cutting, backfilling and Bitumen Surface Dressing or Asphaltic Concreting of
failures to be completed on the same day that the areas were worked on.
Bituminous Surface Dressing of Repaired Depression, Rut or Corrugation
Ensure finished base work of the patched pot-hole matches the line and grade of
existing pavement and allow the finished patch to be approximately 12mm above the
existing pavement to accommodate for base subsidence
 Ensure that the finished Patch has a matt texture with good skid resistance
 Ensure work site is left in a clean and safe condition with no loose aggregate on
pavement surface and adhering to environmental requirements
 Ensure the finished patch drains satisfactorily to the road shoulders
Pre-mixed or Hot-mixed Asphaltic Concrete Repaired Depression, Rut Shoving or Corrugation
 Ensure successive base layers are compacted around all edges and corners and that
the base finishes at the nominated depth that the patch is to be filled with asphaltic
concrete
 Ensure the finished level of the Asphaltic Concrete patched pot-hole matches the line
and grade of existing pavement and allow the finished patch to be approximately
12mm above the existing pavement to accommodate for base subsidence
 Ensure that the finished Patch has a uniform texture with good skid resistance and
that the finished patch drains satisfactorily to the road shoulders

18
  Ensure work site is left in a clean and safe condition with no waste asphaltic concrete
mix on pavement surface, and adhering to environmental requirements
 Monitor road for reoccurring depressions, ruts, shoving and corrugation and report on
their performance on a regular basis

Edge Failure Repairs on Bituminous Surface Dressed and Asphaltic Concrete

Roads
Classification: Routine Maintenance (Paved Roads)

Procedures:
a) Determine and mark out with paint the area to be repaired, by using a string-line or a 4-meter
straight edge, laid on the pavement surface parallel to the defined road edge and 300mm from
the outer limits of the failure within sound and undamaged pavement.
b) Cut along the lines marked on the pavement surface to form a rectangle, so that the cut sides
are vertical and to a depth of 300mm and finishing in sound material with the bottom of the
failure flat and level.
c) Remove loose and failed material, and ensure dust is swept or blown out of the excavated hole.
d) Compact the bottom of the excavated failure prior to placing base material to ensure soundness
and flatness of the base
e) Back-fill hole in layers with approved base material not exceeding 150mm depth of loose fill
and compact ensuring uniformity of compaction over the whole area
f) Compact base material using suitable tampers or compaction equipment, starting around the
edges and working into the centre of the failure and ensuring that all edges and corners are
compacted uniformly and in acceptable layer thickness up to:
 1. Line and level of the existing pavement if the patch is to be Bituminous Surface
Dressed, allow the finished patch to be approximately 12mm above the existing
pavement to accommodate for base subsidence
Or
 2. To the bottom of the nominated depth of Asphaltic Concrete to be laid
Bituminous Surface Dressing of Edge Failure
g) Apply Cut-back AC-10 Bitumen or Emulsion at a Nominated Application Rate
h) Spread Chippings (aggregates) of 14mm or 10mm as nominated in a single and uniform layer.
i) Roll or tamp chippings with suitable compaction equipment, ensuring chippings are not
crushed.
j) Note: For Multiple Surface Treatment, apply a second coat of Cut-back AC-10 or Emulsion at
a the Nominated Application Rate & apply a second layer of 10mm or 7mm chipping as
nominated in a single uniform layer and roll or tamp.

Pre-mixed or Hot-mixed Asphaltic Concrete of Edge Failure

k) Apply Emulsion at a Nominated Application Rate, to all vertical faces and to the base of the
compacted pot-hole and allow to break.
Wait until the emulsion breaks by turning from brown to black before adding Asphaltic mix.
Quality of Work:
 All cutting, backfilling and Bitumen Surface Dressing or Asphaltic Concreting of
failures to be completed on the same day that the areas were worked on.
Bituminous Surface Dressing of Repaired Edge Failure
 Ensure finished base work of the patched edge failure matches the line and grade of
existing pavement
 Ensure that the finished Patch has a matt texture with good skid resistance

19
  Ensure work site is left in a clean and safe condition with no loose aggregate on
pavement surface and adhering to environmental requirements
 Ensure the finished patch drains satisfactorily to the road shoulders
Pre-mixed or Hot-mixed Asphaltic Concrete Repaired Edge Failure
 Ensure successive base layers are compacted around all edges and corners and that
the base finishes at the nominated depth that the patch is to be filled with asphaltic
concrete
 Ensure the finished level of the Asphaltic Concrete patched edge failure matches the
line, level and grade of existing pavement with a safe rounded shoulder drop-off
edge.
 Ensure that the finished Patch has a uniform texture with good skid resistance and
that the finished patch drains satisfactorily to the road shoulders
 Ensure work site is left in a clean and safe condition with no loose aggregate on
pavement surface and adhering to environmental requirements
 Monitor edge failure repairs and report on their performance on a regular basis

Resealing and Sealing

Classification: Periodic Maintenance (Paved Roads)

Procedures:
a) Mark out the extent of road to be Resealed or Sealed by clearly painting a line across the full
width of the road pavement at the start and finish of the area to be sealed.
b) First: Repair Pot-holes and Edge Failures by the appropriate procedures
c) Sweep the full extent of the area to be sealed by Tractor Broom or Hand Broom to ensure all
dust and deposited dirt is removed from the road surface. Ensure that the operator or sweepers
take account of the wind direction to ensure that dust is not blown back onto the swept
surface
d) Mark with paint the start and finish of the initial bitumen sprayer run (i.e. Length) which will
be dependent on the amount of chippings in spreading trucks on site at the time of spraying.
e) Mark with paint, string-line or small stones the edge line for the sprayer driver to follow.
f) Paper the transverse joints at the start and finish of each run.
g) Set up the Bitumen Sprayer 20 meters back from the start of the run and ensure that the spray
bar is set to it’s correct width and that the driver’s guide bar is properly set and a Dip of the
Volume of Bitumen is measured and recorded along with the sprayer temperature.
h) Immediately behind the Bitumen Sprayer set-up the Chip Spreading Vehicles, followed
immediately by the Pneumatic-Tyred Rollers.
i) The Supervisor instructs the Sprayer Driver what the Hot Bitumen application rate is and
reads the correct road speed off the chart so as to set the vehicle speed.
j) The Bitumen Distributor sprays the required rate of Bitumen uniformly over the whole extent
of the work, without stopping until it has reached the designated finishing point and then the
driver/operator dips the distributor on flat ground so as to record the actual bitumen usage.
k) The Mechanical Chip Spreading equipment follows closely behind the Bitumen Distributor
spreading a uniform single layer of chippings and leaving a 150mm wet edge if needed for
the adjoining bitumen run, ensuring that complete coverage is achieved and that all chippings
required are distributed in the work zone.
l) Embed the chippings with the Pneumatic-Tyred Roller by following close behind and at a
speed of between 10-15km/hr to ensure that the whole mat is uniformly rolled in straight
runs. Rollers will continue rolling until instructed to stop and must ensure minimum rolling
time is observed.
m) Sweep any excess pile of chippings off the road and add chippings by hand as necessary.

20
Note: If a second coat seal is required immediately after laying the first coat repeat the same process,
ensuring that any excess loose chippings from the first coat is removed prior to the second coat.
Note: Offset Transverse joints on the second coat so as not to overlay the same position of first coat.
n) Open road to slow moving traffic and control vehicle speed to minimise whip-off of
chippings.
o) Clean up and remove waste materials and excess from shoulders, drains and site

Quality of Work:
 The finished seal surface shall have a uniform Matt Texture with a single layer of
nominated chippings and a minimal amount of loose chippings (aggregate) on the
surface.
 Ensure no transverse or longitudinal joints are raised or bleeding.
 Ensure the Daily Spray Record Sheet is correctly filled out immediately after
completing each sprayer run, and that the bitumen and chipping spread rates meet the
Targeted Design Rate criteria.
 Ensure that all loose chippings are removed from the site and road.
 Ensure that adequate signage is in place to warn the public of the need to take care on
the new work in its early set-up stages.
 Monitor sealed areas and report on their performance on a regular basis

Crack Sealing
Classification: Routine Maintenance (Paved Roads)

Procedures:
a) Initiate proper traffic control safety procedures at job site
b) Mark all areas prior to cleaning site to define the extent of work
c) Sweep clean or blow out cracks with compressed air over the area showing cracking ensuring
that the area is completely dry

Transverse and Longitudinal Cracking:

Note: Cracks greater than 6mm should be cleaned out to a depth of equal to or greater than 10mm ,
preferably by use of a routing cutting machine.
d) Heat cut-back bitumen or emulsion to the specified temperature and spray by bitumen hand
lance or pour by watering can the bitumen product into the cracks by following the crack
pattern. The nozzle of the dispenser must be held as close as possible to the road surface and
keep the width of spread to as small as possible.
e) Spread 5mm chippings (aggregate) over the strip of binder by using suitable hand tool
dispenser.
f) Lightly tamp the chippings into the binder
Alligator Cracking:
g) Define all areas to be sealed with paint in squares or rectangle
h) Produce a slurry by mixing emulsion with 5mm chippings (aggregate) in the ratio of 6 litres of
emulsion with 20 kilograms of 5mm chippings, in a mixer or a barrow.
i) Spread the slurry over the area to be cracked sealed and use flat edged rakes or mops to spread
in a thin layer of approximately 5mm thickness over the whole marked area
j) Allow the area to dry completely before allowing traffic to pass over the repair.
k) Clean up and remove waste materials and excess aggregate from site

Quality of Work:
 Ensure all crack sealing is flush with the existing pavement and sealed onto the
existing pavement.
21
  Ensure that the cracks are sealed with 5mm chippings to prevent pick up by vehicle
wheels.
 Monitor crack repairs and report on their performance on a regular basis

Resurfacing of Asphaltic Concrete Road with an Overlay

Classification: Periodic Maintenance (Paved Roads)

Procedures:
a) Mark out the extent of road to be overlaid with asphaltic concrete by clearly painting a line
across the full width of the road pavement at the start and finish of the area to be overlaid.
b) First: Repair Pot-holes and Edge Failures, Depressions, Ruts, Shoving and Corrugation and
Cracks
c) Sweep the full extent of the area to be overlaid by Tractor Broom or Hand Broom to ensure
all dust and deposited dirt is removed from the road surface. Ensure that the operator or
sweepers take account of the wind direction to ensure that dust is not blown onto the swept
surface
d) Mark with paint and a string-line the edge line for the paver driver to follow and the
beginning and end of the paver run.
e) Set up the Bitumen sprayer or small hand spraying unit loaded with Emulsion at the start of
the run and commence lightly Tack Coating the area to be overlayed with emulsion at the
specified application rate
f) Align the Asphalt Paver at the commencement of the overlay run and set the screed to the
correct width and to the loose laying depth ( ie 12% higher than the compacted finished level)
g) Heat the screed board by use of the paver burners and back the first truck load of Asphalt into
the paver hopper
h) Test the temperature of the mix deposited into the hopper to ensure it is at the correct
temperature to lay
i) Drive paver forward, laying a uniform mat with minor corrections of the paving levels being
adjusted by the screed operator as necessary
j) The paver operator drives at an optimum speed to ensure that the paver and trucks supplying
mix are continuously moving
Note: The paver should never stop or start on the job, to pick up mix as this will result in depressions
and humps in the new pavement – (ensure that minimal forward progress by the paver is maintained
while filling paver hopper or waiting for the next load of mix)
k) The Raker tries to minimize damage to the new mat and only add mix or remove mix on low
or high points as necessary
l) With a steel drum vibratory roller, commence initial break rolling to the nominated rolling
pattern designated by the supervisor, ensuring that the vibratory unit is operating correctly
and that the watering units on the drums are preventing pick up
m) Follow the initial break rolling by the steel vibratory drum roller, with a pneumatic tyre roller
to knead the mat, until uniform texture is achieved throughout.
n) Finally, re-roll with the steel drum roller to eliminate any marks left by the pneumatic tyre
roller, as the final pass
Note: The rolling of the mat should take place as close to the paver as possible and while the
pavement still retains its heat
Note: Care must be taken in the rolling pattern to ensure the mat is not shoved, torn or over
compacted thereby requiring a skilled operator to undertake the initial rolling passes
Note: If Longitudinal joints or Transverse joints are within the work scope these must be rolled first
by crimping a 100mm overlap of the joint with the existing pavement to ensure proper joint closure
and line and level.

22
 n) Open road to slow moving traffic and control vehicle speed in the initial stages of usage,
ensuring that vehicles do not get stopped for extended periods on the new mat when freshly
laid.
o) Clean up and remove waste materials and excess from shoulders, drains and site

Quality of Work:
 The finished asphaltic concrete mat shall have a smooth homogenous texture
 Areas of poor texture, rideability or any obvious flaw shall be removed for the full
width of the run and to a length nominated by the Supervisor and repaved
 Cores shall be taken as per the Testing specification and tested to ensure conformance
of properties
 Ensure that adequate signage is in place to warn the public of the need to take care on
the new work in its early set-up stages.
 Monitor asphaltic concrete overlay and report on their performance on a regular basis

Re-gravelling of Gravel Roads

Classification: Periodic Maintenance (Gravel Roads)

Procedures:
a) Mark out the extent of road to be graded.
b) Scarify the existing surface by ripping to a minimum depth of 50mm below the average
maximum depth of the overall pavement deformations, thereby loosening the material for
reshaping of the pavement
Grading Option 1: The Grader starts from the Centre-line and works to the edge
c) Commencing on one side of the road at the center-line and in passes no longer than 200
metres, the grader operator will commence to turn all the scarified material into a wind-row
of material, towards the outer edge of the road formation.
d) The grader turns around and returns on the opposite side of the center-line again turning
materials to the outer edge or the road.
e) Continue the looping pattern of grading until all material is wind-rowed on the outer edge of
the road formation. (this may take 2 or 3 passes to trim material to a solid sub-base)
Grading Option 2: The Grader starts from the Outer edge of the road formation and works to
the center-line and then onwards to the opposite outer edge of the Road formation
f) Commencing on one side of the road at the outer edge and in passes no longer than 200
metres, the grader operator will commence to turn all the scarified material into a wind-row
of material, towards the opposite outer edge of the road formation.
g) The grader either backs up or turns around after each pass and continues turning materials to
the opposite outer edge of the road.
h) Continue the pattern of grading until all material is wind-rowed on the outer edge of the road
formation. (this may take 2 or 3 passes to trim material to a solid sub-base)
Compaction requirements and new sub-base placement:
i) Compaction equipment is then used to proof roll the undisturbed sub-base from outside of the
road to the centerline, so as to ensure maximum density and uniformity of line and level by
the rollers looping around the work site from outside to the center-line
j) Ensure that a clearly defined Crown in the formation is aligned up the center of the road
k) Turn windrowed material back into excavated areas in layers not deeper than 150mm and add
water to the loosely packed gravel.
l) Remove all materials greater than 100mm by hand from the surface prior to compaction
m) Start compacting the layer of loose material from the outside of the road into the centerline
n) The grader operator will repeat the process of spreading the old gravel and having the layers
compacted, up to the new gravel replacement level.
23
 o) New sub-base material will be dumped at measured intervals along the job site as calculated
by the Supervisor/Contractor dependent on the nominated compacted fill depth.
p) The grader operator will spread the new gravel up to the finished surface level ensuring that
the correct camber, cross-fall and alignment are at the required depth and that all excess
material is graded beyond the pavement and not impeding water shed
q) Completing one half of the road at a time up to the crown level and alignment.
r) Compact the finished layer to a hard dense uniform surface.
s) Cross-falls shall be checked by use of a camber board at intervals no greater than 25meters.
t) Repeat the process on the opposite side of the gravel road ensuring shape and profile of cross
section of the road is maintained.
u) Clean up and remove waste materials and excess from shoulders, drains and site

Caution:
 The grader should not make a final pass down the center line of the road with a
horizontal blade as this destroys the crown and will cause flattening and ponding in
the center of the road
 Turnouts have to be cut to ensure that water is led away from the edge of the road by
following the natural contour.
 No stockpiles of material should be left on the road overnight without adequate
barriers and signage designating the area

Quality of Work:
 All planned work shall be completed and closed in one day to ensure the road is open
to traffic overnight without creating a hazard to the traffic.
 The finished pavement shall be dense and hard of uniform texture with correct
alignment, cross-fall and camber
 All excess material has to be removed from the pavement and edges ensuring a clean
work site with good drainage
 Ensure that adequate signage is in place to warn the public of the need to take care on
the new work in its early set-up stages.
 Monitor re-gravelled road and report on its performance on a regular basis

Ditch Cleaning and Minor Shaping - (by Manual Labour)/ Re-excavation of

Drainage Ditches - (by Manual Labour)
Classification: Drainage Maintenance (Routine Maintenance)

Procedures:
a) Mark out area to be cleaned by designating with flags or marker poles the extent of the length
of ditches to be cleaned by manual means.

Unlined Drain:
b) Cut and remove all large trees and shrub that has commenced growing within drain.
c) Trim all grass within drain to a height of less than 50mm leaving a short grass cover
throughout the extent of the ditch
d) Remove any silt build up or rubble and rubbish that have been deposited in the invert of the
ditch to eliminate all possibility of ponding.
e) Check the invert of the ditch to ensure sufficient fall to remove water and dig out depth of
ditch as needed to facilitate water flow
f) Clear and widen outfall or add turn-outs as needed to ensure that water flows away without
creating a scour at the end.
g) Where digging is needed ensure the side walls of the ditch have a slope between 1:1 and 2:1
thereby minimizing the possibility of scouring and erosion of invert and side walls
24
Lined Drain:
h) Dig out and remove all silt and rubbish build up throughout the length of the ditch
i) Pull out, chip or poison any weeds and plants growing through the lining of the drain
j) Clear and widen outfall to ensure the water flows away without creating a scour at the end.
k) Clean up and remove waste materials and rubbish from site.

Quality of Work:
 Ensure ditches are clear of all deleterious material and that water flows freely with a
minimum of scouring or erosion action at end of the day.
 Ensure slopes of ditches are stable and not susceptible to erosion and slumping.
 Ensure that cut-off and turnout drains are adequately spaced and properly cleared to
minimize silt build up and to ensure that water escapes on a broad flow
 Ensure work site is left in a clean and safe condition with all rubble and rubbish removed

9.5 Preparation of premix for pavement patching

Premix is a mixture of graded aggregate and cutback asphalt used for patching paved roads. The cold
mixture is prepared in the following manner:

1. Cutback formulation
The cutback asphalt is prepared by mixing kerosene with 80/100 pen grade asphalt. The asphalt is
heated to a temperature of 80-90oC before the required quantity of cutter (kerosene) is added. A
quantity of 36 litres (8 gallons)of kerosene is required for mixing with one drum or 153 litres of the
asphalt in order to obtain approximately an 80 percent cutback. The kerosene is added in increments
of 5 litres at a time and thoroughly stirred to ensure good mixing before the next increment.

2. Gradation of aggregates
The gradation of the aggregates to be used in the premix is as follows

Sieve size % passing

25 mm 100
20 mm 90-100
12.5 mm 40-80
No. 4 35-65
No. 50 5-20
No. 200 0-5

3. Quantity of cutback
About 5.5% cutback by weight of aggregates is required to obtain a workable and durable pre-mix. In
the case where the proportion of fine material in the mix is on the high side, the quantity of cutback to
use for the premix may be adjusted upwards to 6%.

4. Mixing and curing

The aggregate in a dry condition (heated slightly if needed) is mixed with the required quantity of
cutback which has been heated to a temperature of 80-90oC and thoroughly mixed until all particles
become uniformly coated with binder. The mix is stockpiled and covered with tarpaulin to avoid
contact with rain for a period of 3-10 days for it cure and become sufficiently stable for use.

25
 10. Quality Control of Road Works
10.1 Introduction
In Ghana, road works whether new development or maintenance, are generally executed
by contracting. A contract is a legal agreement between two parties where one party
agrees to carry out certain works in return for a reward (or in legal terms a consideration
usually of money) to be given by the other party in the contract. The party which agrees
to do the work is called the Contractor whilst the other that pays for the work or the
owner is referred to as the Employer or Client.

Prior to any construction of works, the Employer or Client employs an engineer to design
the solution scheme and to prepare contract documents comprising drawings,
specifications, bills of quantities and others. These documents are then sent to contractors
to tender for the work,. The Contractor who wins the contract for the road works and the
Employer then sign and go into a contract for the execution of work.

During work execution, the works must be monitored and controlled to ensure that a
high quality product is achieved and within budgetary allocations and that the finished
product is indeed what was specified. Monitoring or quality control is the joint
responsibility of the Contractor and the Client and it must be a continuous effort
throughout the construction process. Three important questions to pose and answer in
order to ensure the quality of the construction works are:
 What are the items and areas to control?
 What guides the control process?
 What is to be done in the case of substandard works?

These and many more are questions that border on real situations that characterise
contracts in road works. A contract and the accompanying conditions must endeavour to
address all these problems to the extent humanely possible so that the road works do not
suffer any major setbacks in quality and budget.

10.2 Quality control and assurance procedures

These procedures are to guide resident site staff who are directly involved in
supervision of the works in carrying out their work so that the desired level of quality

1
can be achieved. Quality control and assurance are achieved in three separate but related
areas:
a. Materials control
b. Work control
c. Quantity control

For each of the above control areas, the activities and procedures required may comprise
one or more of the following:
 Checking that appropriate instructions are given and any information required by
the Contractor is supplied in good time.
 Checking that materials and workmanship are satisfactory and as specified, and
where necessary, issuing instructions for remedying faulty works or replacing sub
standard materials.
 Checking lines, levels, layout etc. of the works to ensure conformity with the
drawings.
 Issuing further instructions, drawing and clarifications of details as are necessary
to ensure satisfactory construction of the works.
 Measuring the volume of work done
 Undertaking all tests required and keeping records thereof
 Reporting on all the foregoing to the Engineer/Consultant in the form he requires.

10.3 Reference for quality control

The conditions of contract define the terms under which the work is to be undertaken, the
relationship between the Employer, the Engineer and the Contractor, the powers of the
Engineer and the terms of payment. Plans are approved drawings and reproductions
pertaining to the work covered by the contract such as the plan of a road, vertical and
horizontal alignment, sections of cut and fill and cross section of road. The specifications
are the written instructions that accompany and supplement the plans and form a guide
for the standards required in the execution of the work. These standard specifications,
which are the results of the experience and knowledge acquired over a period of years
include:
a. All the general requirements and

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 b. The quality of workmanship and material required.

10.4 Materials control

The materials to be used must be controlled in quality to ensure that substandard
materials are not used to compromise the quality of the work being executed. All index
properties and strength characteristics as required of the material by the specification
must be met. This requires that representative samples are taken occasionally from a
batch and tested for quality. In addition, any time a new supply is made, the necessary
quality tests must be undertaken on representative samples.

For example, soils for use in building the pavement structure must be checked to see if
they meet the requirements in terms of
 Gradation
 Atterberg Limits
 Strength characteristics (measured by California Bearing Ratio- CBR)
Aggregates for Portland cement concrete works (such as bridge and drains and culvert
construction, retaining walls), asphalt concrete formulation, surface dressings, etc, must
be checked to see that they conform to the specification requirements for such works. The
properties to check will include;
 Shape
 Strength
 Abrasion resistance
 Affinity for bitumen
 Durability
In the case of bitumen, it must be ascertained that the material is of the right grade or
consistency (hardness if solid or viscosity if liquefied).
In asphalt overlay construction, material control will involve
 Gradation of the aggregates for the mix
 Asphalt content of the mix
 Stability of the mix
 Density and voids of the compacted overlay

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For any of the above and other road building materials, samples that fail to meet
specification requirements must not be allowed for use. Where substandard materials
have been used, the contractor must be ordered to remove them and replace with
approved material meeting the quality requirements contained in the specifications

10.5 Work control

The right sequence of the construction process must be followed and the manner of
construction must be such as would achieve the desired quality of the end product. In
building the pavement layers, items to control include
 Materials for each layer
 Thickness of layers
 Compaction and densities
In controlling compaction especially soils placed behind bridge abutments or used for
embankments where the total thickness of soil to place is large, the total thickness must
be placed in smaller lifts (layers of materials) and compacted. Large lifts will not achieve
adequate compaction and will lead to further compaction by traffic and differential
settlement after the road has been opened to traffic.

In surface dressings, work control must be exercised in respect of

 Primer application
 Blinding of the primed surface
 Tack coat application
 Chippings application
 Rolling of spread chippings

In asphalt overlay construction, items to control include

 Gradation of plant mix
 Asphalt content
 Production temperature of mix
 Temperature of laid mat prior to compaction
 Compaction characteristics

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10.6 Quantity control
Quality control also requires that quantity is controlled in accordance with design and
drawings. Quantity items to control include
 Length
 Width
 Depth or thickness
 Volumes
 Height
 Angles
 Elevations
 Densities
 No. of culverts, etc.

10.7 Quality assurance

To be sure that quality has not been compromised but has been assured, it is necessary to
conduct tests to satisfy one’s self that indeed what was specified is what has been
produced. This is done by conducting on-site observations of the work in progress and
of the finished road. Areas of the construction that appear to be defective must be tested
to see whether indeed there is construction defect or not. In addition, random testing may
be carried out for the same purpose. Such tests may include density tests, depth of
pavement tests, asphalt content test, gradation tests, etc.

10.8 Recording
Good record keeping and documentation are essential to the Resident Engineer’s ability
to monitor and control the project and to deal with substandard work. Records should be
kept of
 weather,
 mistakes made by the Contractor,
 defective construction and their location
 quality test results
 field inspections

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 field tests and results
 items supplied for construction
 sections of the roads for which certain items were used
 instructions given to the Contractor and verbal agreements reached with the
Contractor.
Where possible photographic documentation may be employed to supplement the
record keeping. Each photograph is dated and location, subject and photographer
noted. These photographs are kept in a central album to be used in case of any
litigation.