Chapter 3.

Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations

Student Objectives

3.1 Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Water

 Know some chemical and physical properties of H2, O2, and H2O.
 Know and understand that compounds, e.g. NaCl, are different from the elements, e.g. Na and Cl 2,
from which they are composed.

3.2 Chemical Bonds

 Define and understand the difference between ionic and covalent bonds.
 Describe and understand the formation of an ionic compound from its elements.
 Describe and understand the sharing of electrons in a covalent bond.

3.3 Representing Compounds: Chemical Formulas and Molecular Models

 Define and understand empirical formula, molecular formula, and structural formula.
 Write the empirical formula, molecular formula, and structural formula for simple molecules.
 Recognize and understand the differences between ball-and-stick models and space-filling models.
 Recognize and identify characteristic colors for elements in molecular models.

3.4 An Atomic-Level View of Elements and Compounds

 Identify elements as atomic or molecular.

 Differentiate between atomic or molecular elements and ionic or molecular compounds.
 Know and understand that ionic compounds are composed of formula units and not discrete
molecules.
 Know and understand that covalent compounds tend to exist as discrete molecules.
 Know and understand that a polyatomic ion is composed of atoms that are covalently bound to each
other.

3.5 Ionic Compounds: Formulas and Names

 Know that ionic compounds are ubiquitous in the Earth’s crust as minerals.
 Know and understand the rules for writing formulas for ionic compounds.
 Write formulas for ionic compounds using the charges of the ions and the principle of electrical
neutrality.
 Know and understand the rules for naming ionic compounds.
 Write names from formulas and formulas from names of ionic compounds.

3.6 Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names

 Know and understand the rules for naming molecular compounds.

 Write names from formulas and formulas from names of molecular compounds.
 Write names and formulas for binary acids and oxyacids.

3.7 Summary of Inorganic Nomenclature

 Chapter 3. Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations

3.8 Formula Mass and the Mole Concept for Compounds

 Define formula mass (a.k.a. molecular weight, molecular mass) and molar mass for a compound.
 Understand and calculate the molar mass of a compound.
 Calculate and interconvert between mass, moles, and molecules of a compound.

3.9 Composition of Compounds

 Define and understand mass percent (mass percent composition).

 Calculate mass percent from a chemical formula.
 Use mass percent as a conversion factor.
 Use chemical formulas as conversion factors in mole calculations.

3.10 Determining a Chemical Formula from Experimental Data

 Convert masses into moles and calculate mole ratios to determine empirical formulas.
 Determine empirical formulas from experimental data.
 Determine molecular formulas from empirical formulas and molecular masses.
 Understand combustion analysis.
 Determine an empirical formula from combustion analysis.

3.11 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations

 Define reactants, products, chemical reaction, and chemical equation.

 Understand how a chemical reaction can be represented by a chemical equation.
 Use coefficients to balance all atoms in a chemical equation.
 Write balanced chemical reactions.

3.12 Organic Compounds

 Define organic compounds.

 Define and understand the differences between alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes.
 Know the names and formulas of the first ten alkanes.
 Identify the common organic functional groups.


Section Summaries

Lecture Outline

 Terms, Concepts, Relationships, Skills

 Figures, Tables, and Solved Examples

Teaching Tips

 Suggestions and Examples

 Misconceptions and Pitfalls
Chapter 3. Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations

Lecture Outline

Terms, Concepts, Relationships, Skills Figures, Tables, and Solved Examples

3.1 Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Water  Intro figure: periodic table, reaction of H2
 Some chemical and physical properties of and O2 to form H2O
hydrogen, oxygen, and water  unnumbered figure: table of properties of
o boiling point hydrogen, oxygen, and water
o physical state at room temperature  Figure 3.1 Mixtures and Compounds
o flammability
 Some characteristics of sodium, chlorine, and
sodium chloride
 Compounds are very different from the
elements from which they are formed.

3.2 Chemical Bonds  Figure 3.2 The Formation of an Ionic

 Chemical bonds Compound
o ionic bonds  Figure 3.3 The Stability of a Covalent Bond
 formed between a metal and a
nonmetal
 feature a cation and an anion
o covalent bonds
 formed between two
nonmetals
 feature electron sharing

3.3 Representing Compounds: Chemical Formulas and  Example 3.1 Empirical and Molecular
Molecular Models Formulas
 Chemical formula  unnumbered figure: different formula and
o empirical formula model representations of CH4
o molecular formula  unnumbered figure: color representations
o structural formula of elements in models
 Molecular models  unnumbered figure: tetrahedral shape of
o color-coded spheres CH4
o ball-and-stick  Table 3.1 Benzene, Acetylene, Glucose, and
o space-filling Ammonia

3.4 An Atomic-Level View of Elements and Compounds  Figure 3.4 A Molecular View of Elements
 Pure substances and Compounds
o elements  Figure 3.5 Molecular Elements
 atomic  Figure 3.6 Molecular and Ionic Compounds
 molecular  unnumbered figure: label from a bottle of
o compounds bleach
 ionic  Example 3.2 Classifying Substances as
 Chapter 3. Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations
 molecular
 Ionic compounds
o formula units
o polyatomic ions
Teaching Tips
Suggestions and Examples
3.1 Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Water
 Compounds are introduced by comparing the
properties of the constituent atoms to the
properties of the compound.
3.2 Chemical Bonds
 Figure 3.1 emphasizes a difference between
compounds and mixtures: Compounds have
fixed ratios of the elements, whereas
mixtures can have any ratio.
 The formation of sodium chloride is
schematic only and not mechanistic.
3.3 Representing Compounds: Chemical Formulas
and Molecular Models
 Emphasize that students think from different
perspectives afforded by the different
representations of both formula and
structure. Which form of a compound they
need to think about depends on the context.
 Details of molecular shapes are discussed in
Chapter 9.
 Conceptual Connection 3.2 Representing
Molecules
3.4 An Atomic-Level View of Elements and Compounds
 The classification scheme for elements and
compounds gives the molecular view of each
example.
Atomic Elements, Molecular Elements,
Molecular Compounds, or Ionic Compounds
Misconceptions and Pitfalls
 Hydrogen and oxygen are molecular
elements, not compounds.
 The actual reaction of chlorine with sodium
occurs at the solid sodium surface where the
elemental chlorine comes in contact with the
metal.
 Formulas don’t show the shapes of
molecules, and some formulas give no
indication of atom connectivity.
 Colored spheres are an obvious convenience
in graphic as well as tactile models. They are
unrelated to microscopic and macroscopic
properties.
 Students sometimes get confused about the
molecularity of some elements. They
sometimes don’t realize right away that the
molecularity is limited only to the elemental
Chapter 3. Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations
 Conceptual Connection 3.4 Ionic and
Molecular Compounds
Lecture Outline
Terms, Concepts, Relationships, Skills
3.5 Ionic Compounds: Formulas and Names
 Practical examples of ionic compounds
o consumer products
o minerals
 Writing formulas for ionic compounds
o symbol and charge for cation and
anion
o subscripts: number of ions
o electrical neutrality overall
 Naming ionic compounds
o metal forms one type of cation
 name of cation + base name
of nonmetal with suffix -ide
o metal forms more than one type of
cation
 name of cation + charge of
metal in Roman numerals +
base name of nonmetal with
suffix -ide
o compound with polyatomic ion
o hydrates: use Greek prefixes to
indicate number of water molecules
in formula unit
3.6 Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names
 Naming binary molecular compounds
o common: water, ammonia
o systematic
 Greek prefix + name of 1st
element + prefix + base name
of 2nd element + -ide
 Naming acids
o binary: hydro- + base name of
nonmetal + -ic acid
o oxyacids
state.
 Ions don’t exist discreetly in large amounts,
i.e. one can’t pull a bottle of Na+ from a shelf.
 Polyatomic ions have both covalent and ionic
features.
Figures, Tables, and Solved Examples
 unnumbered figure: examples of ionic
compounds (table salt and TumsTM)
 unnumbered figure: photos of calcite and
trona
 Example 3.3 Writing Formulas for Ionic
Compounds
 Table 3.2 Metals Whose Charge Is Invariant
from One Compound to Another
 Figure 3.7 Transition Metals
 Table 3.3 Some Common Monoatomic Anions
 Example 3.5 Naming Ionic Compounds
Containing a Metal That Forms Only One Type
of Cation
 Table 3.4 Some Metals That Form Cations
with Different Charges
 Example 3.6 Naming Ionic Compounds
Containing a Metal That Forms More Than
One Kind of Cation
 Table 3.5 Some Common Polyatomic Ions
 Example 3.7 Naming Ionic Compounds That
Contain a Polyatomic Ion
 Figure 3.8 Hydrates
 unnumbered figure: common hydrate
prefixes
 unnumbered figure: Greek prefixes for
naming binary molecular compounds
 Example 3.8 Naming Molecular Compounds
 unnumbered figure: sliced fruits (acids)
 unnumbered figure: scheme for naming acids
 Figure 3.9 Hydrochloric Acid Dissolving Zinc
Metal
 Example 3.9 Naming Binary Acids
 Chemistry in the Environment: Acid Rain
 Example 3.10 Naming Oxyacids
 Chapter 3. Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations

 -ate oxyanions: base name of

oxyanion + -ic acid
 -ite oxyanions: base name of
oxyanion + -ous acid

Teaching Tips

Suggestions and Examples Misconceptions and Pitfalls

3.5 Ionic Compounds: Formulas and Names  Nomenclature immediately

 Students benefit from many examples and practice. confronts students’ ability to
These can be done as short in-class activities. assign charge and balance charge
from the cation and the anion.

3.6 Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names  Nomenclature is not an exciting

 There are many additional categories or families of topic, but it is crucial — like
molecular compounds. Naming them is an on-going vocabulary in a new language.
learning process; for example, organic chemistry has its Being able to recognize the
own system. Students should be encouraged and polyatomic ions right away is an
prepared to keep track of them throughout the course. especially important skill.
 The figure of acid dissolving metal (Fig. 3.9) is an  Given the large number of
opportunity to emphasize microscopic and macroscopic categories and several
representations. It introduces the idea of an acid and exceptions, nomenclature will
Chapter 3. Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations
demonstrates that ions can move freely in an aqueous
solution.
 Conceptual Connection 3.5 Nomenclature
Lecture Outline
Terms, Concepts, Relationships, Skills
3.8 Formula Mass and the Mole Concept for
Compounds
 Define and calculate formula mass
o for each different element: number of
atoms  mass in amu of element; sum
over all elements
 Molar mass
o formula mass in amu
o interconvert between moles, mass,
and number of molecules using molar
mass
3.9 Composition of Compounds
 Mass percent of an element
 Mass percent as a conversion factor
 Conversion factors from chemical formulas
3.10 Determining a Chemical Formula from
Experimental Data
 Elemental analysis
 Deriving an empirical formula
 Molecular formulas from empirical formulas
and molar mass
 Combustion analysis
not appear to be very systematic
at all to a novice.
Figures, Tables, and Solved Examples
 algorithm for calculating formula mass
 Example 3.12 Calculating Formula Mass
 Example 3.13 The Mole Concept—
Converting between Mass and Number of
Molecules
 unnumbered figure: ozone hole over
Antarctica
 Example 3.14 Mass Percent Composition
 Example 3.15 Using Mass Percent
Composition as a Conversion Factor
 unnumbered figure: packets of NaCl
 Example 3.16 Chemical Formulas as
Conversion Factors
 Chemistry and Medicine: Methylmercury in
Fish
 Examples 3.17 and 3.18 Obtaining an
Empirical Formula from Experimental Data
 Example 3.19 Calculating a Molecular
Formula from an Empirical Formula and
Molar Mass
 Figure 3.12 Combustion Analysis Apparatus
 Examples 3.20 and 3.21 Obtaining an
Empirical Formula from Combustion Analysis
Chapter 3. Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations
Chapter 3. Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations

Teaching Tips

Suggestions and Examples Misconceptions and Pitfalls

3.7 Formula Mass and the Mole Concept for Compounds  Students have difficulty with the
 Conceptual Connection 3.4 Molecular Models and the relative size of atoms in a
Size of Molecules molecule, the size of one
molecule versus another, and the
size of molecules at the
molecular level.

3.8 Composition of Compounds  There is sometimes confusion

 Conceptual Connection 3.7 Chemical Formula and Mass between the fraction (or ratio)
Percent Composition and the percent.
 Conceptual Connection 3.8 Chemical Formulas and
Elemental Composition
 The box on methylmercury in fish gives a practical
example of toxin levels in a sample.

3.9 Determining a Chemical Formula from Experimental Data  Students are tempted to analyze
 Elemental analysis is used to provide information about for oxygen in a combustion
the mass of constituent elements in a compound. The analysis problem in the same
goal is to convert to moles since moles can be compared way they analyze for carbon and
directly to determine the simplest ratio. hydrogen.
 The molecular formula is some whole number multiple of
the empirical formula of the elements in a molecule. The
molar mass provides that whole number.
 Chapter 3. Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations
Lecture Outline
Terms, Concepts, Relationships, Skills
3.10 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
 Write reaction with correct chemical
formulas for reactants and products.
 Balance elements in more complex
substances first.
 Balance atoms in free elements last.
 Check for same number of atoms in reactants
and products.
3.11 Organic Compounds
 Inorganic compounds
 Organic compounds
o hydrocarbons
o functionalized hydrocarbons
Figures, Tables, and Solved Examples
 Table 3.6 States of Reactants and Products in
Chemical Equations
 unnumbered figure: molecular model
representation of methane combustion
 Examples 3.22 and 3.23 Balancing Chemical
Equations
 unnumbered figure: molecular model of
cinnamaldehyde
 unnumbered figure: structural formula and
space-filling model of methane
 unnumbered figures: structural formulas of
propane, isobutene, cyclohexane, ethane,
ethyne, acetic acid
 unnumbered figure: scheme for classifying
compounds
 unnumbered figure: gasoline pump
 unnumbered figure: base names for
hydrocarbons
 Table 3.7 Common Hydrocarbons
 unnumbered figure: isopropyl alcohol
 Table 3.8 Families of Organic Compounds
Chapter 3. Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations

Teaching Tips

Suggestions and Examples Misconceptions and Pitfalls

3.10 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations  Students may think there is only
 Help students recognize a pattern and with which one correct way to go about
element to start. For reactions of organic molecules (e.g. balancing a reaction, but many
combustion), the common order is C, H, and O. strategies achieve the same
 Using fractions on the order of a half is generally outcome.
acceptable for diatomic elements (and is particularly
common in thermochemical equations).
 Conceptual Connection 3.9 Balanced Chemical Equations

3.11 Organic Compounds

 Make and show models (or virtual models that can be
rotated) of analogous or homologous structures, e.g.
methane, ethane, propane.
 Make and show models of functional groups.
 Show examples of molecules with the same molecular
formula but different functional groups.
 Chapter 3. Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations

Additional Problem for the Mole Concept— An ibuprofen tablet contains 200 mg of the
Converting between Mass and Number of painkiller whose formula is C13H18O2. How many
Molecules (Example 3.12) ibuprofen molecules does it contain?

Sort Given 200 mg C13H18O2

You are given the mass of ibuprofen and asked to Find molecules of C13H18O2
find the number of molecules.

Strategize Conceptual Plan

Convert from mass to molecules by determining the mg C13H18O2  g  mol 
number of moles. This requires converting the units molecules
of mg to g and using the molar mass of ibuprofen. 1g 1 mol
1000 mg 206.27 g
Avogadro’s number is used to change from moles
6.022  1023 molecules
to molecules.
1 mol
Relationships Used
1 mg = 103 g
C13H18O2 molar mass = 13(12.01) + 18(1.008) +
2(16.00)
= 206.27 g/mol
6.022  10 = 1 mole
23

Solve Solution
Follow the conceptual plan to solve the problem. 1 g 1 mol 6.022  1023 molecules
200 mg   
1000 mg 206.27 g 1 mol
Round the answer to the correct number of
significant figures. The number 200 has only one = 5.838  1020 = 6  1020 molecules
significant figure (see Section 1.7).

Check The units (molecules) are correct. The magnitude

Check your answer. Are the units correct? Does of the answer (6  1020 molecules) makes sense
the answer make physical sense? since we started with less than one molar mass of
ibuprofen.
Chapter 3. Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations

Additional Problem for Mass Percent Calculate the mass percent of calcium in calcium CaCO3.
Composition (Example 3.13)

Sort Given CaCO3

You are given the molecular formula of Find mass percent Ca
calcium carbonate and asked to find the
mass percent of Ca.

Strategize Conceptual Plan

The molecular formula tells us that there is 1 molar mass Ca
mass % Ca =  100
1 mol Ca, 1 mol C, and 3 mol O for each mol molar mass CaCO3
calcium carbonate. Determine the mass of Relationships Used
calcium and the mass of calcium carbonate mass element X in 1 mol compound
mass % element X =  100
using the equation that defines the mass mass of 1 mol compound
percent. molar mass CaCO3 = 1(40.08) + 1(12.01) + 3(16.00)
= 100.09 g/mol

Solve Solution
Follow the conceptual plan to solve the 1  molar mass Ca = 40.08
problem. Round the answer to four molar mass CaCO3 = 100.09 g/mol
significant figures to reflect the four 1 molar mass Ca
Mass % Ca =  100
significant figures in the least precisely molar mass CaCO3
known quantity (40.08).
40.08 g/mol
=  100
100.09 g/mol
= 40.04%

Check The units of the answer are correct and the magnitude
makes sense. Because the mass of calcium carbonate is
coincidentally about 100 g/mol, the mass percent nearly
matches the molar mass of calcium.
 Chapter 3. Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations
Additional Problem for Mass Percent
Composition as a Conversion Factor
(Example 3.14)
Sort
You are given the sample size of calcium
carbonate and mass percent of calcium.
Strategize
Convert between the mass of a compound and
mass of a constituent element using the mass
percent relationship.
Solve
Follow the conceptual plan to solve the problem.
Check
The calcium in antacid tablets that contain calcium
carbonate CaCO3 is touted as a good source of dietary
calcium for bones. The mass percent of calcium in
calcium carbonate is 40.04%. How much calcium does
one obtain by consuming two antacid tablets that each
contain 850 mg CaCO3? The recommended daily
intake is 1000 mg for adults aged 18 to 50 years old.
Do the two tablets supply the minimum requirement?
Given 1700 mg CaCO3 (2 tablets  850 mg = 1700)
Mass % Ca = 40.04%
Find mg Ca
Conceptual Plan
mg CaCO3  mg Ca
40.04 mg Ca
100 mg CaCO3
Relationships Used
40.04 mg Ca = 100 mg CaCO3
Solution
1700 mg CaCO3 
40.04 mg Ca
= 680.68 mg Ca
100 mg CaCO3
680.68 mg = 680 mg
The units of the answer (mg) are correct. The
magnitude of the answer (680) makes physical sense
since we expected somewhat less than half (40% is
less than 50%). The two tablets do not supply the
entire minimum requirement for calcium.
Chapter 3. Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations

Additional Problem for Chemical Formulas
as Conversion Factors (Example 3.15)
Fuel cells convert molecules to energy without actually
burning them. One technology hopes to use hydrogen
taken from ethanol C2H6O, which in turn is produced
from grain. What mass of hydrogen (in grams) is
contained in 1.00 gallon of ethanol? (The density of
ethanol is 0.789 g/mL.)

Sort Given 1.00 gal ethanol C2H6O

You are given a volume of ethanol and its dethanol = 0.789 g/mL
density. You are asked to find the mass of Find g H
hydrogen it contains.

Strategize Conceptual Plan

First, convert the volume of ethanol into a mass gal C2H6O  L C2H6O  mL C2H6O  g
using conversion factors and the density. C2H6O
Second, convert the moles of water into moles 3.785 L 1000 mL 0.789 g
1 gal 1L 1 mL
of hydrogen and finally into grams of hydrogen.
 mol C2H6O  mol H  gH
1 mol C2H6O 6 mol H 1.008 g H
46.07 g 1 mol C2H6O 1 mol H
Relationships Used

3.785 L = 1 gal (Table 1.3)

1000 mL = 1 L
molar mass C2H6O = 2(12.01) + 6(1.008) + 1(16.00)
= 46.07 g/mol
6 mol H : 1 mol C2H6O
1.008 g H = 1 mol H
Solve Solution
Follow the conceptual plan. 3.785 L 1000 mL 0.789 g
1 gal    = 2986.4 g C2H6O
Round the answer to the correct number of 1 gal 1 L 1 mL
significant figures.
1 mol 6 mol H 1.008 g H
2986.4 g C2H6O   
46.06 g 1 mol C2H6O 1 mol H
= 392.13 g H = 392.1 g H

Check The units (g) are correct. The magnitude of the answer
(392 g) seems to make physical sense since hydrogen
is so light.
 Chapter 3. Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations

Additional Problem for Obtaining an A laboratory analysis of ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)

Empirical Formula from Experimental Data produced the mass percent composition:
(Examples 3.16, 3.17)
C 40.98%
H 4.58%
O 54.50%
Find the empirical formula.

1. Mass from percentages Given In a 100 g sample: 40.98 g C, 4.58 g H, 54.50 g

Write down or compute as given the masses of C
each element present in a sample of the Find empirical formula
compound. If you are given percent
composition, assume a 100-g sample and
compute them.

2. Mass to moles 40.98 g C 

1 mol C
= 3.412 mol C
Convert each of the masses in step 1 to moles 12.01 g C
by using the appropriate molar mass for each 1 mol H
4.58 g H  = 4.544 mol H
element as a conversion factor. 1.008 g H
1 mol O
54.50 g O  = 3.406 mol O
16.00 g O
3. Pseudo-formula from coefficients C3.412H4.544O3.406
Write a pseudo-formula using the number of
moles of each element from step 2 as
subscripts.

4. Divide by lowest subscript C 3.412H 4.544 O 3.406  C1H1.33O1

Divide all of the subscripts in the formula by the 3.406 3.406 3.406

smallest subscript.

5. Convert to whole numbers C1H1.33O1  3 = C3H4O3

If the subscripts are not whole numbers, multiply The correct empirical formula for ascorbic acid is
all subscripts by a small whole number to get C3H4O3.
whole number subscripts.

Fractional Subscript Multiply by this

0.20 5
0.25 4
0.33 3
0.40 5
0.50 2
0.66 4
0.75 4
0.80 5
Chapter 3. Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations

Additional Problem for Calculating a Molecular Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) has the empirical formula
Formula from an Empirical Formula and Molar of C3H4O3 and a molar mass of 176.13 g/mol. Find
Mass (Example 3.18) its molecular formula.

Sort Given Empirical formula = C3H4O3

molar mass of ascorbic acid = 176.13 g/mol
You are given the empirical formula and molar Find molecular formula
mass of ascorbic acid and asked to find the
molecular formula.
Strategize Molecular formula = empirical formula  n
A molecular formula is always a whole-number molar mass
n =
multiple of the empirical formula. Divide the molar empirical formula mass
mass by the empirical formula mass to get the
whole number.

Solve Empirical formula molar mass

Compute the empirical formula mass. = 3(12.01) + 4(1.008) + 3(16.00) = 88.06
Divide the molar mass by the empirical formula molar mass 176.13 g/mol
mass to find the whole number. n = = = 2
empirical formula mass 88.06 g/mol
Multiply the empirical formula by the whole number
to obtain the molecular formula. Molecular formula = C3H4O3  2
= C6H8O6

Check Compute the molar mass using the computed

formula:
6(12.01) + 8(1.008) + 6(16.00) = 176.14
The computed molar mass is in agreement with the
given molar mass. The answer is correct.
 Chapter 3. Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations

Additional Problem for Obtaining an Empirical Upon combustion, a compound containing only
Formula from Combustion Analysis (Examples carbon and hydrogen produced 2.59 g CO2 and
3.19, 3.20) 1.19 g H2O. Find the empirical formula of the
compound.

1. Masses of combustion products Given 2.59 g CO2 and 1.19 g H2O

Write the masses of each combustion product as Find empirical formula
given. If given, write the mass of the sample.

2. Masses to Moles 1 mol CO2

2.59 g CO2  = 0.0588 mol CO2
Convert the masses of CO2 and H2O from step 1 to 44.01 g CO2
moles by using the appropriate molar mass for each
1 mol H2O
compound as a conversion factor. 1.19 g H2O  = 0.0662 mol H2O
18.02 g H2O

3. Moles to Moles of C and H 0.0588 mol CO2 

1 mol C
= 0.0588 mol C
Convert the moles in step 2 to moles of C and 1 mol CO2
moles of H using the conversion factors inherent in 2 mol H
the formulas CO2 and H2O. 0.0662 mol H2O  = 0.132 mol H
1 mol H2O

4. Other elements No other elements, so proceed to the next step.

If the compound contains an element other than C
and H, find the mass of the other element by
subtracting the sum of the masses of C and H from
the mass of the sample. Finally, convert the mass
of the other element to moles.

5. Write the pseudo-formula C0.0588H0.132

Write down the pseudo-formula for the compound
using the number of moles of each element (in
steps 3 and 4) as subscripts.

6. Divide by the smallest subscript C 0.0588H 0.132  C1H2.24

Divide all the subscripts in the formula by the 0.0588 0.0588

smallest subscript. (Round all subscripts that are

within 0.1 of a whole number.)

7. Whole number subscripts C1H2.24  4  C4H9

If the subscripts are not whole numbers, multiply by This is the correct empirical formula.
a small whole number to get whole-number
subscripts.
Chapter 3. Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations
Additional Problem for Balancing Chemical
Equations (Examples 3.21, 3.22)
1. Skeletal Equation
Write a skeletal equation by writing the chemical
formulas for each of the reactants and products.
2. Balance atoms in complex structures
Balance atoms in more complex substances first.
Always balance atoms in compounds before atoms
in pure elements.
3. Balance atoms in free elements
Balance atoms that occur as free elements on
either side of the equation. Always balance free
elements by adjusting the coefficient on the free
element.
4. Coefficient Fractions
If the balanced equation contains coefficient
fractions, clear these by multiplying the entire
equation by the denominator of the fraction.
5. Check
Check to make certain the equation is balanced by
summing the total number of each type of atom on
both sides of the equation.
Write the balanced equation for the combustion of
octane (C8H18), a liquid vehicle fuel component, in
which it combines with oxygen to form gaseous
carbon dioxide and gaseous water.
C8H18(l) + O2(g)  CO2(g) + H2O(g)
Begin with C:
C8H18(l) + O2(g)  CO2(g) + H2O(g)
8C  1C
To balance C, put an 8 before CO2:
C8H18(l) + O2(g)  8 CO2(g) + H2O(g)
8C  8C
Balance H:
C8H18(l) + O2(g)  8 CO2(g) + H2O(g)
18 H  2 H (2 H from each H2O)
To balance H, put a 9 in front of H 2O:
C8H18(l) + O2(g)  8 CO2(g) + 9 H2O(g)
18 H  18 H
Balance O:
C8H18(l) + O2(g)  8 CO2(g) + 9 H2O(g)
2 O  25 O (16 from CO2 and 9 from H2O)
To balance O, put a 12.5 in front of O 2:
C8H18(l) + 12.5 O2(g)  8 CO2(g) + 9 H2O(g)
25 O  25 O
Convert 12.5 to whole number by multiplying entire
equation by 2:
2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g)  16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)
2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g)  16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)
Left Right
16 C (2  8) 16 C
36 H (2  18) 36 H (18  2)
50 O (25  2) 50 O [(16  2) + 18]