Chapter 4-Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working

[ Chapter 4: Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working ]
Seab Piseth | pisethseab@gmail.com | 011 70 48 25
Department of Industrial and Mechanical Engineering

Faculty of Electrical Engineering
Institute of Technology of Cambodia
Chapter 4: Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working Page 1

Bulk Deformation Processes In Metalworking
•Rolling
•Other Deformation Processes Related to Rolling
•Forging
•Other Deformation Processes Related to Forging
•Extrusion
•Wire and Bar Drawing

Bulk Deformation
• Metal forming operations which cause significant shape

change by deformation in metal parts whose initial form is
bulk rather than sheet
• Starting forms: cylindrical bars and billets, rectangular
billets and slabs, and similar shapes
• Bulk deformation process also sometimes improve the
mechanical properties of materials
• These processes work by stressing metal sufficiently to
cause plastic flow into desired shape
• Performed as cold, warm, and hot working operations

Importance of Bulk Deformation
•When performed as hot working, significant shape

change can be accomplished
•When performed as cold working , strength can be
increased during shape change
•Little or no waste - some bulk deformation
operations are near net shape or net shape
processes
• The parts require little or no subsequent machining

Four Basic Bulk Deformation Processes
1. Rolling – slab or plate is squeezed between opposing

rolls
2. Forging – work is squeezed and shaped between
opposing dies
3. Extrusion – work is squeezed through a die opening,
thereby taking the shape of the opening
4. Wire and bar drawing – diameter of wire or bar is
reduced by pulling it through a die opening

Rolling
• Rolling is a deformation process in which work thickness is reduced
by compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls
• The rotating rolls perform two main functions:
• Pull the work into the gap between them by friction between
workpart and rolls
• Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce cross section

Types of Rolling
• By geometry of work:
• Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a rectangular
cross-section
• Shape rolling - a square cross-section is formed into a shape
such as an I-beam
• By temperature of work:
• Hot Rolling – most common due to the large amount of
deformation required in shaping
• Cold rolling – produces finished sheet and plate stock
• Rolling is a very capital intensive process, as massive pieces of
equipment, called rolling mills, are required to perform it:
• The high investment cost requires the mills to be used for large
production of standard items such as sheets and plates

Steel Rolling Practice
• The work starts out as a cast steel ingot that has just solidified by
casting
• While it is still hot, the ingot is placed in a furnace where it remains
for many hours until it has reached a uniform temperature throughout
• For steel the temperature is around 1200 °C
• The heating operation is called soaking and furnace is called
soaking pits
• The ingot is then rolled into one of three intermediate products called:
Bloom, Slab, or Billet
• Bloom: Square cross-section of 150 mm or higher
• Slab: Rectangular cross-section of width 20 mm o more and thickness 40
mm or more
• Billet: Square cross-section of 40 mm or higher
• These intermediate shapes are subsequently rolled into product shapes

Flat- and Shape-Rolling Processes

Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill
Figure 19.2 - Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill
Rolling: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KRn73gKQ2YU
Flat Rolling and Its Analysis

Flat Rolling – Terminology
Draft = amount of thickness reduction
where d = draft; to = starting thickness; and tf = final thickness
Reduction = draft expressed as a fraction of starting stock

thickness:
where r = reduction

Flat-Rolling
Figure 13.2 (a) Schematic illustration of the flat-rolling process. (b) Friction forces acting on strip
surfaces. (c) The roll force, F, and the torque acting on the rolls. The width w of the strip usually increases
during rolling, as is shown in Fig. 13.5.

Ways to Reduce Force and/or Power in Rolling
Force and/or power to roll a strip of a given width

and work material can be reduced by any of the
following:
1. Using hot rolling rather than cold rolling to reduce
strength and strain hardening (K and n) of the work
material [ 𝒀𝒕 = 𝑲𝜺𝒏 ]
2. Reducing the draft in each pass [ 𝐿 = 𝑅(𝑡0 −𝑡𝑓 ) ]
3. Using a smaller roll radius R to reduce force
[𝐿 = 𝑅(𝑡0 −𝑡𝑓 )]
4. Using a lower rolling speed N to reduce power

Example 9.1
A 300 mm wide strip 25 mm thick is fed through a rolling mill with

two powered rolls each of radius = 250 mm. The work thickness is to
be reduced to 22 mm in one pass at a roll speed of 50 rev/min. The
work material has a flow curve defined by K = 275 MPa and n = 0.15,
and the coefficient of friction between the rolls and the work is
assumed to be 0.12. Determine if the friction is sufficient to permit
the rolling operation to be accomplished. If so, calculate the roll
force, torque, and the horsepower.

Shape Rolling
• In shape rolling, the work is deformed into a contoured
cross-section rather than flat (rectangular)
• Accomplished by passing work through rolls that have
the reverse of desired shape
• Gradual transformation through several rolls to achieve
final cross-section is achieved by designing a specific
roll-pass design
• Products include:
• Construction shapes such as I-beams, L-beams, and U-channels
• Rails for railroad tracks
• Round and square bars and rods

Shape Rolling
Figure 13.13 Stages in the

shape rolling of an H-section
part. Various other structural
sections, such as channels and
I-beams, are also rolled by this
kind of process.

Shape Rolling
Figure 19.5 - A rolling mill for hot

flat rolling; the steel plate is seen
as the glowing strip extending
diagonally from the lower left
corner
(photo courtesy of Bethlehem
Steel Company)

Rolling Mills
Figure 13.10 A general

view of a rolling mill.
Source: Inland Steel.

Rolling Mills
• Equipment is massive and expensive

• Various rolling-mill configurations are available to deal with the variety
of applications and technical problems in the rolling process
• Rolling mill configurations:
• Two-high:
• two opposing large diameter rolls
• can be either reversing or nonreversing
• Three-high: work passes through both directions
• Four-high:
• backing rolls support smaller work rolls,
• smaller diameter rolls means lower forces, torque and power
• Cluster mill – multiple backing rolls on smaller rolls
• Tandem rolling mill – sequence of two-high mills

Various Configurations of Rolling mills

Tandem Rolling Mill
• A series of rolling stands (two-high mills) in sequence
• Helps achieve higher throughput rates in standard products
• As thickness is decreased in each rolling step, work velocity increases, and the
problem of synchronizing the roll speeds at each stand is a significant one
Figure 19.6 - Various configurations of rolling mills: (e) tandem rolling mill
Other Deformation Processes Related To Rolling
•Thread Rolling
•Gear Rolling
•Ring Rolling
•Roll Piercing or Mannesmann Mill

Thread Rolling and Gear Rolling
• Bulk deformation process used to form threads on cylindrical parts

by rolling them between two dies
• Most important commercial process for mass producing bolts and
screws
• Performed by cold working in thread rolling machines
• Advantages over thread cutting (machining):
• Higher production rates
• Better material utilization
• Stronger threads due to work hardening
• Better fatigue resistance due to compressive stresses introduced by rolling
• Gear rolling is a cold working process similar to thread rolling

Thread Rolling with flat dies
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bclnb_Cp4sE

Ring Rolling
• Deformation process in which a thick-walled ring of

smaller diameter is rolled into a thin-walled ring of larger
diameter
• As thick-walled ring is compressed, deformed metal
elongates, causing diameter of ring to be enlarged
• Hot working process for large rings and cold working
process for smaller rings
• Applications: ball and roller bearing races, steel tires for
railroad wheels, and rings for pipes, pressure vessels, and
rotating machinery
• Advantages: material savings, ideal grain orientation,
strengthening through cold working
Ring Rolling
Ring Roll: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rH9UnzYki1Q

Gear Rolling
Gear Rolling Gear rolling is a cold working process to produce

certain gears.
Advantages of gear rolling
• higher production rates,
• better strength
• fatigue resistance
• and less material waste.
Gear Rolling: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7A2pQnjeY28
Roll Piercing or Mannesmann Process
• A specialized hot working process for making seamless thick-

walled tubes
• Process is based on principle:
• When a solid cylindrical part is compressed on its
circumference, high tensile stresses are developed at its center
• If compression is high enough, an internal crack is formed
• Compressive stresses on a solid cylindrical billet are applied by
two rolls, whose axes are oriented at slight angles from the axis
of the billet, so that their rotation tends to pull the billet though
the rolls
• A mandrel is used to control the size and finish of the hole

Roll Piercing or Mannesmann Process or Rotary Tube Piercing
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_priYUsaA1o

Forging
• Deformation process in which work is compressed
between two dies, using either impact or gradual pressure
to form the part
• Oldest of the metal forming operations, dating from about
5000 B C
• Components: engine crankshafts, connecting rods, gears,
aircraft structural components, jet engine turbine parts
• In addition, basic metals industries use forging to establish
basic form of large components that are subsequently
machined to final shape and size

Classification of Forging Operations
•Cold vs. hot forging:

• Hot or warm forging – most common, due to the
significant deformation and the need to reduce strength
and increase ductility of work metal
• Cold forging - advantage is increased strength that
results from strain hardening
•Impact vs. press forging:
• Forge hammer - applies an impact load
• Forge press - applies gradual pressure

Types of Forging Dies
The distinction is based on the degree to which the flow of
work metal s constrained by the dies
• Open-die forging - work is compressed between two flat
(or almost flat) dies, allowing metal to flow laterally
without constraint
• Impression-die forging - die surfaces contain a cavity or
impression that is imparted to workpart, thus constraining
metal flow - flash is created (excess material that is
trimmed off)
• Flashless forging - workpart is completely constrained in
die and no excess flash is produced

Types of Forging Dies

Open-Die Forging
• Involves compression of workpart with cylindrical cross-

section between two flat dies
• Similar to compression test
• Deformation operation reduces height and increases
diameter of work
• Common names include upsetting or upset forging
• Open die hot forging is an important process to produce
shafts, disks and rings: Used for shaping a large square
ingot into a round cross-section creating favorable grain
flow and metallurgical structure

Open-Die Forging
Open-die forging or related operations include fullering,

edging, and cogging.
• Fullering is a forging operation performed to reduce the
cross section and redistribute the metal in a workpart
in preparation for subsequent shape forging.
• Edging is similar to fullering, except that the dies have
concave surfaces.
• Cogging operation consists of a sequence of forging
compressions along the length of a workpiece to
reduce cross section and increase length.

Open-Die Forging

Open-Die Forging with No Friction
If no friction occurs between work and die surfaces, then
homogeneous deformation occurs, so that radial flow is uniform
throughout workpart height and true strain is given by:
ℎ0
𝜀 = ln
ℎ
• where ho= starting height, mm(in); and h = height at some point during
compression
• h = its final value hf, and the true strain reaches its maximum value
Force required to continue the compression at any given height h:
F =Yf A
• where F= force, lb (N);A=cross-sectional area of the part,mm (in ); and
2 2
Yf=flow stress corresponding to the strain, MPa (lb/in ).

2

Open-Die Forging
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_RmaK-1-bnQ&feature=

Open-Die Forging with Friction
• Friction between work and die surfaces constrains lateral flow of
work, resulting in barreling effect
• In hot open-die forging, effect is even more pronounced due to heat
transfer at and near die surfaces, which cools the metal and
increases its resistance to deformation
• The above factors causes the actual upsetting force to be greater
than with no friction case: F =Kf Yf A
where Kf is the forging shape factor given by equation:
0.4 D
K f  1
h

Open-Die Forging with Friction

Example: Open-Die Forging

Impression-Die Forging
• Impression-die forging, sometimes called closed-die
forging, is performed with dies that contain the inverse of
the desired shape of the part.
• Compression of workpart by dies with inverse of desired
part shape
• Flash is formed by metal that flows beyond die cavity into
small gap between die plates
• Flash must be later trimmed from part, but it serves an
important function during compression:
• As flash forms, friction resists continued metal flow into gap,
constraining material to fill die cavity
• In hot forging, metal flow is further restricted by cooling against
die plates
Impression-Die Forging
Sequence in impression-die forging:

(1) just prior to initial contact with raw workpiece,
(2) partial compression, and
(3) final die closure, causing flash to form in gap between die plates
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6T4A67LtMAY

Impression-Die Forging Practice
Several forming steps often required, with

separate die cavities for each step
• Beginning steps redistribute metal for more
uniform deformation and desired metallurgical
structure in subsequent steps
• Final steps bring the part to its final geometry
• Impression-die forging is often performed
manually by skilled operator under adverse
conditions

Impression-Die Forging Advantages and Limitations
• Advantages compared to machining from solid

stock:
• Higher production rates
• Conservation of metal (less waste)
• Greater strength
• Favorable grain orientation in the metal
• Limitations:
• Not capable of close tolerances
• Machining often required to achieve accuracies and
features needed, such as holes, threads, and mating
surfaces that fit with other components

Flashless Forging
Compression of work in punch and die tooling whose

cavity does allow for flash
• Starting workpart volume must equal die cavity volume
within very close tolerance
• Process control more demanding than impression-die
forging
• Best suited to part geometries that are simple and
symmetrical
• Often classified as a precision forging process

Flashless Forging
Flashless forging:
(1) just before initial contact with workpiece,
(2) partial compression, and
(3) final punch and die closure

Forging Hammers, Presses, and Dies
•Apply an impact load against workpart - two

types:
• Gravity drop hammers - impact energy from falling
weight of a heavy ram
• Power drop hammers - accelerate the ram by
pressurized air or steam
•Disadvantage: impact energy transmitted
through anvil into floor of building
•Most commonly used for impression-die forging

Drop Forging Hammers
Drop forging hammer, fed by conveyor and heating units at the right of
the scene
(photo courtesy of Chambersburg Engineering Company)

Drop Forging Hammers
- Diagram showing details of a drop hammer for impression-die forging

Forging Presses
• Apply gradual pressure to accomplish compression operation
- types:
• Mechanical presses - converts rotation of drive motor into linear
motion of ram
• Hydraulic presses - hydraulic piston actuates ram
• Screw presses - screw mechanism drives ram
Impression-Forging Dies

Other Deformation Process Related to Forging
Upsetting and Heading

Forging process used to form heads on nails, bolts, and
similar hardware products
• More parts produced by upsetting than any other
forging operation
• Performed cold, warm, or hot on machines called
headers or formers
• Wire or bar stock is fed into machine, end is headed,
then piece is cut to length
• For bolts and screws, thread rolling is then used to
form threads

Upsetting and Heading
- An upset forging operation to form a head on a bolt or similar hardware

item The cycle consists of:
(1) wire stock is fed to the stop
(2) gripping dies close on the stock and the stop is retracted
(3) punch moves forward
(4) bottoms to form the head

Examples of heading
- Examples of heading (upset forging) operations:

(a) heading a nail using open dies
(b) round head formed by punch
(c) and (d) two common head styles for screws formed by die
(e) carriage bolt head formed by punch and die

Swaging
Accomplished by rotating dies that hammer a workpiece radially

inward to taper it as the piece is fed into the dies
• Used to reduce diameter of tube or solid rod stock
• Mandrel sometimes required to control shape and size of internal
diameter of tubular parts

Roll Forging
• Roll forging is a deformation process used to reduce the cross
section of a cylindrical (or rectangular) workpiece by passing it
through a set of opposing rolls that have grooves matching the
desired shape of the final part.
Roll Forging
Orbital Forging
• In this process, deformation occurs by means of a cone-shaped
upper die that is simultaneously rolled and pressed into the
workpart.

Hubbing
• Hubbing is a deformation process in which a hardened steel form is
pressed into a soft steel (or other soft metal) block.
• Isothermal forging is a term applied to a hot-forging operation in
which the workpart is maintained at or near its starting elevated
temperature during deformation, usually by heating the forging dies
to the same elevated temperature.

Trimming
Cutting operation to remove flash from workpart in impression-die
forging
• Usually done while work is still hot, so a separate trimming press is
included at the forging station
• Trimming can also be done by alternative methods, such as
grinding or sawing

Extrusion
Compression forming process in which the work metal is

forced to flow through a die opening to produce a
desired cross-sectional shape
• Process is similar to squeezing toothpaste out of a
toothpaste tube
• In general, extrusion is used to produce long parts of
uniform cross-sections
• Two basic types of extrusion:
• Direct extrusion
• Indirect extrusion

Types of Extrusion
Direct Extrusion: A metal billet is loaded into a container, and a ram

compresses the material, forcing it to flow through one or more
openings in a die at the opposite end of the container.

Comments on Direct Extrusion
• Also called forward extrusion

• As ram approaches die opening, a small portion of billet
remains that cannot be forced through die opening
• This extra portion, called the butt, must be separated
from extruded product by cutting it just beyond the die
exit
• Starting billet cross section usually round, but final shape
is determined by die opening

Direct Extrusion
- (a) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow or semi-hollow cross-section; (b)

hollow and (c) semi-hollow cross- sections

Indirect Extrusion
• Indirect extrusion, also called backward extrusion and reverse

extrusion,the die is mounted to the ram rather than at the opposite
end of the container.
• Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by the lower rigidity
of hollow ram and difficulty in supporting extruded product as it
exits die
- Indirect extrusion to produce

(a) a solid cross-section and (b) a hollow cross-section
General Advantages of Extrusion
•Variety of shapes possible, especially in hot

extrusion
• Limitation: part cross-section must be uniform
throughout length
•Grain structure and strength enhanced in cold and
warm extrusion
•Close tolerances possible, especially in cold
extrusion
•In some operations, little or no waste of material

Hot vs. Cold Extrusion
•Hot extrusion - prior heating of billet to

above its recrystallization temperature
•This reduces strength and increases ductility of
the metal, permitting more size reductions and
more complex shapes
•Cold extrusion - generally used to produce
discrete parts
•The term impact extrusion is used to indicate
high speed cold extrusion

Extrusion Ratio
Also called the reduction ratio, it is defined as
𝐴0
𝑟𝑥 =
𝐴𝑓
Ao
rx 
Af
where rx = extrusion ratio; Ao = cross-sectional area of the
starting billet; and Af = final cross-sectional area of the
extruded section
• Applies to both direct and indirect extrusion

- A complex extruded cross-section for a heat sink (photo courtesy of
Aluminum Company of America)

Other Extrusion Process
• Hydrostatic Extrusion: This extrusion can be addressed by surrounding the
billet with fluid inside the container and pressurizing the fluid by the
forward motion of the ram.
Hydrostatic Extrusion

Other Extrusion Process
• Impact extrusion is performed at higher speeds and shorter strokes than
conventional extrusion.

Defect in Extrusion Process
• (a) Centerburst: This defect is an internal crack that develops as a
result of tensile stresses along the centerline of the workpart
during extrusion.
• (b) Piping: It is the formation of a sink hole in the end of the
billet.
• (c) Surface cracking. This defect results from high workpart
temperatures that cause cracks to develop at the surface.

Wire and Bar Drawing
Cross-section of a bar, rod, or wire is reduced by
pulling it through a die opening
• Similar to extrusion except work is pulled through
die in drawing (it is pushed through in extrusion)
• Although drawing applies tensile stress, compression
also plays a significant role since metal is squeezed
as it passes through die opening
• The term wire and bar drawing is used to distinguish the drawing
process discussed here from the sheet metal process of the same
name.
• The basic difference between bar drawing and wire drawing is the
stock size that is processed.
• Bar drawing is the term used for large diameter bar and rod stock,
while wire drawing applies to small diameter stock.

Wire and Bar Drawing
- Drawing of bar, rod, or wire

Area Reduction in Drawing
Change in size of work is usually given by area reduction:
where r = area reduction in drawing; Ao = original area of

work; and Ar = final work
• The draft is simply the difference between original and
final stock diameters:

Wire Drawing vs. Bar Drawing
•Difference between bar drawing and wire

drawing is stock size
• Bar drawing - large diameter bar and rod stock
• Wire drawing - small diameter stock - wire sizes down
to 0.03 mm (0.001 in.) are possible
•Although the mechanics are the same, the
methods, equipment, and even terminology are
different

Drawing Practice and Products
•Drawing practice:
• Usually performed as cold working
• Most frequently used for round cross-sections
•Products:
• Wire: electrical wire; wire stock for fences, coat
hangers, and shopping carts
• Rod stock for nails, screws, rivets, and springs
• Bar stock: metal bars for machining, forging, and other
processes

Bar Drawing
• Accomplished as a single-draft operation - the stock is pulled through one die
opening
• Beginning stock has large diameter and is a straight cylinder
• This necessitates a batch type operation

Wire Drawing
• Continuous drawing machines consisting of multiple draw dies
(typically 4 to 12) separated by accumulating drums
• Each drum (capstan) provides proper force to draw wire stock through
upstream die
• Each die provides a small reduction, so desired total reduction is achieved by
the series
• Annealing sometimes required between dies

Features of a Draw Die
• Entry region - funnels lubricant into the die to prevent scoring of
work and die
• Approach - cone-shaped region where drawing occurs
• Bearing surface - determines final stock size
• Back relief - exit zone - provided with a back relief angle
(half-angle) of about 30
• Die materials: tool steels or cemented carbides

Preparation of the Work for Wire or Bar Drawing
•Annealing – to increase ductility of stock

•Cleaning - to prevent damage to work surface
and draw die
•Pointing – to reduce diameter of starting end to
allow insertion through draw die

Chapter 4-Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working

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[ Chapter 4: Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working ]

Seab Piseth | pisethseab@gmail.com | 011 70 48 25

Department of Industrial and Mechanical Engineering

Chapter 4: Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working Page 1

Chapter 4: Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working Page 2

• Metal forming operations which cause significant shape

Chapter 4: Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working Page 3

•When performed as hot working, significant shape

Chapter 4: Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working Page 4

1. Rolling – slab or plate is squeezed between opposing

Chapter 4: Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working Page 5

Chapter 4: Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working Page 6

Chapter 4: Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working Page 7

Chapter 4: Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working Page 8

Chapter 4: Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working Page 9

Figure 19.2 - Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill

Chapter 4: Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working Page 11

Draft = amount of thickness reduction

where d = draft; to = starting thickness; and tf = final thickness

Reduction = draft expressed as a fraction of starting stock

Chapter 4: Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working Page 12

Chapter 4: Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working Page 13

Force and/or power to roll a strip of a given width

Chapter 4: Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working Page 14

A 300 mm wide strip 25 mm thick is fed through a rolling mill with

Chapter 4: Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working Page 15

Chapter 4: Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working Page 16

Figure 13.13 Stages in the

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Figure 19.5 - A rolling mill for hot

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Figure 13.10 A general

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• Equipment is massive and expensive

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Chapter 4: Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working Page 21

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• Bulk deformation process used to form threads on cylindrical parts

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• Deformation process in which a thick-walled ring of

Ring Roll: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rH9UnzYki1Q

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Gear Rolling Gear rolling is a cold working process to produce

• A specialized hot working process for making seamless thick-

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Chapter 4: Bulk Deformation Processes in Metal Working Page 31

•Cold vs. hot forging:

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• Involves compression of workpart with cylindrical cross-

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Open-die forging or related operations include fullering,

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Yf=flow stress corresponding to the strain, MPa (lb/in ).

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Sequence in impression-die forging: