Sensory nervous system

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Sensory nervous system

Typical sensory system: the visual system, illustrated

by the classic Gray's FIG. 722– This scheme shows
the flow of information from the eyes to the central
connections of the optic nerves and optic tracts, to the
visual cortex. Area V1 is the region of the brain which
is engaged in vision.
Details
Identifiers
Latin organa sensuum
MeSH D012679
TA A15.0.00.000
FMA 75259
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The visual system and the somatosensory system are active even during resting state fMRI

Activation and response in the sensory nervous system

The sensory nervous system is a part of the nervous system responsible for processing
sensory information. A sensory system consists of sensory neurons (including the sensory
receptor cells), neural pathways, and parts of the brain involved in sensory perception.
Commonly recognized sensory systems are those for vision, hearing, touch, taste, smell, and
balance. In short, senses are transducers from the physical world to the realm of the mind
where we interpret the information, creating our perception of the world around us.[1]

Organisms need information to solve at least three kinds of problems: (a) to maintain
an appropriate environment, i.e., homeostasis; (b) to time activities (e.g., seasonal
changes in behavior) or synchronize activities with those of conspecifics; and (c) to
locate and respond to resources or threats (e.g., by moving towards resources or
evading or attacking threats). Organisms also need to transmit information in order to
influence another's behavior: to identify themselves, warn conspecifics of danger,
coordinate activities, or deceive.[2]

The receptive field is the area of the body or environment to which a receptor organ and
receptor cells respond. For instance, the part of the world an eye can see, is its receptive field;
the light that each rod or cone can see, is its receptive field.[3] Receptive fields have been
identified for the visual system, auditory system and somatosensory system.

Stimulus
Sensory systems code for four aspects of a stimulus; type (modality), intensity, location, and
duration. Arrival time of a sound pulse and phase differences of continuous sound are used
for sound localization. Certain receptors are sensitive to certain types of stimuli (for example,
different mechanoreceptors respond best to different kinds of touch stimuli, like sharp or
blunt objects). Receptors send impulses in certain patterns to send information about the
intensity of a stimulus (for example, how loud a sound is). The location of the receptor that is
stimulated gives the brain information about the location of the stimulus (for example,
stimulating a mechanoreceptor in a finger will send information to the brain about that
finger). The duration of the stimulus (how long it lasts) is conveyed by firing patterns of
receptors. These impulses are transmitted to the brain through afferent neurons.
Senses and receptors
While debate exists among neurologists as to the specific number of senses due to differing
definitions of what constitutes a sense, Gautama Buddha and Aristotle classified five
‘traditional’ human senses which have become universally accepted: touch, taste, smell,
sight, and hearing. Other senses that have been well-accepted in most mammals, including
humans, include nociception, equilibrioception, kinaesthesia, and thermoception.
Furthermore, some nonhuman animals have been shown to possess alternate senses,
including magnetoception and electroreception.[4]

Receptors
Main article: sensory receptor

The initialization of sensation stems from the response of a specific receptor to a physical
stimulus. The receptors which react to the stimulus and initiate the process of sensation are
commonly characterized in four distinct categories: chemoreceptors, photoreceptors,
mechanoreceptors, and thermoreceptors. All receptors receive distinct physical stimuli and
transduce the signal into an electrical action potential. This action potential then travels along
afferent neurons to specific brain regions where it is processed and interpreted.[5]

Chemoreceptors
Main article: Chemoreceptor

Chemoreceptors, or chemosensors, detect certain chemical stimuli and transduce that signal
into an electrical action potential. The two primary types of chemoreceptors are:

 Distance chemoreceptors are integral to receiving stimuli in the olfactory system through
both olfactory receptor neurons and neurons in the vomeronasal organ.
 Direct chemoreceptors include the taste buds in the gustatory system as well as receptors in
the aortic bodies which detect changes in oxygen concentration.[6]

Photoreceptors
Main article: Photoreceptor cell

Photoreceptors are capable of phototransduction, a process which converts light

(electromagnetic radiation) into, among other types of energy, a membrane potential. The
three primary types of photoreceptors are: Cones are photoreceptors which respond
significantly to color. In humans the three different types of cones correspond with a primary
response to short wavelength (blue), medium wavelength (green), and long wavelength
(yellow/red).[7] Rods are photoreceptors which are very sensitive to the intensity of light,
allowing for vision in dim lighting. The concentrations and ratio of rods to cones is strongly
correlated with whether an animal is diurnal or nocturnal. In humans rods outnumber cones
by approximately 20:1, while in nocturnal animals, such as the tawny owl, the ratio is closer
to 1000:1.[7] Ganglion Cells reside in the adrenal medulla and retina where they are involved
in the sympathetic response. Of the ~1.3 million ganglion cells present in the retina, 1-2% are
believed to be photosensitive ganglia.[8] These photosensitive ganglia play a role in conscious
vision for some animals,[9] and are believed to do the same in humans.[10]
Mechanoreceptors
Main article: Mechanoreceptor

Mechanoreceptors are sensory receptors which respond to mechanical forces, such as

pressure or distortion.[11] While mechanoreceptors are present in hair cells and play an
integral role in the vestibular and auditory systems, the majority of mechanoreceptors are
cutaneous and are grouped into four categories:

 Slowly adapting type 1 receptors have small receptive fields and respond to static
stimulation. These receptors are primarily used in the sensations of form and roughness.
 Slowly adapting type 2 receptors have large receptive fields and respond to stretch. Similarly
to type 1, they produce sustained responses to a continued stimuli.
 Rapidly adapting receptors have small receptive fields and underlie the perception of slip.
 Pacinian receptors have large receptive fields and are the predominant receptors for high-
frequency vibration.

Thermoreceptors
Main article: Thermoreceptor

Thermoreceptors are sensory receptors which respond to varying temperatures. While the
mechanisms through which these receptors operate is unclear, recent discoveries have shown
that mammals have at least two distinct types of thermoreceptors:[12]

 The end-bulb of Krause, or bulboid corpuscle, detects temperatures above body

temperature.
 Ruffini’s end organ detects temperatures below body temperature.

Nociceptors
Main article: Nociceptor

Nociceptors respond to potentially damaging stimuli by sending signals to the spinal cord and
brain. This process, called nociception, usually causes the perception of pain.[13] They are
found in internal organs, as well as on the surface of the body. Nociceptors detect different
kinds of damaging stimuli or actual damage. Those that only respond when tissues are
damaged are known as "sleeping" or "silent" nociceptors.

 Thermal nociceptors are activated by noxious heat or cold at various temperatures.

 Mechanical nociceptors respond to excess pressure or mechanical deformation.
 Chemical nociceptors respond to a wide variety of chemicals, some of which are signs of
tissue damage. They are involved in the detection of some spices in food.

Sensory cortex
All stimuli received by the receptors listed above are transduced to an action potential, which
is carried along one or more afferent neurons towards a specific area of the brain. While the
term sensory cortex is often used informally to refer to the somatosensory cortex, the term
more accurately refers to the multiple areas of the brain at which senses are received to be
processed. For the five traditional senses in humans, this includes the primary and secondary
cortexes of the different senses: the somatosensory cortex, the visual cortex, the auditory
cortex, the primary olfactory cortex, and the gustatory cortex.[14] Other modalities have
corresponding sensory cortex areas as well, including the vestibular cortex for the sense of
balance.[15]

Skin

Somatosensory cortex

Located in the parietal lobe, the primary somatosensory cortex is the primary receptive area
for the sense of touch and proprioception in the somatosensory system. This cortex is further
divided into Brodmann areas 1, 2, and 3. Brodmann area 3 is considered the primary
processing center of the somatosensory cortex as it receives significantly more input from the
thalamus, has neurons highly responsive to somatosensory stimuli, and can evoke somatic
sensations through electrical stimulation. Areas 1 and 2 receive most of their input from area
3. There are also pathways for proprioception (via the cerebellum), and motor control (via
Brodmann area 4). See also: S2 Secondary somatosensory cortex.

The human eye is the first element of a sensory system: in this case, vision, for the visual system.

Visual cortex

The visual cortex refers to the primary visual cortex, labeled V1 or Brodmann area 17, as
well as the extrastriate visual cortical areas V2-V5.[16] Located in the occipital lobe, V1 acts
as the primary relay station for visual input, transmitting information to two primary
pathways labeled the dorsal and ventral streams. The dorsal stream includes areas V2 and V5,
and is used in interpreting visual ‘where’ and ‘how.’ The ventral stream includes areas V2
and V4, and is used in interpreting ‘what.’[17] Increases in Task-negative activity are observed
in the ventral attention network, after abrupt changes in sensory stimuli,[18] at the onset and
offset of task blocks,[19] and at the end of a completed trial.[20]

Ear
Auditory cortex

Located in the temporal lobe, the auditory cortex is the primary receptive area for sound
information. The auditory cortex is composed of Brodmann areas 41 and 42, also known as
the anterior transverse temporal area 41 and the posterior transverse temporal area 42,
respectively. Both areas act similarly and are integral in receiving and processing the signals
transmitted from auditory receptors.

Nose

Primary olfactory cortex

Located in the temporal lobe, the primary olfactory cortex is the primary receptive area for
olfaction, or smell. Unique to the olfactory and gustatory systems, at least in mammals, is the
implementation of both peripheral and central mechanisms of action. The peripheral
mechanisms involve olfactory receptor neurons which transduce a chemical signal along the
olfactory nerve, which terminates in the olfactory bulb. The chemo-receptors involved in
olfactory nervous cascade involve using G-protein receptors to send their chemical signals
down said cascade. The central mechanisms include the convergence of olfactory nerve
axons into glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, where the signal is then transmitted to the anterior
olfactory nucleus, the piriform cortex, the medial amygdala, and the entorhinal cortex, all of
which make up the primary olfactory cortex.

In contrast to vision and hearing, the olfactory bulbs are not cross-hemispheric; the right bulb
connects to the right hemisphere and the left bulb connects to the left hemisphere.

Tongue

Gustatory cortex

The gustatory cortex is the primary receptive area for taste. The word taste is used in a
technical sense to refer specifically to sensations coming from taste buds on the tongue. The
five qualities of taste detected by the tongue include sourness, bitterness, sweetness, saltiness,
and the protein taste quality, called umami. In contrast, the term flavor refers to the
experience generated through integration of taste with smell and tactile information. The
gustatory cortex consists of two primary structures: the anterior insula, located on the insular
lobe, and the frontal operculum, located on the frontal lobe. Similarly to the olfactory cortex,
the gustatory pathway operates through both peripheral and central mechanisms. Peripheral
taste receptors, located on the tongue, soft palate, pharynx, and esophagus, transmit the
received signal to primary sensory axons, where the signal is projected to the nucleus of the
solitary tract in the medulla, or the gustatory nucleus of the solitary tract complex. The signal
is then transmitted to the thalamus, which in turn projects the signal to several regions of the
neocortex, including the gustatory cortex.[21]

The neural processing of taste is affected at nearly every stage of processing by concurrent
somatosensory information from the tongue, that is, mouthfeel. Scent, in contrast, is not
combined with taste to create flavor until higher cortical processing regions, such as the
insula and orbitofrontal cortex.[22]

Human sensory system

The human sensory system consists of the following subsystems:

 Visual system consists of the photoreceptor cells, optic nerve, and V1

 Auditory system
 Somatosensory system consists of the receptors, transmitters (pathways) leading to S1, and
S1 that experiences the sensations labelled as touch or pressure, temperature (warm or
cold), pain (including itch and tickle), and the sensations of muscle movement and joint
position including posture, movement, and facial expression (collectively also called
proprioception)
 Gustatory system
 Olfactory system
 Vestibular system

Diseases

Disability-adjusted life year for sense organ diseases per 100,000 inhabitants in 2002.[23]

 peripheral
o Artery
Cardiovascular
o Vein
system o Lymphatic vessel
\Circulatory
 Heart
system
Lymphatic  primary
system o Bone marrow
o Thymus
 secondary
 o Spleen
o Lymph node
 CNS equivalent
o Glymphatic system


o Brain
o Spinal cord
Nervous system o Nerve
 Sensory system
o Ear
o Eye

 Skin
Integumentary  Subcutaneous tissue
system  Breast
o Mammary gland

 Myeloid
o Myeloid immune system
Immune system  Lymphoid
o Lymphoid immune system

 Upper
o Nose
o Nasopharynx
Respiratory o Larynx
system  Lower
o Trachea
o Bronchus
o Lung

Digestive system  Mouth

o Salivary gland
o Tongue
 upper GI
o Oropharynx
o Laryngopharynx
o Esophagus
o Stomach
 lower GI
o Small intestine
o Appendix
o Colon
o Rectum
o Anus
 accessory
o Liver
o Biliary tract
 o Pancreas

 Genitourinary system
 Kidney
Urinary system  Ureter
 Bladder
 Urethra

 Male
o Scrotum
o Penis
o Prostate
o Testicle
Reproductive o Seminal vesicle
system  Female
o Uterus
o Vagina
o Vulva
o Ovary
o Placenta

 Pituitary
 Pineal
Endocrine  Thyroid
system  Parathyroid
 Adrenal
 Islets of Langerhans

 v
 t
 e

The sensory system

 Sight
o Visual system
 Hearing
Special senses o Auditory system
 Smell
o Olfactory system
 Taste (Gustatory system)

Touch and  Pain

position o Nociception
 Temperature
o Thermoception
 Sense of balance
o Vestibular system
  Mechanoreception
o Pressure
o vibration
 Proprioception
o Sense of body parts and movement

 Sensory receptor
 Multisensory integration
Other
 Sensory processing
 Chemoreception

 v
 t
 e

Anatomy of
the globe of
the human
eye
 v
 t
 e

Anatomy of hearing and balance

 Auricle
o helix
o antihelix
o tragus
o antitragus
o intertragic notch
Outer ear
o earlobe
 Ear canal
 Auricular muscles
 Eardrum
o umbo
o pars flaccida

Tympanic  Medial structures

cavity o oval window
o round window
o secondary tympanic membrane
Middle ear o prominence of facial canal
o promontory of tympanic cavity
 Posterior structures
o mastoid cells
o aditus to mastoid antrum
 o pyramidal eminence

 Malleus
o superior ligament
o lateral ligament
o anterior ligament
 Incus
o superior ligament
Ossicles o posterior ligament
 Stapes
o annular ligament
 Muscles
o stapedius
o tensor tympani

Auditory
tube /
 Torus tubarius
Eustachian
tube

 Vestibular duct
 Helicotrema
General
 Tympanic duct
cochlea
 Modiolus
 Cochlear cupula

Perilymphatic  Perilymph
space  Cochlear aqueduct

 Reissner's/vestibular membrane
 Basilar membrane
Inner ear/
Auditory  Reticular membrane
(membranous
system/
labyrinth,  Endolymph
Cochlear
bony  Stria vascularis
labyrinth
labyrinth)  Spiral ligament
Cochlear
duct /  Organ of Corti
scala media o stereocilia
o tip links
 Tectorial membrane
 Sulcus spiralis
o externus
o internus
 Spiral limbus

Cells  Claudius cell

  Boettcher cell

 Utricle
o macula
 Saccule
o macula
 Kinocilium
Vestibule
 Otolith
 Vestibular aqueduct
Vestibular o endolymphatic duct
system/ o endolymphatic sac
Vestibular  Ductus reuniens
labyrinth
 Superior semicircular canal
 Posterior semicircular canal
 Horizontal semicircular canal
Semicircular
canals  Ampullary cupula
 Ampullae
o crista ampullaris

 v
 t
 e

Anatomy of taste
 Taste bud
 Lingual papilla
o Vallate papilla
Tongue o Foliate papilla
o Fungiform papilla
o Filiform papilla

Path  Solitary tract

o VII
o IX
medulla o X
 Solitary nucleus
o Gustatory nucleus

 Central tegmental tract

 Medial parabrachial nucleus
pons o Hypothalamus
o Amygdala

thalamus  Ventral posteromedial nucleus

  Posterior limb of internal capsule
cerebrum
 Gustatory cortex

Other  Basic tastes

 v
 t
 e

Anatomy of smell
 Epithelium
o glands
Microanatomy o mucosa
 Sustentacular cell
 Tufted cell

Olfactory
 Olfactory receptor neurons (Olfactory receptor) → Olfactory bulb
nerve: 1° (Glomeruli)
neuron

Olfactory
nerve: 2°  Mitral cells → Olfactory tract → Olfactory trigone
neuron