SHADMAN SIDDIQUE

Topic 1

WHAT IS RESEARCH?

Key concepts

This topic covers:

• what the nature of research is

• the elements of the research process

• types of research projects

• the nature of and differences between research questions and research

objectives

• the nature and role of theory in research

• the elements of research design.

Topic objectives

After completing the study of this topic you should be able to:

1. understand the overall nature and purpose of academic and business-related

research

2. understand and explain what is and is not considered research

3. recognise the shape of and steps in the research process.

4. identify the elements and components that contribute towards an appropriate

research design.

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INTRODUCTION
Topic introduction video

This topic is introductory in nature, aiming to give you an overview of some of the
themes and concepts you will study as you progress through later topics in this
module. The readings we have chosen topic provide a set of ‘first ideas’ about the
nature and purpose of research. They establish some key concepts and principles,
and set out some underpinnings for your subsequent considerations of research
design and application.

The first reading has been prepared by members of the module team. Much of it is
original work but in places it refers specifically to two texts: Doing research in business
and management by Mark Saunders and Philip Lewis (2012: 1st edition, Harlow:
Pearson Education Ltd) and Research methods for business students by Mark Saunders,
Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill (2012: 6th edition, Harlow: Pearson Education Ltd).
Do note that although we will refer to these works, the specific chapters referred to
are not included here in Topic 1. Doing research in business and management is the set
text that is provided throughout much of the module and will explore in more depth
many of the ideas mentioned here.

The second reading for this topic is an online journal article by Claire Williams, which
provides a clear consideration of three commonly-used approaches and their
associated research designs.

As this is your first week of study, there are no quizzes or reflective exercises in this
topic − just one case study, which you are advised to complete. Do note, however,
that in other topics you will engage with quizzes and other types of activity that will
enable you to get immediate feedback on your progress in the module, so they are
well worth doing.

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Topic 1 WHAT IS RESEARCH? 3

ESSENTIAL READING 1
This paper, Thinking about the nature of research is a reading prepared by the module
team.

Remember that all the essential reading for this programme is provided for you. Click
the link (which may take you to the Online Library where you can search for a journal
article) or click ‘next’ to go to the next page and start reading.

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THINKING ABOUT THE NATURE OF RESEARCH

The idea of research

Whether as individuals or collective groups of people, we encounter the term

research in a range of settings, both implicitly and explicitly, on a regular (indeed
often daily) basis. We encounter it when newspapers report findings of research, be it
in the context of medical research concerning the efficacy of new drugs, or people’s
lifestyle choices and the impact upon quality and longevity of life. We are exposed to
it in advertisements from companies claiming benefits of products and services.
Universities may research the determinants of student academic performance, using
the findings to improve teaching and learning and the student experience. Trades
unions may commission research into the views of employees regarding the quality
of their workplace life. Organisations, be they private or public, will wish to undertake
research to inform the decision making process as part of the investment appraisal
decision-making process for new projects, or mergers and acquisitions.
In these (and many more) circumstances when we are exposed to the findings of
research, can we be at least reasonably certain that we can trust them? Are the
findings applicable to just one setting, or can they be generalised to other settings?
To trust the findings we would need to have confidence in the design of the
research, the application of that design, the collection and analysis of relevant data,
and the subsequent interpretation of the analyses.
That’s fine, but what does that term research really mean? Perhaps we might start
answering that question by identifying what it is not, especially as the term is used in
different ways by different people and organisations. Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill
(2012) cite Walliman’s identification of a number of ways in which the term is often
used inappropriately, and sometimes completely incorrectly. Instances cited include:

• the collection of facts or information linked to no clear and defined

purpose
• the collection of facts and information and their re-assembly and
re-ordering based on no interpretation
• ‘research’ activity which has no relevance to people or collections of
people − this is particularly inappropriate in business, management,
and financial contexts
• misappropriation of the term, using it to grab attention when, in fact,
no research of substance with rigour has been undertaken.

Walliman (2011) cited in Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2012, p.4)

To be of value, the outputs of research should contribute ‘something new’ to the
area studied and must emerge from a robust process. Data (be it quantitative,
qualitative, or both) must be collected systematically and in the context of a clear
purpose − the purpose being to find out about something of interest and relevance
to both the researcher(s) and a wider audience. Scholars identify the following major
purposes:

• Describing.
• Explaining.

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Topic 1 WHAT IS RESEARCH? 5

• Understanding.

• Criticising.

• Analysing.

(Ghauri and Gronhaug (2010) cited in Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2012, p.5)

The data collected must be analysed in the right way(s) and the analyses interpreted
appropriately. Accordingly, the research author(s) must able to demonstrate
robustness and rigour: in other words, the method(s) used to collect and analyse data
must be explained and justified. There must be sound argument and evidence
supporting any claim that the research results are meaningful, and any limitations of
the research should be recognised and articulated. An immediate point to note
about data is that it may be secondary data (data which already exists), primary
data (new data to be collected during the research study) or a combination of both.

The research process

The research process itself is often presented as a set of linear stages. The exact
number of stages varies, but however many there may be they invariably focus on
the following broad sets of activities:

• Identification and refinement of an appropriate topic area.

• Reviewing existing literature such as articles and reports.

• Formulation of the research design.

• Collection of data.

• Analysis of data.

• Writing up the report including findings, conclusions, acknowledgement of any

limitations, and, where appropriate, recommendations.

This set of activities certainly appears, at least on the surface, to be linear. That said,
activities may overlap rather than being strictly sequential. Furthermore, the research
process may develop an iterative nature, in which content, ideas and activities are
revisited following reflection and refinement by the researcher(s).

Research topics, research questions, research objectives

What you have just read assumes that an appropriate research topic has already
been identified and that is not always a reasonable assumption. In life, there are
choices everywhere and the challenge is making the right choice. This also applies to
the identification of an appropriate research topic. A topic may emerge from a
personal interest, or from listening to others, or from reading about something. In an
organisation it may be the case that the topic has already been identified by senior
managers as being important to the organisation, and is allocated to colleagues to
execute (in the guise of a designated research project). Whatever the origin, the topic
may need to be refined. It may be too general, requiring greater focus. It may be too
large, requiring that it be broken down into smaller, more manageable and more
feasible components − perhaps even a number of smaller projects. It may be too
ambitious, given limited time scales and limited resources of finance and people.
Time spent on refining the idea, perhaps even through a small preliminary study, is
time well spent as it is essential that the topic is the right one and is achievable.
Imagine how it would feel to discover part-way through or even at the end of a

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research study that you have researched the wrong topic area, even though you
have researched it really well!
Once you have gone through this process and arrived at an appropriate topic idea,
the next stage in the research process is to add substance to it by formulating
meaningful research questions and objectives. Saunders and Lewis define research
questions as ‘those questions which the research process will address’ and define
research objectives as ‘clear, precise statements that identify what you wish to
accomplish as a result of doing the research’ (Saunders and Lewis, 2012, p.18). It is
not enough to formulate research questions − the objectives are key in that they set
out the intended destination of the journey the research process will undertake.
The research questions should, naturally if not obviously, flow from the thrust of the
research idea. It is important to not formulate questions that cannot be answered in
sensible ways. Some questions are too big and difficult and may result in a study
which cannot reasonably be undertaken. Others may be too small and result in
descriptive answers that have no real meaning. Some may be impracticable because
they are connected with very sensitive issues.
Often, one relatively general-focus question may be formulated initially, leading to
more detailed questions thereafter. For example, a research idea might be to
investigate the use of confectionery displays next to tills in supermarkets. An
appropriate general-focus research question might be: in what ways does the use of
confectionery displays next to tills in supermarkets affect consumer behaviour? From
that general question, other questions might flow. These could include, for example:
which consumers are affected and which are not affected? What is the consequential
behaviour of those affected? Why is it that some people are not affected?
The research question(s) should subsequently be phrased as research objectives,
signposting a destination. Saunders and Lewis illustrate this as follows:
Research question: How can the effectiveness of employee communication
schemes be measured?
Research objective: To establish suitable effectiveness criteria for employee
communication schemes.
(Saunders and Lewis, 2012, p.23)
In our chosen example, an appropriate research objective might be: to establish ways
in which the location of confectionery displays near tills will improve sales of
confectionery.
The purpose of the research will clearly have a significant impact on the articulation
of the objectives, and in that context it is worth noting now that there are three
broad categories of research purpose:
1. Exploratory: seeks new insights, asks new questions, look at matters in a new
light.
2. Descriptive: seeks to produce an accurate representation of persons, events,
or situations.
3. Explanatory: studies a situation or problem in order to explain relationships
between variables.
Each has implications for the design of the study.
The determination of a sound research idea, appropriate research questions and
appropriate research objectives will feed into a research design which should enable
theories to be tested and/or developed. It is theory which must now be considered.

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Topic 1 WHAT IS RESEARCH? 7

The role of theory in research

The use of the term theory within research often causes confusion, leading to
misinterpretation and misuse. This results in flawed research designs and as a
consequence the generation of inappropriate research outputs.

Theory is an essential ingredient of research design. At a simple level, theory within

research is the explanation of the relationship between two or more variables or
concepts. There are ‘grand’ theories (ones which are world-changing, such as
Hawkins’ ‘Big Bang’ theory) and ‘middle-range’ theories (which are not
world-changing but very significant, such as the development in finance of the
Black-Scholes model or the Capital Asset Pricing Model). However, it is very likely that
most of us will be involved not with those but with ‘substantive’ theories. These are
theories set in specific contexts. As an example, a consultancy firm may be tasked
with finding out why, in September 2011, work on a new UK National Health Service
computer system was halted − resulting in an investment of £12 billion being
written off. Or a team of managers may be asked to investigate the feasibility of
developing and bringing to market a new product, formulating a bid for the takeover
of another company, or ascertaining why an employee incentive scheme has not
worked.

Research design
In designing a research study there will inevitably be options. To ensure that the
most appropriate design is selected the design needs to be thought about deeply,
with competing options identified and evaluated before selection. Earlier it was
suggested that research involves following a series of themed stages, usually
sequential but occasionally overlapping and often necessitating iteration. The
formulation of an appropriate research design also follows a series of stages based
on themes, in which the researcher must make fundamental choices about the
purpose and nature of the research. These choices can lead to very different designs.

Research philosophies
The point at which a design starts to be formulated is the adoption of a particular
and specific research philosophy. The research philosophy adopted by a researcher
reflects assumptions they make about the surrounding world. If the researcher
believes that phenomena can be observed and measured, a particular type of design
will emerge. But if the researcher is more interested in the values and beliefs of
individuals or groups, this different philosophy feeds into a different design. In this
module, the main strands of research philosophy considered are positivism, realism,
interpretivism, and pragmatism.

• Positivism relates to scientific inquiry. It studies observable and measurable

variables in certain controllable conditions, and describes the responses and
reactions of those variables to treatments administered by the researcher(s).
The idea of cause and effect allows theories to be proposed which can be
tested. The results of testing lead to theories being proved or disproved. One
only has to think of new medical treatment trials to understand its essence.

• Realism also relates to scientific inquiry. It espouses the idea that objects have
an existence which is independent of the human mind. Direct realism reflects
the notion that what people experience is an accurate representation of the
world. Critical realism sees our experience of the world as taking place in two
stages. First, as with direct realism, an object and the sensations emitted are
viewed as sufficient in themselves. Second, the sensations are processed,
usually subjectively, by the human mind. In research, direct realism reports

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what has happened, but to understand why it has happened the causes of that
(and the interrelationships between those causes) have to be examined.

• Interpretivism is concerned with the study of social phenomena in their natural

environment. An example of its application would be in seeking to understand
consumer behaviour as a precursor to investment of funds in a new marketing
campaign. This philosophy is more appropriate for qualitative studies.

• Pragmatism is defined by Saunders and Lewis (2012) as ‘a research philosophy

which argues that the most important determinant of the research philosophy
adopted are the research questions and objectives’. This means that a mix of
philosophies may be appropriate within a research design.

Underpinning these four options are two key concepts: ontology and
epistemology. Ontology is concerned with the nature of reality and, as Saunders,
Lewis and Thornhill put it, raises questions about the assumptions researchers have
of the way world operates and their commitments to particular views. They identify
two aspects: objectivism and subjectivism. The former espouses the view that
entities ‘exist in reality external to and independent of social actors’. The latter holds
that ‘social phenomena are created through the perceptions and consequent actions
of social actors’ (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill 2012, pp.130−131). Of course, we
may wonder what all that means in language we understand! Well, think about
theories of management you have previously studied. Do we assume that those
theories apply to all organisations − an objective view − or do we hold the view that
managers in organisations hold individual views about theories and ideas and thus
theories would not apply universally (a subjectivist view)? Epistemology is concerned
with what is considered acceptable knowledge, and how we find it. Do we seek
rationale, scientific data collection and associated analysis approaches, or adopt
more interpretivist approaches?

Approaches to theory: deduction and induction

The next decision in the research design, after selecting a philosophy, is to adopt a
specific approach which reflects your approach to theory. There are two differing
approaches: deduction and induction.

The deductive approach has a ’top down’ feel to it. It starts by defining research
questions at the outset, questions derived from general theory which already exists.
The design identifies ways in which the questions may be answered, and then
obtains and analyses and answers leading to either the confirmation of the general
theory or the modification of the general theory (usually requiring more testing).

The inductive approach is more ‘bottom up’ − theory is built from observations.
Saunders and Lewis define it as ‘a research approach which involves the
development of theory as a result of analysing data already collected’ (2012, p.109).

It is entirely possible to combine the two approaches in one design. For example, an
exploratory study might be used inductively and arrive at a particular theory, and
that theory could then be tested deductively to establish its credentials.

The selection of an appropriate strategy to answer the research questions and

achieve the research objectives is vital. Typical strategies include: experiments,
surveys, case studies, action research (usually involving the management of a
change), grounded theory (using interviews or observations on an inductive basis to
generate theory), ethnography (the researcher(s) being immersed within a field
study) and archival research (using records and documents as principal sources of
data). Of course, as we have seen on a number of occasions in this reading, we need

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Topic 1 WHAT IS RESEARCH? 9

not restrict ourselves to one choice: we use what is needed to answer questions and
meet objectives.

Methods
To make the selected strategy or strategies work, appropriate methods must be
utilised. At one level, either a quantitative study or a qualitative study may be used −
referred to as mono method, with one technique or a very limited number of
techniques used. A multi method application uses a number of either qualitative or
quantitative techniques. A mixed method application involves both quantitative and
qualitative approaches. Again, the method selected should be derived from the need
to answer questions and meet objectives.

Time horizons
The time-related setting − the horizon − should also be considered a key element of
the research design. Should the time-setting be a ‘snapshot’, collecting data from
research participants in one period in time? This often involves collecting data from
groups of people categorised by pre-determined characteristics such as age, gender,
salary, prior educational attainment, pay grade, and so on. This is referred to as a
cross-sectional study. In such studies quantitative methods may be used to
describe the frequency of characteristics and to explain the relationship between
selected variables. But qualitative methods and analyses may also be used − for
example, to collect and analyse interview data. In contrast, a longitudinal study
observes changes and development in a particular setting over time. In business and
management, cross-sectional studies are often used to gauge opinions (of staff,
existing customers, potential customers) and longitudinal studies are used for tasks
such as reviewing and changing opinions and attitudes over time.

Data collection and analysis

Whether a research design is based on a snapshot or is conducted over a longer
period time, data must be collected and analysed. There are various ways of
collecting data and of analysing them both quantitatively and qualitatively. At this
stage, there is no need to delve further into data collection and analysis as this will be
explored in the next reading and considered in depth in Topics 5 and 6.

The research ‘onion’

Later in this module you will encounter each of the aspects identified above and
study them in some depth. Saunders and Lewis (2012, p.103) develop the idea of the
research onion, in which the research process is viewed as layers that are
systematically opened to reveal the next stages and associated considerations for
designing a ‘good’ process. Although each aspect is examined in depth elsewhere in
this module, you will be introduced to this model in a video later in this topic.

Other significant research-related matters: validity, reliability, ethics

The outputs from a research design should be valid, which requires the researcher to
screen out and indeed eliminate factors which could threaten the validity of research
findings. These include, non-exclusively, bias in subject selection (for example, not
stratifying samples) and bias created through the status of a researcher conducting
interviews (in student interviews conducted by a course leader, for example,
students might be worried about repercussions related to the answers they provide).
Reliability reflects the use of appropriate data collection and analysis methods,
producing consistent findings. We will look more at validity and reliability in Topic 4.

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Saunders and Lewis define research ethics as ‘the appropriateness of the researcher’s
behaviour in relation to the rights of those who become the subject of a research project, or
who are affected by it’ (Saunders and Lewis, 2012, p.74). Consent should always be
obtained and the right to opt out at any time must be granted. Universities have
established written codes of ethical conduct as have many private and public
organisations.

Testing your design

There are some key questions which you should ask about your design to ensure
that, if the design is ‘good’ and is executed well, the research conclusions are
believable. Saunders and Lewis suggest the following key questions as ‘tests’ to be
applied once the research has been conducted and these should be borne in mind as
you formulate the design:

• Does the theory, or do the conclusions flow logically from the findings?

• Are the summarised findings consistent with the data collected and presented?

• Is it plausible to assume that the data are such that it would have been
collected by the methods stated?

• Are the methods employed those that you would expect to find in the research
strategy that has been articulated?

• Is there coherence between the research strategy and the research questions
and objectives?

(Saunders and Lewis, 2012, p.125)

This reading has summarised key considerations which underpin the research
process, which will enable you to complete your project effectively. All of them will
be explored in greater depth later in this module. Enjoy!

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Topic 1 WHAT IS RESEARCH? 11

2. EXPLORING THE ‘RESEARCH ONION’

Exploring the ‘research onion’

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ESSENTIAL READING 2
As revealed in its abstract, this paper discusses three common research approaches:
qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods, along with the various research
designs commonly used when conducting research within the framework of each
approach. It is not an advanced paper and as such explains its content in clear and
unambiguous ways. Do note that in places it does add more to the content of
Essential Reading 1 (as in the instance of the consideration of phenomenology).

• Williams, C. ‘Research methods’, Journal of Business & Economics Research (JBER)

[online] 5(3) 2007.

Remember that all the essential reading for this programme is provided for you. Click
the link (which may take you to the Online Library where you can search for a journal
article) or click ‘next’ to go to the next page and start reading.

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Topic 1 WHAT IS RESEARCH? 13

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Attempt the following exercise . This case study, drawn from Saunders and Lewis,
provides a scenario against which you can assess your learning from this topic.

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TOPIC SUMMARY
In this topic, through the two essential readings and the case study, we have
engaged with the idea of ‘research’. We identified some examples of the nature and
content of research projects, and looked at the elements of the research process. We
have looked in particular at research questions and research objectives and the
nature and role of theory in research. Overarching all of that is understanding the
concept of ‘good’ research design, so we looked its components, especially in the
context of the ‘research onion’.

Do remember that this is only the first topic in this module so you may never have
encountered these ideas before. You may feel a little overwhelmed, or unclear about
how some of the elements in the research design are actually applied in practice.
Don’t worry! We revisit these aspects in depth as we progress through the module.

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Topic 1 WHAT IS RESEARCH? 15

PROGRESS LOG
We recommend that you now complete your topic progress log. This should allow
you to monitor and assess your progress and your understanding of the topic before
you move on.

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16 Topic 1 WHAT IS RESEARCH?

Topic Topic Objectives How confident are you?

Completely Partially Unsure

confident confident

Topic 1: What is 1.1 Understand the overall nature

research? and purpose of academic and
business-related research.

1.2 Understand and explain what

is and is not considered research.

1.3 Recognise the shape of and

steps in the research process.
Date
1.4 Identify the elements and
components that contribute
towards an appropriate research
design.

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