1 Introduction

Abstract algebra is a key and crucial component in the mathematics field. It is also known as the

theory of algebraic structures. In a short sense, an algebraic structure is a set of S together with

one or more binary operations on its satisfying axioms governing the operations (Fine, Gaglione,

& Rosenberg, 2014). Abstract Algebra has key structures and the most commonly studied are:

groups, rings, fields, vector spaces, and modules. The aforementioned structures are all fairly

abstract which keeps them grounded.

The history of mathematics has been traditionally subdivided into three main branches: analysis,

algebra, and geometry. The said branches commonly overlap when it comes to different aspects

that sometimes may lead to a confusion. Nevertheless, abstract algebra and algebraic methods

pervade all these branches and disciplines. Its key structures play a major role in the modern day

study of analysis in the said branches and in abstract algebra as a whole.

Abstract algebra has its two main areas: the theory of numbers and theory of equations. The

theory of numbers includes the basic number systems which are: integers, rational, and reals.

While the theory of equations deals with solving polynomial equations, specifically.

This paper goes beyond the origin and the definition of the topic, but it further shows how it is

applied in the real world. Moreover, the goal of this paper is to understand how all of this are

interpreted in a different way of perspective.

2 Introduction to Group Theory

Group theory is a branch of dynamic abstract algebra created to study and control abstract

conceptual ideas involving symmetry or evenness. It is developed to study and manipulate

abstract concepts involving symmetry and its other specific types. Groups are sets of elements

which may be combined by certain operations. The operation used in groups for it to be

combined is the binary operation whose product is defined which describes the operation by two

members of the set combine to form a third set. The product could be ordinary multiplication,

addition, symmetry operation, and etc.

Group plays a central role and position in mathematics as well as in such areas such as counting,

coding, chemistry, physics, and biology. In simple sense, it could be applied in real world. There

are four rules that define how groups is formed by set of combinations. These are:

a.) Product or Closure

b.) Identity

c.) Inverse

d.) Associativity

According to Burns (1977), the first rule, product or closure talks about a rule that a combination

of any two elements must also be an element of the set. Second, the identity must contain as one

of its elements. Third, inverse deals with every element of the set that must have a reciprocal

which is also a member of the set. And lastly, associativity deals with any three elements (p. 22).

The aforementioned rules shall be applied to form a group.

A framework for constructing analogies from abstractions is also included in group theory. In

addition, this paper shows and explains how group theory and its specifications make larger

groups out of groups which are gathered or pieced together. The methods and the properties

under this function will later be used to give its way to the application in real world.
 3 Types of Groups

3.1 Finite Groups

Between the elements of the group are distinct and finite steps that build a finite group. Not like

in infinite groups, finite groups cannot be moved continuously between them. The number of

elements under the said group is called the order of the group. The most notable ones in finite

groups are Sn and Zn where n is a positive integer. The Sn stands for symmetry group where the

cyclic group Zn falls under it as a subgroup.

Finite group has different classifications but in this paper, the study focuses on Abelian group

with four elements which includes the Klein group that later on is used in the application part of

the study. Abelian group is named after the Norwegian mathematician Niels Abel. Abelian group

is known for having a commutative property. There are several requirements that must be met for

a group to be considered Abelian. These requirements are: closure, associativity, identity

element, inverse element, and commutativity.

Under Abelian group is the Klein group. It is one of the smallest non-cyclic group. It is also

known as Klein 4-group because it is the underlying group of the four element field. There are

three elements that consist the Klein 4-group and these are: i, j, k, and an identity e. The

remaining non-identity element is the product of any two distinct non-identity elements. In

relation to that, each element has its own inverse. Hence, the Klein 4-group presentation is: i2 =

j2 = k2 = ijk = e.

The Klein 4-group is isomorphic to (ℤ ⁄ 2ℤ) x (ℤ ⁄ 2ℤ). It is also the group of symmetries of

a rectangle. It has three isomorphic subgroups, each of which is isomorphic to ℤ ⁄ 2ℤ, and, of

course, is normal, since the Klein 4-group is abelian (AoPS Incorporated, 2020).
3.2 Infinite Groups

In a simple and common sense, a group which does not fall under finite is an infinite group.

From its own term, infinite group consists of infinite order and infinite number of elements. In

addition, a group which is G in symbol, is considered as infinite group if and only if the

underlying set G is infinite. The two types of infinite group are: countable and uncountable. The

definition is derived only from its own terms.

According to Bartholdi, et al. (2005), infinite group has three classes: branch groups, almost

hereditarily just infinite groups, and almost simple groups.

It just so mentioned in this paper the second type of group theory which is infinite group for it to

be explained in a broader sense. Also to distinguish infinite from finite and vice versa. This

study, as it has been mentioned in the introduction, focuses in finite group and how it is applied

in one of the branches of Science which is Biology.

4 Application of Group Theory in Genetic Code

This part of the study focuses on how the group theory, specifically the abelian group, are

applied in genetic code under biology branch of Science. Genetic codes are not only based from

RNA or protein, or combinations thereof; rather there are numerous potential symmetry-breaking

events at the point when the genetic code dense from the universe of conceivable outcomes.

Genetic code algebraic structures is extended to gene algebras. This gene algebras are the

sequence of DNA which is described in this part of the study.

A basic way to deal with genetic code includes symmetries of the code-doublets. Danckwerts

and Nuebert (1975) used the Klein group— as defined, an abelian group with four elements,

isomorphic to the symmetries of a non-square rectangle in 2-space. It is used to portray the

symmetries of the code-doublets. First, let the DNA bases be arranged to their physico-chemical

properties accordingly. The segments of the set of dinucleotides and these are the two subsets:

M1 = {AC, CC, CU, CG, UC, GC, GU, GG}

M2 = {CA, AA, AU, AG, GA, UA, UU, UG}

The doublets in the first set (M1) would coordinate with a third base for a triplet that has no effect

on the coded amino acid. Those are also related with the degenerate triplets. Meanwhile, under

the second set (M2), it does not code for amino acids without information on the third base in

triplets. With the doublet trade operators which are: e, α, β, γ— it is hereby presented the base

exchanges:

α:A↔C U↔G
β:A↔U C↔G
γ:A↔G U↔C

where the exchange rationale is given as follows: α trades purine bases with non-correlative

pyrimidine bases, β trades corresponding bases that undergoes hydrogen bond changes, and γ

trades purine with another purine and pyrimidine with another pyrimidine, and is a piece of α

with β. The operator e is the character operator. The chemical types which are purine and

pyrimidine (the aforementioned in the latter) and the number of hydrogen bonds are both

elements of the codon interactions.

The rotation in Cayley table is an exact to the Klein group that is why they are isomorphic to

each other. Genetic codes are usually represented in a four-column table where codons are

placed. It is shown here:

Table 1. The Klein 4-group

+ C U A G
C C U A G
U U C G A
A A G C U
G G A U C

Table 1 explains that where every element is its own inverse, explains that each of the element

has order two different from the neutral.

Another illustration of set of four bases of the DNA where sum operation is defined:

Table 2. A: Primal algebra. B: Dual algebra.*

+ A C G U + U G C A
A A C G U U U G C A
A C C G U A B G G C A U
G G U A C C C A U G
U U A C G A A U G C

Table 2 is the product of the two sets {A, C, G, U} and {U, G, C, A} that made it possible to

define a sum operation in algebra. The table shows the sum of bases resulted from two possible
orders. Hence, the primal and dual group are both cyclic groups corresponding to the ordered

sets.

For table 3 (which is shown under this explanation), the internal codon and the product of two

sets aforementioned are considered to build two orders in the codon set*. They are both to be

applied in first and second base. With this process, the genetic code tables that starts with the

codon having the lesser number of hydrogen bonds are established.

Table 3. Abelian group with Z64 is shown in this table.

A C G U  
  1 2
No. No. 1 2 No. 1 2 No. 1 2

0 AAA K 16 ACA T 32 AGA R 48 AUA I A

1 AAC N 17 ACC T 33 AGC S 49 AUC I C
A
2 AAG K 18 ACG T 34 AGG R 50 AUG M G
3 AAU N 19 ACU T 35 AGU S 51 AUU I U
4 CAA Q 20 CCA P 36 CGA R 52 CUA L A
5 CAC H 21 CCC P 37 CGC R 53 CUC L C
C
6 CAG Q 22 CCG P 38 CGG R 54 CUG L G
7 CAU H 23 CCU P 39 CGU R 55 CUU L U
8 GAA E 24 GCA A 40 GGA G 56 GUA V A
9 GAC D 25 GCC A 41 GGC G 57 GUC V C
G
10 GAG E 26 GCG A 42 GGG G 58 GUG V G
11 GAU D 27 GCU A 43 GGU G 59 GUU V U
12 UAA - 28 UCA S 44 UGA - 60 UUA L A
13 UAC Y 29 UCC S 45 UGC C 61 UUC F C
U
14 UAG - 30 UCG S 46 UGG W 62 UUG L G
15 UAU Y 31 UCU S 47 UGU C 63 UUU F U

Footnotes: (1) indicates for the base triplet codons; (2) represents the letter that stands for amino

acid; and “-”corresponds to stop codons.

The next step is the introduction of codon groups and the Z64 gene algebras. The sum operation

of codons (XYZ and X’ Y’ Z) is defined based on its classical group*. While the Abelian group
Z64 of integers module 64 is how table 3 is presented and shown. It defines the codon sum that an

isomorphism is evident. In this method, the cyclic character of the codons sum came from the

base sum. On the other hand, the codons to establish the sum algorithm emphasizes the order of

importance of the bases.

In equating the sum of codons AGC and UGU, the primal group of bases (Table 2 A) is

necessary. There are six steps to equate the sum:

1. The third bases are added C+U=A;

2. Base A precedes bases C and U in the set of ordered bases {A, C, G, U} as base C is

added to the next position;

3. The equation resulted to this, A+U+C=U+C=A, the first bases and the base C obtained in

the first step are added. Again, base C is added to the next position;

4. Next, the second bases are added to base C obtained in the second step that resulted to

this, G+G+C=A+C= C;

5. Finally, final equation is: AGC + UGU =ACA

The sum operation defined on the latter part complies with the sum group axioms— group

axioms are the four specific requirements or conditions that must be satisfied. From the result of

codon sets, two cyclic Abenlian groups with operation sum (+) is to be defined: a dual codon

group produced by the dual base group and a primal codon group produced by the primal base

group. Since groups are isomorphic to Z64, + then all finite cyclic groups with the same number

of elements are isomorphic as well. The computation through primal algebra is:

AGC ↔ 33 AGC ↔ 33 CCC ↔ 21

+UGU ↔ 47 +AGA ↔ +32 +AAU ↔ +3
ACA ↔ 16 mod 64 AAC ↔ 1 mod 64 GCA ↔ 24 mod 64
Moreover, the isomorphism refers to odd and/or even elements of group (Cg). The codons with

bases U and C are odds codons while the codons with bases A and G in the third position are

even codons.

An abbreviated sum, like in ordinary arithmetic, is the product of element k ∈ (Z64, +) multiply

the element XYZ ∈ (Cg, +), so that the symbol k (XYZ) means the sum of k times the term XYZ.

Moreover, if for different n natural numbers the product nu exhausts the group, it is said that

element u ∈ Cg generates group (Cg, +) and u is called its generator— the generators of group

(Cg, +) are considered as odd codons and are also called units of (Cg, +). Overall, in one of the

groups (Cg, +), u = k (XYZ) is written where k∈Z64 for all codons u ∈ Cg if codon XYZ ∈ Cg is a

generator of this group. Specifically, for all u∈ (Cg, +) there exists k ∈ (Z64, +) such that u=k

(X1Y1Z1), where X1Y1Z1=AAC or X1Y1Z1=UUG (Table 3). Next, if the product operation (denoted

by ⊗) is defined in the set Cg for it to be distributed with respect to the sum operation and the

equality (X1Y1Z1 ⊗ X1Y1Z1) = X1Y1Z1, then, for all u ∈ Cg and v ∈ Cg is:

u ⊗ v= k (X1Y1Z1) ⊗ k’ (X1Y1Z1) = k•k’ (X1Y1Z1 ⊗ X1Y1Z1) = k•k’ (X1Y1Z1)

where “•” signifies the product operation in the ring (Z64, +, •), and ring (Cg, +, ⊗) is

isomorphic to ring (Z64, +, •). This time, the evident for x, y ∈ (Z64, +, •) and u, v ∈ (Cg, +), is the

external law f: Z64 × (Cg, +) → (Cg, +) given for f(x, u) = xu = ux to meet the R-Module and R-

Algebra definitions. In particular the external law f can be considered as a module or an algebra

endomorphism that include fk functions so that fk (u) = ku is an automorphism if, and only if, k is

an odd element of Z64.

Next, these structures can be extended to the N-dimensional sequence space (P) consisting of the

set of all 64N DNA sequences with N codons. Evidently, this set is isomorphic to the set of all N-
tuples (x1,…xN) where xi ∈ Cg. Then, set P can be represented by all N-tuples (x1,…,xN)∈ (Cg) N

while algebraic group structures of (Cg, +) can be extended to set P. As a result, groups [(Cg)

N , +)] (primal and dual groups) will be the direct sum of N groups (Cg, +), that is:

(P, +) = [(Cg) N , +)] = (Cg, +) ⊕ (Cg, +) ⊕...⊕ (Cg, +) (N times)

In conclusion, according to K. Shoda (1928), since group Z64 is an Abelian 2-group an

endomorphism f: (Cg) N → (Cg) N is an automorphism if, and only if, det (A) is not divisible by

2.

5 Summary

The first part of this paper introduced abstract algebra as a key and crucial component in

mathematical field. Its importance is also shown on how it pervades all the branches of

mathematics even if the latter, historically speaking, could cause confusion at times. As also

mentioned in first part, abstract algebra has its key structures; these structures play a major role

in the modern day study of analysis not only in its own branch but also in mathematical field as a

whole.

The second part talks about one of the key structure of abstract algebra which is the group

theory. As mentioned, it is a branch of dynamic abstract algebra created to study and control

abstract conceptual ideas involving symmetry or evenness. Group theory has two types: finite

and infinite groups. This lead to the third part of the paper that explains what is under the two

said types and how they differ from each other. Finite group is the basic way to apply in different

branches. Unlike finite group, infinite group is harder to study and to apply. This is why the

researchers focus more in finite group on how it is applied in real world— and that leads to the

fourth part of the paper.

Application of group theory is the fourth part of the paper. The key structures of group theory

play a major role in the modern day study of analysis in the said branches and in abstract algebra

as a whole. Group plays a central role and position in mathematics as well as in such areas such

as counting, coding, chemistry, physics, and biology that is why this is why the researchers

choose this topic. In application, it first explains the genetic code— it is not only a combination

of genes but it includes numerous potential symmetry-breaking events at the point when the

genetic code dense from the universe of conceivable outcomes.

The application starts at the study of molecular evolution process which is the so called gene

algebras. The DNA bases are arranged according to its physico-chemical properties. As per

arrangement, the base set arrays are produced and defined the sum operation in different ways.

Next, as the process goes by, the genetic code tables are established (shown in table 2 & 3).

Table 2 illustrates primal and dual algebra while table 3 illustrates the primal genetic code as an

Abelian group with Z64.

The succeeding parts of this section introduces the codon groups and the Z64 gene algebras. The

first part is how the equation of sum of codons AGC and UGU is presented in a step by step

process. It is followed by primal algebra computations. As followed by the last part that shows

and illustrates the Z64 gene algebras.

5.1 Conclusion

Finally, it is concluded that this study has shown the importance and application of abstract

algebra not only in mathematical field itself but also in real world, specifically the biology

branch of science. This has expanded the understanding between the living and non-living

systems. Through this, the group theory is used as a key to apply, interpret, and see how
mathematics is interconnected with science. The tables, illustrations, equations, and

computations are big help to further understand the study.

Each field has its own role and significance but throughout this study, it has proved that the key

structure of group theory really play a major role in this field, specifically Abelian group and Z64

gene algebras. The important take of this study is: one field is not only limited from its inside but

it has the capacity to be interlinked from other fields. A different way of perspective is also

applicable in academic studies like this.

5.2 Recommendation

As it has been mentioned in the preceding part, this study only focuses on how group theory is

applied to genetic code. On the other hand, the researchers recommend for the future researchers

that it is still possible to use other theories from abstract algebra to explore some possibilities that

may more expand the scope of genetic system in biology. This also does not limit the use of

illustrations and tables but some other mappings or data can also be used in the study. The

researchers also recommend to study and understand the topic deeper and wider to see what

might be the problem in the said topic.

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