Statistics (Theoretical)

A report is submitted to
Department of Soil and Water Science
College of Agricultural Engineering sciences
University of Duhok

Student name: Mustafa Badeea Abdulaziz

Moodle Email: w47hgqce@gmail.com
Year: 1st
Course: Second
Course Code: GS2101
Instructor: Dr. Mohammed Ali Hussein
Date: 19/June/2020
Table of Contents
REFERENCES
LIST OF SOURCES
INTRODUCTION (3)
STATISTICS
MAJOR TYPES OF STATISTICS
SOME OF STATICTICAL MEASURES
RANGE (4)
DEFINETION
IMPORTANT NOTES
EXAMPLE
COEFFICIENT RANGE (7)
DEFINETION
IMPORTANT NOTES
EXAMPLE
STANDARD DEVIATION (10)
DEFINETION
IMPORTANT NOTES
EXAMPLE
STANDARD ERROR (14)
DEFINETION
IMPORTANT NOTES

REFERENCES

www.Easycalculation.com

www.Wikipedia.com

www.purplemath.com

www.emathzone.com

www.investopedia.com

www.easy-math.net
 INTRODUCTION

Statistics

Is the practice or science of collecting and analysing numerical data in large

quantities, especially for the purpose of inferring proportions in a whole from those in
a representative sample.

Major Types of Statistics

There are Two types of statistical methods are used in analyzing data: descriptive
statistics and inferential statistics.

Some of Statistical Measures

 Mean

 Regression analysis

 Skewness

 Variance

 Analysis of variance

 Range

 Coefficient Range

 Standard Deviation

 Standard Error

 interquartile range

 absolute deviation

Bellow Are The Topics That I am supposed To talk About

 Range , Coefficient Range , Standard Deviation & Standard Error

Range

In statistics and mathematics range is the difference between the lowest Values and
the highest values in the set and its one of the statistical measures, Range
can also mean all the output values of a function.

 Since it only depends on two of the observations, it is most useful in

representing the dispersion of small data sets.
 The range can only tell you basic details about the spread of a set of data. By
giving the difference between the lowest and highest scores.
 The range is useful for showing the spread within a dataset and for comparing
the spread between similar datasets.
 Range is all real numbers except zero (since at x= 0, the function is
undefined: division by zero is not allowed!)
 Range Formula:
Maximum Value – Minimum Value = Range
The range of a distribution with a discrete random variable is the difference
between the maximum value and the minimum value. For a distribution with a
continuous random variable, the range is the difference between the two
extreme points on the distribution curve, where the value of the function falls
to zero.
 The range of a function is the set of all possible values it can produce. No
matter what value we give to x, the function is always positive: ... If x is
negative 2, then it still produces 4 since -2 times -2 is positive 4.
 The calculation of the range is very straightforward. All we need to do is find
the difference between the largest data value in our set and the smallest data
value.
  The range is a very crude measurement of the spread of data because it is
extremely sensitive to outliers, and as a result, there are certain limitations to
the utility of a true range of a data set to statisticians because a single data
value can greatly affect the value of the range.
 The range can also be used to estimate another measure of spread, the
standard deviation. Rather than go through a fairly complicated formula to find
the standard deviation, we can instead use what is called the range rule. The
range is fundamental in this calculation.
 Range  tells how far apart the greatest and least numbers in a set are.

Example 1

What is the range in these values : [ 89,  73,  84,  91,  87,  77,  94 ] ?

Solution

STEP 1: First of all we must arrange them from the lowest value to the highest
value:

73, 77, 84, 87, 89, 91, 94

STEP 2: Then we should use this formula in order to resolve this question:

Maximum Value – Minimum Value = Range

STEP 3: At the end we should only calculate it using the law:

highest - lowest = 94 - 73 = 21
Example 2

What is the range in these values : [ 300 , 200 , 600 , 500 , 900 , 100, 800 ] ?

Solution

STEP 1: First of all we must arrange them from the lowest value to the highest
value:

100 , 200 , 300 , 500 , 600 , 800 , 900

STEP 2: Then we should use this formula in order to resolve this question:

Maximum Value – Minimum Value = Range

STEP 3: At the end we should only calculate it using the law:

highest - lowest = 900 – 100 = 800

Coefficient Range

It is defined as the relative measure of the distribution based on the range of any

given data set, which is the difference between the maximum and minimum value in
the given set. It is also known as range coefficient.

  In case of continuous frequency distribution, range, according to the

definition, is calculated as the difference between the lower limit of the
minimum interval and upper limit of the maximum interval of the
grouped data.
 In math and science, a coefficient is a constant term related to the properties
of a product. In the equation that measures friction, for example, the number
that always stays the same is the coefficient
 For example: 6z means 6 times z, and "z" is a variable, so 6 is a coefficient.
Variables with no number have a coefficient of 1.
 Negative coefficients are simply coefficients that are negative numbers. An
example of a negative coefficient would be -8 in the term -8z or -11 in the
term -11xy. The number being multiplied by the variables is negative.
  In the case of grouped data, the range is the difference between the upper
boundary of the highest class and the lower boundary of the lowest class. It is
also calculated by using the difference between the mid points of the highest
class and the lowest class.
 Coefficient of Range Formula:
s = (xm- xo) / (xm + xo)
Where Xm = maximum value and Xo = Minimum value
 The value coefficient, Cv, is a number which represents the capability of a
valve (or any flow component) to flow a fluid. ... By definition, a Cv value of
one is the Cv required to flow one gallon per minute (gpm) of water at 60' F
with a pressure differential of one psi. Flow is proportional to the value of Cv.
 The Difference between range and coefficient range

Set :  10, 15, 18, 20, 20

Range Coefficient Range

20 – 10 = 10 20 – 10 / 20 + 10 = 0.33

Example 1

Find coefficient of range in this set of numbers : 1400, 1450, 1520, 1380, 1485,
1495, 1575, 1440?

Solution

STEP1: Find the largest value and the smallest value

the largest value : xm=1575

the smallest value : x0=1380

STEP 2: Use coefficient range’s formula

Coefficient range = (xm - xo) / (xm + xo)

STEP 3: Put the numbers in the formula and thenstart calculating

(1575 – 1380 ) / (1575 + 1380 ) = 0.065

Example 2

Find coefficient of range in this set of numbers : 45 ,12 ,56 ,78 ,54 ,30 ,76 ,34 ,
76 ,23 ,49 ,16 ,20 ?

Solution

STEP1: Find the largest value and the smallest value

the largest value : xm= 78

the smallest value : x0= 12

STEP 2: Use coefficient range’s formula

Coefficient range = (xm - xo) / (xm + xo)

STEP 3: Put the numbers in the formula and thenstart calculating

( 78 – 12 ) / ( 78 + 12 ) = 0.733
Standard Deviation

In statistics, the standard deviation is a measure of the amount of variation or

dispersion of a set of values. A low standard deviation indicates that the values tend
to be close to the mean of the set, while a high standard deviation indicates that the
values are spread out over a wider range.

 The main and most important purpose of standard deviation is to understand

how spread out a data set is. ... A high standard deviation implies that, on
average, data points in the first cloud are all pretty far from the average (it
looks spread out). A low standard deviation means most points are very close
to the average.
 A low standard deviation shows that the answers are very projectable to a
larger group of people. A weather reporter is analyzing the high temperature
forecasted for a series of dates versus the actual high temperature recorded
on each date. A low standard deviation would show a reliable weather
forecast.
 Standard deviation is a mathematical tool to help us assess how far the
values are spread above and below the mean. A high standard
deviation shows that the data is widely spread (less reliable) and a low
standard deviation shows that the data are clustered closely around the mean
(more reliable).
 A low standard deviation indicates that the data points tend to be very close
to the mean. A high standard deviation indicates that the data points are
spread out over a large range of values. ... Standard deviation is a popular
measure of variability because it returns to the original units of measure of the
data set.
 Standard Deviation is a statistical term used to measure the amount of
variability or dispersion around an average. Technically it is a measure of
volatility. Dispersion is the difference between the actual and the average
value. The larger this dispersion or variability is, the higher is the standard
deviation
 The standard deviation is affected by outliers (extremely low or extremely
high numbers in the data set). That's because the standard deviation is based
on the distance from the mean. And remember, the mean is also affected by
outliers. The standard deviation has the same units as the original data.
 The standard deviation is used in conjunction with the mean to
summarize continuous data, not categorical data. In addition, the standard
deviation, like the mean, is normally only appropriate when the continuous
data is not significantly skewed or has outliers.
 Standard deviation is calculated as: The mean value is calculated by adding
all the data points and dividing by the number of data points. The variance for
each data point is calculated, first by subtracting the value of the data point
from the mean. Each of those resulting values is then squared and the results
summed. The result is then divided by the number of data points less one.
The square root of the variance—result from no. 2—is then taken to find the
standard deviation.
 Standard deviation is an especially useful tool in investing and trading
strategies as it helps measure market and security volatility—and predict
performance trends. As it relates to investing, for example, one can expect an
index fund to have a low standard deviation versus its benchmark index, as
the fund's goal is to replicate the index.
 Difference between mean and standard deviation

The standard deviation (SD) measures the amount of variability, or dispersion, for a

subject set of data from the mean, while the standard error of the mean (SEM)
measures how far the sample mean of the data is likely to be from the true
population mean.

Standard Deviation’s Formula

s = sample standard deviation

 = sum of...
 = sample mean
n = number of scores in sample.
Example

Sam has 20 rose bushes, but only counted the flowers on 6 of them

Let us say Sam's flower counts are: 9, 2, 5, 4, 12, 7

Solution

STEP 1: Work out the mean

The mean is (9+2+5+4+12+7) / 6 = 39/6 = 6.5 So ( x = 6.5 )

STEP 2: Then for each number: subtract the Mean and square the result

(9 – 6.5)2 = (2.5)2 = 6.25

(2 – 6.5)2 = (-4.5)2 = 20.25

(5 – 6.5)2 = (-1.5)2 = 2.25

(4 – 6.5)2 = (-2.5)2 = 6.25

(12 – 6.5)2 = (5.5)2 = 30.25

(7 – 6.5)2 = (0.5)2 = 0.25

STEP 3: Then work out the mean of those squared differences

Sum = 6.25 + 20.25 + 2.25 + 6.25 + 30.25 + 0.25 = 65.5

Divide by N-1: (1/5) × 65.5 = 13.1

(This value is called the “Sample Variance”)

STEP 4: Take the square root of that

s = √(13.1) = 3.619…
Standard Error

The standard error of a statistic is the standard deviation of its sampling distribution
or an estimate of that standard deviation. If the parameter or the statistic is the
mean, it is called the standard error of the mean.

 The standard error is a statistical term that measures the accuracy with which

a sample distribution represents a population by using standard deviation.
In statistics, a sample mean deviates from the actual mean of a population—
this deviation is the standard error of the mean.
 Estimate. Since the population standard deviation is seldom known,
the standard error of the mean is usually estimated as the sample standard
deviation divided by the square root of the sample size (assuming statistical
independence of the values in the sample). n is the size (number of
observations) of the sample.
 The smaller the standard error, the less the spread and the more likely it is
that any sample mean is close to the population mean. A small standard
error is thus a Good Thing.
 The more data points involved in the calculations of the mean, the smaller
the standard error tends to be. When the standard error is small, the data is
said to be more representative of the true mean. In cases where the standard
error is large, the data may have some notable irregularities.
 It is called an error because the standard deviation of the sampling
distribution tells us how different a sample mean can be expected to be from
the true mean.
  the standard deviation can be greater than the mean and whether it is a good
or a bad thing, depends on the sort of data being looked at (or investigated). It
is not an abnormal. As a matter of fact, a standardized normal distribution
data has a mean value of 0 and SD of 1.
 The standard error determines how much variability "surrounds" a coefficient
estimate. A coefficient is significant if it is non-zero. The typical rule of thumb,
 is that you go about two standard deviations above and below the estimate to
get a 95% confidence interval for a coefficient estimate.
 If the message you want to carry is about the spread and variability of the
data, then standard deviation is the metric to use. If you are interested in the
precision of the means or in comparing and testing differences between
means then standard error is your metric.
 The major factor affects standard error of the mean is sample size. The size
of the sample increases the standard error of the mean decreases. Another
factor affecting the standard error of the mean is the size of
the population standard deviation.
 Standard error and standard deviation are measures of variability, while
central tendency measures include mean, median, etc.
 The standard error is considered part of descriptive statistics. It represents
the standard deviation of the mean within a dataset. This serves as a
measure of variation for random variables, providing a measurement for the
spread. The smaller the spread, the more accurate the dataset.
 The more data points involved in the calculations of the mean, the smaller the
standard error tends to be. When the standard error is small, the data is said
to be more representative of the true mean. In cases where the standard error
is large, the data may have some notable irregularities.
 The standard deviation is a representation of the spread of each of the data
points. The standard deviation is used to help determine the validity of the
data based on the number of data points displayed at each level of standard
deviation. Standard errors function more as a way to determine the accuracy
of the sample or the accuracy of multiple samples by analyzing deviation
within the means.
 The smaller the standard error, the more representative the sample will be of
the overall population.
 The more data points involved in the calculations of the mean, the smaller the
standard error tends to be.
  The standard error can include the variation between the calculated mean of
the population and one which is considered known, or accepted as accurate.

Important

Standard error and standard deviation are measures of variability, while central
tendency measures include mean, median, etc.

Requirements for Standard Error

When a population is sampled, the mean, or average, is generally calculated. The

standard error can include the variation between the calculated mean of the
population and one which is considered known, or accepted as accurate. This helps
compensate for any incidental inaccuracies related to the gathering of the sample.

In cases where multiple samples are collected, the mean of each sample may vary
slightly from the others, creating a spread among the variables. This spread is most
often measured as the standard error, accounting for the differences between the
means across the datasets.

The more data points involved in the calculations of the mean, the smaller the
standard error tends to be. When the standard error is small, the data is said to be
more representative of the true mean. In cases where the standard error is large, the
data may have some notable irregularities.

The standard deviation is a representation of the spread of each of the data points.
The standard deviation is used to help determine the validity of the data based on
the number of data points displayed at each level of standard deviation. Standard
errors function more as a way to determine the accuracy of the sample or the
accuracy of multiple samples by analyzing deviation within the means.

Difference between standard error and standard deviation

The standard deviation (SD) measures the amount of variability, or dispersion, for a
subject set of data from the mean, while the standard error of the mean (SEM)
measures how far the sample mean of the data is likely to be from the true
population mean. ... SD is the dispersion of data in a normal distribution.