Petroleum Fluids Composition

Shell Special Intensive Training Program Phase IV
Oil and Gas Processing
Chapter One
PETROLEUM FLUIDS COMPOSITION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Reservoir Fluid Composition 2

Methods of Crude Oil Analysis 2
Types Of Crude Oil Bases: 5
HYDROCARBONS 9
Physical Properties of Hydrocarbon 9
Paraffin Hydrocarbons 14
A. Physical Properties of Paraffins 14
Chemical Properties and Uses of Paraffin 19
Naphthenes (Cycloalkanes) 23
Physical and Chemical Properties of Naphthenes 25
Aromatics 25
Properties of Aromatics 26
Physical and Chemical Properties of Benzene. 26
Other Hydrocarbon Compounds 28
Non Hydrocarbon Compounds of Natural Gas 28
TYPE OF RESERVOIR FLUIDS 31
A. Oil 31
B. Gases 33
Gas and Oil Relationship 35
A. Gas Oil Ratio (GOR). 35
B. Reservoir Gas and Oil Relationship 37
C. Basic Sediment and Water (BS&W) 38
D. API and API Correlation 38
Sampling and Analysis of Reservoir Fluids 44
Oil and Gas Processing 45
Crude Assays 45
Reservoir Simulation 46
© Univation Page 1 of 46 12/01/00

Chapter One
PETROLEUM FLUIDS COMPOSITION
Reservoir Fluid Composition
Reservoir fluid is a complex mixture of several compounds, most of which, are

hydrocarbon compounds. The rest are water, sulphur compounds (eg H2S),
carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen, Oxygen (O2), helium and heavy metals such
as mercury.
Reservoir fluids commonly occur in the reservoir as liquid (oil) or gas, or as

combination of gas and liquid, where the gas is dissolved in the liquid. It must
be mentioned however that, petroleum, which is the reservoir fluid, does
occasionally occur in the solid or semi-solid form. Apart from the solid state,
petroleum would be found in a thick tar-like jelly form and as a light and clear
oil. The state, in which petroleum is found, depends on the amount of the
lighter or heavy hydrocarbons present in it. Petroleum with higher proportion
of methane, will invariably be gas, while that with higher proportion of heavy
high-number carbon atoms will either be liquid, semi-solid or solid. Generally,
when the petroleum consists of larger molecules of hydrocarbons it is liquid
and it is called “petroleum oil” or “crude oil”.
The colour of petroleum ranges from light clear to dark black colour. This also
is a function of the type of hydrocarbons that it contains predominantly, and
the type and amount of the non-hydrocarbon compounds.
Methods of Crude Oil Analysis
Crude oil consists of thousands of different compounds ranging from methane

with one carbon atom to hydrocarbon molecules having 100 carbon atoms.
The most commonly found hydrocarbon groups in crude oil are paraffins,
naphthenes and aromatics. Two other hydrocarbon groups, olefins and
diolefins, are sometimes found in refined products of crude oil. The exact
analysis or separation of crude oil into its multitude of compounds is
impossible due to the number. As such, analysis or separation of the crude oil
is normally done into “fractions” consisting of several compounds having
individual boiling points falling into a particular boiling point range. There are
three methods of reporting this analysis.
1. Ultimate Analysis:
This lists the composition of the crude oil in terms of percentage of the
elements of the various compounds; such as percentage of elements of
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen, etc. This method of
analysis says very little about the amount and type of compounds in the
crude, and about the characteristics of the crude oil. It is however very
useful in determining the quantity of sulphur in the crude which helps to

determine the quantity to be removed. Table 1-1 illustrates elemental

analysis of several crude oil from some parts of the world.
Table 1-1
Ultimate Chemical Analysis of Petroleum
Component (%)
Petroleum Specific Temp. C H N O S Base
Gravity (°C)
γ
Pennsylvania 0.862 15 85.5 14.2 Paraffin
pipeline
Mecook, WV 0.897 0 83.6 12.9 3.6 Paraffin
Humbolt KS 0.912 85.6 12.4 0.37 Mixed
Healdton, OK 85.0 12.9 0.76 Mixed
Coalinga, CA 0.951 15 86.4 11.7 1.14 0.60 Naphthene
Beaumont, TX 0.91 85.7 11.0 2.61* 0.70 Naphthene
Mexico 0.97 15 83.0 11.0 1.7* 4.30 naphthene
Baku, USSR 0.897 86.5 12.0 1.5
Colombia, S.Am. 0.948 20 85.62 11.91 0.54
2. Chemical Analysis:
The chemical analysis gives the composition in terms of percentage of
paraffin, napthenes and aromatic type compounds present in the crude
oil. Paraffins are the straight or branched chain, single bond, saturated
hydrocarbons. Naphthenes are hydrocarbon compounds that are
saturated having single bonds but with the carbon atoms arranged in
ring. They are also called “cycloalkanes”, “cycloparaffin” or
“alicyclic” hydrocarbons. Aromatics hydrocarbon are made up of
molecules of benzene or their multiples. The benzene molecule
consists of six carbon atoms bonded together in a ring with six-
hydrogen atoms see fig. 1-1. Any compound of this nature that
behaves chemically like benzene is also considered to be aromatic.
The chemical analysis of crude can be determined with a lot of

accuracy by means of chemical reaction or solvent test. This analysis
gives an idea of the usefulness of the refined products, since the
proportion of the paraffin, naphthenes or aromatics should be a pointer.
Nevertheless, the actual quantity or amount of such refined products
cannot be ascertained from the analysis. Table 1-2 illustrates the result
of chemical analysis of several fractions of four crude oils.

Fig. 1-1
Structures of Paraffins, Naphthenes and Aromatics
Table 1.2
Chemical Analysis of Petroleum
3 Evaluation Analysis
This consists primarily of a fractional distillation of the crude oil followed
by physical property tests. These property tests are carried out on the
distillation products to determine their API gravity, viscosity, pour point
etc. This method makes it possible for the yield of the crude oil and its
properties at the refinery to be predicted, since the refinery itself uses
fractionation process.
Evaluation analysis curves produced by this method or analysis are

illustrated in fig.1-12 and these curves make it possible to predict the
refined products’ physical properties. Such predictions from the
evaluation curves are used to determine the product yield from the
crude oil. The predictions can be for the refinery fractionation column to
be set to operate for maximum gasoline yield as in Table 1-3, or for it to
be set for maximum lube oil and diesel yield as in Table 1– 4. A
simulated distillation called ASTM Test Method D2887 which uses gas
chromatograph is being researched upon to produce simulated
distillation that will produce crude oil evaluation curves with very small
samples in very short period of about one hour. The present fractional

distillation column uses a gallon of crude oil and takes two days for the
analysis.
Table 1-3
Evaluation Operated for Maximum Gasoline Yield
Table 1-4
Evaluation Operated for Maximum Lube Yield
Types Of Crude Oil Bases:
There are three methods of classifying the bases of crude oil.
1. General Classification:
This has three traditional classifications used to determine crude oil bases.
These are Paraffin base, Intermediate base and Naphthene base. This
general classification is still sometimes used and it is quite useful except that it
leads to ambiguity when trying to classify crude oil that may exhibit one set of
characteristics for its lighter ends and another set for its heavy ends
(fractions).
2. USBM Hempel Distillation Classification

This method classifies all crude oils into two bases in accordance to two “key
fractions”resulting from the Hempel distillation of the crude oil. These are:
a) Key fraction 1, is a fraction which consists of compounds that will
boil between 482 0F and 527 0F at atmospheric pressure.

b) Key fraction 2, is fraction with compounds that will boil between

527 0F and 572 0F at 40mm absolute pressure.
The two fractions well separated are then tested for API gravity.
Key fraction 2 is in addition tested for cloud point. In naming the crude oil
after the distillation and testing, the base of the light ends i.e. key fraction 1 is
named first before the base of the heavy end i.e. key fraction 2. Furthermore,
if the cloud point of the key fraction 2 is above 5 0F, the term “Wax Bearing”
is added and the term “Wax Free” is added if the pour point is below 5 0F.
In general, the “key fraction 1” and “key fraction 2” refer to the gasoline and
lube oil fractions respectively. For example, paraffin–intermediate–wax free
crude would mean a crude oil that has paraffin characteristics in the gasoline
portion and intermediate characteristics in the lube portion and it has very little
wax. Table1–5 illustrates bases of crude oil by the USBM methods.
Table 1-5
Bases of Crude by USBM Hempel Method
3. Numerical Correlation Indices

This is an index that gives a numerical correlation for the crude oil base. There
are two correlation indices used in the oil and gas industry.
a) Characteristics Factor
This factor, developed by Watson, Nelson and Murphy, is the most
useful in the industry. It is commonly referred to as Watson K-factor,
UOP Characterisation factor or UOP-K factor.
The higher the K of any crude, the more paraffin it is, the higher the
boiling point, the higher the API, the higher the tendency towards
gasoline state. Conversely the smaller the K, the more aromatic, the
lower the boiling point, the less the API, the thicker and higher tendency
to liquid/lube state. Table 1–5 and 1-6 illustrate K-factors for certain

crude oil with other physical properties. Apart from API, boiling point
and specific gravity a number of other crude oil and crude products’
properties have been found to relate pretty well with the K-factor.
Table1–6 illustrates this further with different types of crude with their K-
factors, hydrocarbon contents, etc. Table 1-6 also shows that the more
complex the Hydrocarbon, the lower the K-factor.
It is determined by the following equation:
3
TB
K = → Eqn. 1-1
γ
or
3 TB + 460
K =
γ
TB = Molar Average Boiling Point temperature in 0R

TB = Normal Boiling Point 0F
γ = Specific Gravity at 60 0F
K = Crude Characteristics Factor.

Table 1-6
Characterisation Factors for Some USA Crudes
b) Correlation Index
This method has been used extensively at the United States Department
of Energy (USDOE) at Bartlesville Energy Technology centre (BETC),
which has been making distillation analysis since 1920’s and has done
so for virtually all crudes and for all oil fields in the U.S. The correlation
index is defined as follows:
IC = 473.7γ- 465.8 + 87552 → Eqn. 1-2

TB
γ = Crude specific gravity at 60 0F

T B = Crude average normal boiling point temperature in 0R
Generally, Low IC indicates paraffin and IC = 0 indicates purely

paraffinic crude. High IC indicates high degree of aromatically. Actually
benzene has IC = 100.

HYDROCARBONS
From the evaluation analysis of the several and various crude from all over the
world, it is clear that hydrocarbons constitute between 80 – 99 % of most
crude oils. Most of the reservoir compounds whether occurring as gas, liquid
or solid, are made up of hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are compounds made
up of just carbon and hydrogen elements. These two elements combine to
form various and different chemical compounds. Fig 1-2 consists of major
hydrocarbons found in one typical crude oil.
Physical Properties of Hydrocarbon
Type of Physical Properties
a) Intensive Properties:
These are properties, which are independent of the quantity of the
material present e.g. Density, specific volume and compressibility.
b) Extensive Properties:
Properties whose value depends on the quantity of the material
present. Examples are volume, mass etc.
1. Molar Mass or Mole

This is the weight of any compound equal in number to its molecular
weight. It is the number of weight units equal to its molecular weight. It
is expressed in
Pound mole Ô The compound weight in pounds equal in number

to its molecular weight.
Gram Mole Ô The compound weight in grams equal in number to
its molecular weight.
Ton mole Ô The compound weight in tons equal in number to
its molecular weight.
Pound Mole = 453.59 Gram mole.

A pound mole of all compounds occupies the same volume (379.4 FT3)
at standard conditions (14.7 psia & 600F) and contains the same
number of molecules.
2. Molecular weight
Molecular weight of any compound is expressed in pounds per pound
mole or gram per gram mole or tons per ton mole. In Table 1-9 are
some commonly found compounds in petroleum fluids with their
respective molecular weights and pound moles.

Figure 1.2
Major Hydrocarbons in Crude Oil

3. Dew Point Pressure

When gas is saturated with liquid phase, any reduction in pressure will
result in liquid formation. This is the case in condensate reservoir. The
pressure at which liquid starts to form is referred to as dew point
pressure.
4. Hydrocarbon Structure.
The hydrocarbon Structure is made up of carbon atoms bonded
(attached) to one another forming the backbone. The hydrogen atoms
are then bonded (attached) to the carbon atoms (see fig. 1-1). The
bond is a covalent bond which is a result of sharing of electrons from
both elements. The carbon and carbon bond can be single, double or
triple, while the carbon and hydrocarbon bond is always single. Fig. 1-2
illustrates structures of methane, ethylene and acetylene indicating
single, double and triple bonds respectively.
Fig. 1-3.
Single, Double and Triple Bonds of Hydrocarbons
5. Saturated Hydrocarbons: These are hydrocarbons with very strong

single bonds. The alkanes or paraffins are saturated hydrocarbons. They
are considered saturated, because their chemical desire for reaction with
most reactants is satisfied or saturated. They are very inactive chemically.
6. Un-Saturated Hydrocarbons: These are made up of weak double or

triple bonds which give room for further reactions chemically. Alkenes, and
Alkynes are un-saturated hydrocarbons.

7. Isomerism: This is the occurrence of a hydrocarbon of the same chemical

formula in two or more chemical structures. In most cases one of the
structures is a straight chain while the other is branched. For example,
Butane C5 4 H5 10 has n- butane and Iso-butane, and pentane C5 H 12
has n-pentane, Iso-pentane and neo- pentane. Table 1-7 consists of
possible number of isomer per number of carbon atoms in alkane isomers.
Table 1-7
Number of Possible Alkane Isomers
Number of Atoms Number of Isomers
1 or 2 or 3 1
4 2
5 3
6 5
7 9
8 18
9 35
12 355
15 4,347
18 60,523
25 36,797,588
40 62 x 1012
Figure 1.4
Isomers of Butane and Pentane

Table 1-8
Properties of Isomers of Hexane
Fig 1-4 illustrates isomers of butane and pentane .The number of isomers for
each molecule increases with the number of carbon atoms the paraffin has.
Table 1-8 illustrates the physical properties of isomers of hexane. As branching
increases, there is a decrease in intermolecular attraction resulting boiling point
reduction. Branching also causes changes in the way the molecules fit into the
crystal lattice of the compound solid and this causes the melting point of the
isomer to be different.
8. Homologous Series
In the study of hydrocarbons, they are usually classified into families or
series. This family is known as a homologous series. Each series is made
up of compounds or members with similar chemical structures and have
graded physical/chemical properties that form a predictable pattern. These
graded physical properties differ from one member to another according to
the number of carbon atoms in the structure. If the homologous series to
which a compound belongs is known, its chemical and physical properties
can be inferred from the corresponding properties of the other compound
in the homologous series. We shall therefore study the physical and
chemical characteristics of hydrocarbons in accordance to the various
hydrocarbon families (series) present in reservoir fluids.
Reservoir fluids consist mainly hydrocarbon homologous series which

include of Alkanes, Alkenes, Cyclic Aliphatic Hydrocarbons (which include
naphthenes, cycloalkenes and cycloalkadienes), and Aromatics.

The series that are most important to the oil industry include the Paraffin,
Cycloparaffin, Aromatics and Refined Hydrocarbon Products of Crude. Some of
these hydrocarbon compounds do not occur naturally in the reservoir, but can be
found in the refinery (such as those in d above), while others occur naturally but
the proportion is so small that they are usually ignored. Nevertheless, there are
others, whose occurrence is small, but they cannot be ignored. These must be
considered in design process of the process facilities.
Paraffin Hydrocarbons
The paraffin hydrocarbons are saturated open–chain (straight chain)

hydrocarbons having a general formula of Cn H2n+2. The straight chain
hydrocarbons are referred to with the term normal ( n- ), while the ones with
branched chains go with the term iso- ( i- ), for example; normal butane (n-
butane) and iso- butane (i-butane). See fig. 1-5.
Typical members of the paraffin series include methane, ethane, propane,

butane, pentane etc. They are characteristically non-reactive, hence the name
“paraffin” which means little “affinity” for reaction with a lot of compounds (e.g.
water). In some countries, the name paraffin is synonymous with petroleum
products to laymen and they refer to kerosene as paraffin oil, medicinal oil as
liquid paraffin and solid paraffinic petroleum as paraffin wax. Paraffins constitute
the main composition of natural gas.
A. Physical Properties of Paraffins
1. Number of carbon atoms of member compounds is such that each

successive member has additional one carbon atom. The lowest
member of the series is methane with one carbon atom. Table 1-9
illustrates other paraffins and some of their physical properties.
2. The molecular structure is such that the carbon atoms are attached to
one another in either straight chain or branched chain pattern, with the
hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon atoms to satisfied or saturate
the four valency of each carbon. (see fig 1-4)
3. They are generally colourless, odourless and, as far as can be

ascertained, tasteless when pure, whether in solid, liquid or gaseous
state.
4. They burn with bluish flame. Leaving little carbon residue.
5. They are all saturated hydrocarbons, which means the carbon valency
is satisfied as mentioned earlier.
6. Each compound of the series is heavier than the preceding one (with
lower carbon atom number) by 14 in molecular weight i.e.- CH4.

Table 1-9
Some Properties of Normal Paraffin
7. The specific gravity increases with increase in carbon atom number.

This is usually measured relative to air for the series’gases and relative
to water for the series’liquids and solids. See table 1- 11.
8. The freezing point increases as the carbon number increase in the

paraffin series. Methane the lowest in the series has freezing point of
1840C (3000F) and this increases up till paraffins of C20 and higher,
whose freezing points are above room temperature, and are therefore
solids in their pure state.
9. The boiling points of the paraffins indicate the difference between those
that are gases, and those that are liquids or solids, under normal
conditions. As indicated in table 1-9, it will require very low temperature
cooling for methane and ethane to be liquefied. Their boiling points are -
259°F and -128°F respectively. The boiling points of propane and
butane are – 44°F and 31°F respectively and these compounds can be
liquefied easily. See table 1-11 for physical constants of hydrocarbons.
These four compounds are gases at normal temperature and pressure.
Pentane with boiling of 36°C (97°F) is a liquid under normal conditions
though a very volatile liquid. The rest members of the paraffin senses
are liquid until C20 and higher, which are solids. Except for the smaller
paraffins, the boiling point increases between 20°C to 30°C for each
carbon atom increase in the paraffin carbon chain. This increase also
applies to all the homologous series of hydrocarbons.

10. The heating value or calorific value is a measure of the heating

properties of fuel, and can be expressed as a quantity of heat
generated per unit of liquid volume or per unit of vapor volume, per unit
of weight. Table 1-11 illustrates these values in both per ft3 of vapor
volume and per unit of weight. It will be seen that the heating values
related to vapor volume, increases considerably with increasing number
of carbon atoms. Butane, for example, gives about 3 times the values of
methane.
Table 1-10
Commonly Found Paraffins in Natural Gas
Table 1-10 consists of commonly found paraffins in natural gas and their features

Table 1.11
Physical Constraints of Hydrocarbons

Table 1.11
Physical Constants of Hydrocarbons (cont.)

Chemical Properties and Uses of Paraffin
Chemically, Alkanes or paraffins are generally non-reactive because of the

strong single bond which can only be attacked by very strong reactants at
ordinary temperatures. At elevated temperatures, paraffin are attacked by
oxygen and burn to CO2 and water, hence their use as fuel. Below are
chemical properties and uses of paraffins of natural gas. The main
hydrocarbon components of natural gas are relatively small number of the
lower paraffin group, such as methane, ethane, propane, butane and pentane.
Fig 1-5 illustrates the uses of the various components of natural gas.
1. Methane CH4:
Natural gas consists of mostly methane and little of other compounds.
The methane proportion of most natural gas is between 80- 99 %. (see
table 1-12).
Methane is chemically stable because it is compact and saturated. This

chemically stable nature is responsible for it not being used as a feed
stock in reaction processes in the industry. There is some progress
however, in the development of processes that convert methane to
methanol (methyle alcohol) and protein. There are also a number of
plants that convert methane to urea and ammonia based fertilizers. In
these processes however, it is actually the combustion products of the
methane that are being used. The main commercial use of methane is
as fuel. It is a good and clean fuel and it is sold and used as such.
Table 1.12
Typical Compositions of Natural Gas
(1) Bachaquero Crude (2) Lake Maracaibo (Lagomar Crude

(3) Ex-Separator

2. Ethane C2 H6
The proportion of ethane in the natural gas is in the neighbourhood of
10 – 15% (see table 1-12). Ethane is a less stable chemical than
methane and this property lends ethane to involvement in a lot of
reactions, giving rise to a lot of uses resulting in various products in the
industry. (see fig 1-5). The uses of ethane include;
a) As a good fuel like other paraffin.

b) Can be cracked to form ethylene an olefin hydrocarbon.
c) Ethylene is a starting feed for the petrochemical industry to
manufacture
• PVC and styrene
• Poly styrene
• Styrene rubbers
• Solvents
• Ethane oxide which is used to manufacture:
− Detergents
− Glycol
− Fibres of terylene type
3. Propane C3H8
Propane is found in the proportion of about 1 – 8% of associate natural
gas and about 4 – 3.6% of non- associated natural gas. It is by far less
stable chemically than methane and this lends it to greater degree of
reaction and a lot of uses in the processing industry. Some of the uses of
propane include:
a) As fuel.
b) Being cracked to from ethylene and thus all the uses of ethylene
enumerated above.
c) Being cracked to form propylene which gives rise to wider range of
plastics solvents and fibres. (See fig 1-5).
d) Propane (just as butane) can be liquefied either by pressurizing it
under ambient temperature or by reducing its temperature at
atmospheric pressure. It is then bottled and transported as liquid in
either smaller pressurized containers or in bulk refrigerated tanks and
vessels. In this form, it is known as liquefied petroleum gas.(LPG).
LPG is used mainly as fuel in areas lacking or inaccessible by fuel
pipelines. LPG is also used for table lighter, pocket lighters heaters,
cookers and other flame devices. Research and experiment are
under-way to use LPG as automobile fuel in various parts of the world.

Figure 1.5
Petrochemical Derivatives of Natural Gas

4. Butane C4 H10
This is chemically more reactive, and its uses are more diversified in the
chemical and processing industries.
a) First it is cooled, pressurized to form LPG as propane above, to offer

the already enumerated uses.
b) n–Butane and iso-Butane can also be used as high octane
components of gasoline in the refinery. The proportion incorporated is
however limited by vapor pressure and volatility restrictions of the
gasoline.
c) Production of butadiene from which sulfolane, nylon and synthetic
rubber are made.
d) Production of butylene which is used in the manufacture of various
solvents, detergents and additives for lubricating oils and greases.
5. Pentane C5 H12
Pentane and heavier paraffin which are found in natural gas, are often
used as mixtures without separating them further into individual
components. Many of their uses include:
a) In corporation into naphta feed stocks that are used in the

i. Manufacture of fertilizer
ii. Cracking to ethylene, propylene, butylene, etc.
iii. Reforming to synthesis gas or town gas (substitute natural gas).
b) In corporation into blending stock in the refinery for gasoline or other
fuels.
c) Mixed with distiller feed to be split into narrow cuts.
d) Separation of iso-putane which is a valuable component of gasoline.
e) Manufacture of solvents.
f) Manufacture of under-boiler fuel.
Naphthenes (Cycloalkanes)
Naphthene is the common name for cycloalkane which is a group of hydrocarbon

compounds, having the carbon atoms in the back-bone structure, arranged in the
form of a ring. Cycloalkanes are also known as “Cycloparaffins” or Alicyclic
hydrocarbons. They belong to cyclic aliphatic hydrocarbons whose basic
structure is formed on carbon atom ring frame. The naphthene ring is saturated.
Their general formula without substituents is Cn H2n which is the same general
formula for alkenes but the structural configuration is completely different. The
structural configuration difference also accounts for differences in physical and
chemical properties between the two homologous series. Typical examples of
naphthenes are cyclohexane, and cyclopenthane ( see fig 1-6).

Fig.1-6
Typical Naphthenes

Physical and Chemical Properties of Naphthenes
Physically, naphthenes exhibit properties in accordance to other typical

homologous series with regular changes in boiling points, melting points and
density. Chemically, different members of the naphthene exhibit different level of
chemical reactivity. The level of reactivity is determined by the bond angle and
the shape of the ring structure. The strain in the carbon-carbon bond is generally
responsible for level of activity and with the normal bond angle of 109.50 in
paraffins, the bond is stable and reactivity is low. In cylcohexane, the hexagon
frame is somewhat puckered in structure with 109.50 bond angle instead of being
flat with 1200 (see fig 1-7.) This therefore accounts for its non-reactivity. The
cyclopentane is generally flat with 1080 bond angle and this accounts for its non-
reactivity. But the cyclopropane and cyclobutane have bond angle less than
1090 and they are the most reactive of this series. They generally do not occur
naturally. Their reactions involve the cleavage of the carbon–carbon bond.
Cycloalkanes of high carbon atoms achieve configurations with bond angle that
ensure stability of the molecular structure and their reactivity level is low. These
are also not very common.
Fig 1-7
Configuration of Cyclohexane with 109.5 0
Aromatics
These are hydrocarbons that have benzene as the building block of their basic
structure. Consequently they include benzene and other compounds that have
similar chemical behavior as benzene. These chemical and physical behavior or
characteristics which distinguish the aromatics from aliphatic hydrocarbons
(Alkane, Alkynes and Cyclic Aliphatic) are called aromatic properties. Aromatics
are also referred to as Aliphatic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. It should be noted
though, that some compounds which display aromatic properties do not have the
benzene structure.

Properties of Aromatics
1. Stable unreactive structure as against similar normal cycloalkatriene
2. (i.e. hexagonal hydrocarbon ring structure with 3-double bonds)
3. Having double bonds that behave as 1.5 bonds – making it very stable.
4. Double bond does not undergo addition or cleavage reaction. The

benzene molecule is known to be flat hexagonal ring structure with six
carbon atoms at each corner of the ring. Each carbon atom is attached
(bonded) to a hydrogen atom. All bonds are 1200 apart since the
molecule is flat and symmetrical. There are three double and three single
bonds; a situation which suggests it to be as reactive as regular
cyclohexatriene. Nevertheless, studies and benzene as if they are 1.5
bonds in combination. This gives the benzene structure a more stable
structure than the regular cycloalkadiene. It is postulated that benzene in
reaction actually behaves as if it has a resonance structure between the
two structures below (see fig 1-8). The bond is called “a hybrid bond”
,“1½ bond or “benzene bond”.
Physical and Chemical Properties of Benzene.
1. Compound containing benzene rings, generally, have very pleasant odors.

Hence, they are called aromatic hydrocarbon, They are also called
arenes.
2. They are generally quite toxic.
3. Some aromatics are carcinogenic i.e. causes cancer. So the inhalation

should be avoided.
4. The usual size and properties, such as boiling point, density, etc are as in
other homologous series (see table. 1-13).
5. Because of the strong benzene bond, aromatics can enter into reactions
with out the benzene structure being altered.
6. The volatile organic aromatics are highly flammable and burn with
luminous, sooty flame in contrast to alkanes and alkenes which burn with
bluish flame leaving little carbon residue. They have low smoke point.
7. They have high octane number, although they are mostly pollutants

Table 1-13
Some Physical Properties of Aliphatic-Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Fig. 1-8
Reonance Hybrid of Two Benzene Structures
Other Hydrocarbon Compounds
1. Asphalt:
Asphalt can occur naturally as solid or viscous bitumen in natural
formation beds. It is also obtained as a residue from petroleum in the
refinery. Asphalt blends containing asphalt and altered asphaltic materials
which result from process of chemical modification, air-blown, etc, are
added to some drilling fluids. They serve diverse purposes such as
component in oil-base mud, loss circulation material, emulsifier, fluid loss
control agent, wall–plastering agent, etc.
2. Resins :
These are solids or semi-solids complex amorphous mixtures of organic
compounds having no definite melting point nor tendency to crystallize.
They are sometimes found in petroleum. Their uses include being
component of compound material being added to mud to impart special
properties such as wall-cake, etc.
Non Hydrocarbon Compounds of Natural Gas
1. Water
This is usually present as vapor in reservoir fluids in which state it
presents no problems. In the liquid form however, it becomes problematic
by freezing to form ice and hydrates. It also forms slugs which pose
corrosion problems.

2. Sulphur Compounds
` Sulphur compounds found in reservoir fluids include:
a. Hydrogen Sulphide (Sulphuratted Hydrogen H 2S)

It is colourless with extreme bad odour. It has boiling point of –560 C. It is
also harmful to metallic catalyst used in refining process. It is toxic and
poisonous. H2S has to be removed from natural gas due to disagreeable
effects above. Where its content is so high, it is used for sulphur
production.
b. Mercaptans
Hydrocarbon in which one of the hydrogen atoms has been replaced by a
SH radicle. The general formula for mercaptans is RSH where R
represents any organic group. They are also known as thiols. They have
more disagreeable odor than H2S. Butanethiol and proppanethiol are from
skunk secretion and freshly chopped onions respectively. Different types
of mercaptan have been found in crude oil which make them to be sour
and they must be removed before refining. Fuel containing sulphur is a
major pollutant. Below are simple molecular and structural formulas of
typical thiols.
c. Carbonyle Sulphide (COS)
d. Alkyl Sulfides
This has general formula of RSR. Their odor is distinct but quite
agreeable. They have to be removed from crude oil because of their
adverse effects such as those of H2S and mercaptans.
All of these sulphur compounds produce the pollutant sulphur dioxide

(S02) on combustion, and some have very disagreeable odors. Others are
corrosive.
Fig 1-9
Typical Thiols’Molecular and Structural Formulas

3. Carbon Dioxide (CO 2)

It is highly corrosive in the presence of water. It is non-combustible,
therefore reduces the heating value of gas.
4. Nitrogen
It is non-combustible and reduces heating value of natural gas. If it is
present in high amount, it presents problems of in compactibility with other
natural gas stream.
5. Helium
It is rarely present in proportion that requires mention, but in some cases
its proportion requires that it should be removed. Helium is hardly ever
present in liquid fluids.
6. Mercury
It is rarely present but even if it is, it is in traces in which case, it has to be
removed.
Table 1-14
Properties of Some Nigerian Crude
LOCATION FORCADOS TERMINAL U.Q.C.C.

Origin of Sample Export Blend Outgoing Crude to
Forcados
Gas / Oil Ratio
(Ft3/BBL)
Date of Sampling 13.09.98 05.10.98
Date of Analysis 23.09.98 06.10.98
Crude Properties
Specific Gravity 0.8749 0.8933
(at 60/60°F)
Crude API Gravity 30.23 26.9
(at 60°F) → °API
Water Content 0.20 0.80
(BW&S) %Vol
Kinematic Viscosity at 5.57 8.90
100°F cs
Crude Pour Point (max) +10°F 0°F
(ASTM D97-57)°F
Total Acid Number 0.33 0.32
(Mg KOH/g)
Sulphur Content 0.12 0.11
(%Wt)

TYPE OF RESERVOIR FLUIDS

Petroleum fluids have no distinct classification or types because pressure,
temperature and composition mainly determine their states. Therefore, there
exists an overlapping between fluid type, irrespective of the criteria used for
classification. Nevertheless, petroleum fluid type can be graded as follows:
A. Oil
Reservoir oil is further classified in terms of level of shrinkage.
1. Low-Shrinkage Oil
This oil has its separator pressure and temperature very close to its
bubble point, which means very little amount of gas will bubble out during
separation. Invariably, the surface GOR is low and less than 500
SCF/STB. These oils are quite viscous with 0API gravity of 30 or less or
heavier. Their colours range from very dark, often black to other greenish
or shades of deep colour. About 80mole % of the produced oil remain as
liquid at separator conditions.
2. High Shrinkage
This has its separator pressure and temperature quite below its bubble
point. Consequently a lot of gas in solution is given off at the separator.
The percentage of fluid remaining in separator as liquid is in the
neighbourhood of 65%. It contains relatively lower % mole of heavier
hydrocarbons. The stock tank oil is usually medium orange to brown
colour with 0API greater than 45 and GOR less than 8000 SCF/STB. This
is intermediate oil.
3. Retrograde Condensate Gas :

This is gas in the reservoir which gives rise to liquid on the surface due to
reduction of pressure and temperature. Reduction also gives rise to liquid
formation in the reservoir as production progresses. The mixture contains
more lighter hydrocarbon, (96% mole), and fewer heavy hydrocarbons
(4% mole). Gas oil ratio is between 18,000 to 70,000 SCF/STB; 0API is
between 50 and 60. The STO colour is normally light straw to water white.
Retrograde condensate gas is sometimes referred to as “distillate” or
“simply oil”. Liquid saturation of most condensates seldom exceed 10%.
Table1-15 illustrates the various properties of low shrinkage, high
shrinkage and retrograde crude while table 1-14 consists of properties of
some Nigerian crudes.

Table 1-15
Properties of Typical Low, High Shrinkage and Retrograde Condensate
Crudes
Retrograde
Types of Oil Low Shrinkage High Shrinkage Condensate
Gas
Sparator Close to bubble Quite below Far from bubble
Pressure and point bubble point point
Temperature
Amount of Gas Little High Very high
out of Oil
GOR Low ≤ 500 Medium ≤ 8000 High 18 0000
SCF/STB SCF/STB SCF/STB
Viscosity High Medium Low
API Low ≤30° ≤ 50° ≥ 60°
% Product 80% 65% ≤ 10%
Remaining in
Liquid at ST
Colour From Black to Medium orange to Light straw to
Greenish or deep colour water colour
shades of deep
colours
Remark Low or no Intermediate oil or Gas in reservoir
shrinkage. shrinkage oil. but gives rise to
Oil contains heavy Volatile oil. liquid on surface
ends. due to pressure
Black Oil reduction.
Also in reservoir
as production
continue due to
pressure
reduction
Petroleum Fluid Spectrum
Typical Initial Stock Tank Liquid
Fluid Type Shrinkage GOR °API Color

Bsto/res bbl Scf/bsto
Low shrinkage Crude Oil >0.5 <2000 <45 Very dark, often
(Low GOR, black or ordinary black
High Shrinkage Crude Oil <0.5 2,000 – 3,000 >40 Coloured, usually
(High GOR or volatile) brown
Condensate Reservoir Gas - 3,300 – 50,000 50 – 60 Light straw to
black
Wet Gas - >50,000 >50 Water white
Dry Gas - - - -

B. Gases
1. Wet Gas:
Wet Gas is also gas under reservoir condition but contains some heavy
hydrocarbons which under standard conditions form liquid. Reduction
does not give rise to liquid formation any time of the reservoir production
life. The gas contains more of the moderate-size hydrocarbons than
regular dry gas. Gas oil ratio (GOR) is up to 100,000 SCF/STB and the
stock tank oil (STO) is normally of 0API higher than 50. Colour is normally
water white. Butane and propane from wet gas is sometimes liquefied.
The term wet referred to the fact that the gas contains enough heavy
hydrocarbons that readily form liquid upon pressure temperature
reduction.
The major difference between wet gas and condensate is that the wet gas
exists in the reservoir as gas through the reservoir production life, but
each wet gas getting to the surface gives rise to some liquid (condensate).
Whereas in the case of retrograde condensate, as the reduction of
pressure and temperature which accompany the depletion continue, liquid
is formed in the reservoir by retrograde condensation.
2. Dry Gas
This is natural gas which contains primarily methane with small amount of
ethane and possibly propane or higher hydrocarbons. Natural dry gas is
both gas in the reservoir and at separator. The term dry here, refers to
the fact that the gas does not contain enough heavier hydrocarbons to
form liquid at the surface. Nevertheless in practice, dry gas does contain
some liquid hydrocarbon. Generally, any gas with GOR greater than
100,000 SCF/STB is considered dry gas. Methane content is greater than
97% and C7+ content is between 0 and 0.42%.
Table 1-16 shows certain properties of Wet and dry gas reservoir fluids
Dowd and Kuuskraa also classified reservoir crude oil in the following
manner.
i. Extra Heavy Crude: Crude having 0API less than 10

ii. Heavy Crude: Crude having 0API between 10 and 20 with
viscosity less than 1000 cp.
iii. Conventional Crude: Crude having API greater than 20 with
viscosity less than 1000 cp.

Table 1-16
Properties of Wet and Dry Gas Reservoir Fluids
TYPES WET GAS DRY GAS

Condition in Reservoir Gas with some heavy ends Gas with light ends
Pressure Reduction Gives rise to liquid formation Always gas
Effect
Size of Hydrocarbon More moderate sizes > dry Light ends
Molecules gas Mostly methane about
90% C7+ <0.42%
GOR ≤ 100,000 SCF/STB >100,000 SCF/STB
STO API > 50° >>50°
STO Colour Light straw to water white Water white
STO Viscosity Low Very low
Remark Called wet due to the large Dry due to as reservoir
number of heavy ends but and surface conditions.
no liquid throughout in the This is a natural gas
reservoir whose methane is about
90%.
Separator Condition Far from bubble point or the Outside dew point
STO close to the dew point
of gas

Table 1-17
Properties and Composition of Certain American Reservoir Fluid
Properties and composition of typical North American reservoir fluid are as

contained in table 1-17 above. The composition is given in mole per cent
Gas and Oil Relationship

In the production of petroleum fluids, oil is invariably produced with natural gas
and to a large extent vice versa.
A. Gas Oil Ratio (GOR).
Simply put, this is the ratio of gas to oil. The GOR is a major and important
property of petroleum fluids. This relationship can further be looked upon in term
of the way gas is present in or produced with oil. This line of thought gives rise to
two types of GOR.
1. Solution Gas Oil Ratio

This is the ratio of the amount of gas dissolved in oil i.e. the total amount
of gas in solution with oil. This mostly referred to petroleum fluid in the
reservoir and it depends on the composition of the fluid, the pressure and
temperature of the reservoir. Solution Gas Oil Ratio is measured in
standard cubic feet/stand barrel (SFC/STB). The higher the reservoir

pressure, the higher the solution GOR and the higher reservoir
temperature the lower solution GOR.
2. Produced Gas Oil Ratio

This is the amount of gas produced from the reservoir fluid per oil
produced at the stock tank. It depends on the reservoir fluid composition,
and the pressure and temperature at the separator. Low separator
operating temperature gives rise to low GOR and high stock tank (STO)
and vice versa with high separator operating temperature.
At any separator operating temperature, the higher the separator

operating pressure, the lower the GOR since more gas will be
compressed into the liquid with less gas being released and vice versa.
Generally, the more the content of the fluid that is of the lighter end
hydrocarbons, the higher the GOR of the solution or produced GOR.
GOR is a good indicator of several properties of petroleum fluid, both in

the reservoir and produced condition. The composition of the fluids in
terms of hydrocarbon type is easily indicated by the GOR. A high GOR
indicates a fluid with major lighter ends hydrocarbon, and a low GOR
indicates a fluid with heavier ends hydrocarbon.
Lighter ends are C1 – C5/C6 and heavier ends are G7+.
As a matter of fact, very high GOR is an indication of high methane

content and it is also an indication of lighter colour of crude, while low
GOR indicates more C7+ content and dark color crude.
Correlation between GOR and API is generally difficult to achieve and on

the whole the GOR and API of produced liquid from reservoir fluid from
the same reservoir, may be different depending on the number of stages
of separation it goes through, and the operating pressure and temperature
of the separator(s).
3. Other terms worth mentioning in the study of GOR are:

a. Average GOR which is the total gas produced for a particular
period divided by the total produced oil in that period and then
divided by the number of days in that period. This is more or less
the average GOR per day.
b. Cumulative GOR is the total gas produced in a period divided by
the oil produced in that period.

B. Reservoir Gas and Oil Relationship
This is the relationship between the gas and oil under the reservoir condition.
Gas is present with oil in the reservoir in three ways:
1. Solution-Gas:
As mentioned earlier, gas is dissolved in the liquid phase and becomes
known as solution gas. Solution gas can be found in under-saturated oil
reservoir, where it assists in the depletion process in what is called
Solution Drive Mechanism . The reservoir fluid is produced by liquid
expansion above bubble point pressure, and by gas expansion below
bubble point pressure by gas already out of solution.
2. Gas Cap
A gas cap is a portion of the reservoir above oil (liquid) occupied by gas
alone and it is formed as a resulted of the liquid having been saturated
with gas. Gas cap assists in reservoir recovery by expanding to push
down the oil to the well bore as the reservoir pressure drops due to
production. Its expansion also prevents solution gas from coming out of
the liquid, thus retarding pressure decline.
3. Liquid in Gas
Gas is also present in gas reservoir with a lot of liquid droplet in it. The
liquid condenses with reduction in pressure and temperature either in the
reservoir as in the Retrograde condensate or on the surface as in wet gas.
4. Solubility of Gas in Oil

The solubility of natural gas in oil depends on the reservoir pressure,
temperature and the fluid composition.
When pressure and composition are constant, the higher the temperature
the lower the solubility and vice versa.
With constant composition and temperature, the higher the pressure the
higher the solubility.
When pressure and temperature are constant, fluid with composition of

both gas and liquid nearing each other will have higher solubility. That
means, solubility will be higher for a combination of higher specific gravity
gases and higher API crude.
Generally, solubility is defined as the degree to which gas will dissolve in

oil and it is limitless because it is only limited by pressure, temperature
and composition of lighter molecules present in the fluid.
5. Saturation
Crude oil is said to be saturated with gas, if upon little reduction of
pressure, gas will come out, and it is said to be undersaturated with gas,

if no gas comes out upon little pressure reduction. Undersaturation

means the oil is gas deficient and it can still take more gas.
6. Bubble Point Pressure

The pressure at which the first bubble of gas comes out of the crude oil at
the crude temperature.
7. Formation Volume Factor

The volume in barrels, that one stock tank barrel of oil occupies in the
reservoir at the reservoir pressure and temperature with all the solution
gas that can be held in the oil at that pressure and temperature.
C. Basic Sediment and Water (BS&W)
This is the amount of colloidal particles (Sediment and Water) and solids present
in the reservoir fluid measured as a percentage of the total fluid.
D. API and API Correlation
The standard measurement for stock tank oil (STO) gravity is the API gravity.
This is expressed in API degrees.
141.5
°API = − 131.5 → Eqn. 1-3
γo
γo = Oil specific gravity
The API degree of stock tank oil is a major parameter for easy indication of the
quality and properties of oil, hence it’s major application as a yardstick for the
sale of oil.
In the light of the above, it has become necessary to correlate API with other
properties of the crude and stock tank oils.
1. API Correlation with Molar Mass

Generally, the higher the API, the lighter the fluid, which indicates low
content of heavier hydrocarbons, high content of lighter hydrocarbons and
as such, lower molecular weight and molar mass. Fig. 1-10 shows this
inverse relationship. Tables 1-17, although, only indicate molecular weight
for C7+, also show this inverse relationship numerically for different types
of petroleum fluids and representative petroleum fluids from different
reservoirs.

Fig. 1-10
Crude Oil and Condensate Properties/API Correlations
2. API Correlation with Specific Heat/Total Heat Content

The specific heat in Btu/OF-Ibm increases as the API increases at a
particular temperature. This shows that fluids with high API will exhibit
high specific heat (see fig.1-11). It therefor shows that fluids with high API
will require more heat to gain a degree per lb. mass. Fig. 1-11 is for a
crude with charaterization factor of 11.8, other crudes will therefore have
to be corrected by a correction factor. `The specific heat obtained has to
be multiplied by the correction obtained. If condensation or vaporization

occurs during heat exchange process, heat requirement is handled by

total heat-content. API correlation is shown in fig. 1-11b.
Note that specific heat is required to know how much heat, a fluid is taking
or required or how fast the temperature is rising
Table 1-18
Mole Composition and Other and some Properties of Single –Phase
Reservoir Fluid
3. API correlation with Percentage Crude Distilled

The portion or percentage of the total crude that can be distilled can also
be determined or inferred by the API of the crude. Since the API relatively
indicates the content of the heavier hydrocarbon molecules of the fluid, it
is obvious that this content inferred, is the content related to that which
cannot be distilled out. The API/percentage distilled curve in fig. 1-13
illustrates this relationship.
4. API Correlation with Mean Boiling Point

Fluids with low API contain heavier hydrocarbons which means high mean
average boiling point temperature. The relationship between the two is
inverse and this is illustrated in fig. 1-10.
5. API Relationship with Carbon/Hydrogen with Ratio

The carbon to hydrogen weight ratio of typical hydrocarbon indicates
whether it is a heavy or light hydrocarbon and this ratio for a fluid indicates
whether it is made up heavier ends or lighter ends hydrocarbon. High
ratio indicates heavy hydrocarbon. The relationship between this ratio and
API is therefore inverse (see fig.1-10).

6. API/Viscosity Relation
Viscosity is the measure of the ability of fluid to flow. This is measured
generally in Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS). It is designated as t SU .
For Engineering purposes and calculators, the viscosity is measured in
Centipoise (cp). Contipoise viscosity measurement is designated as µo .
The relationship between the two is:
µo 149.7
= 0.219 t SU − → Eqn. 1-4
γo t SU
µO = Viscosity cp
γO = Specific gravity of oil measured at that temperature
tSU = Universal Saybolt viscosity in seconds
Fig. 1-11a
Specific-Heat and Heat Content Vs API Correlation

Fig. 1-11b
Specific Heats of Mid-Continent liquid oils with a correction factor for other
bases of oils
Fig. 1-12
Relation Between Viscosity and Temperature for Fluids of Different API
values

Generally, for a liquid of a particular API, the higher the temperature the lower
the viscosity. The relationship between viscosity and API is a little bit difficult to
come up with, but an estimate can be made from Fig. 1-12 which illustrates an
approximate relationship between viscosity, temperature and characterization
factor of fluids of different API values. But the trend is that, the higher the API,
the lower the viscosity with temperature being constant. Table 1-19 consists of
major reservoir fluids properties.
Fig. 1-13
Evaluation Curves of Intermediate-Base Crude of Characterization Factor
11,65

Table 1-19
Physical Measurements of Reservoir Fluids
No. Property Unit

0
1. Temperature F, 0R
2. Pressure psi, psig, psia
0
3. Vapour Pressure F, 0R
0
4. Ried vapour-pressure F, 0R
0
5. API Gravity (Liquid) API
6. Specific Gravity none
7. Density 1b/ft3,1b/gal, b gm/cc kg/m3
8. Viscosity certipoise(cp), sus (secs)
0
9. Boiling Point F, or psia.
0
10. Dew point F, or psia
0
11. Pour Point F
0
12. Smoke point F
0
13. Freezing point F
0
14. Aniline Point F
15. Molecular weight Ib/ lb-mole
16. Refraction Index none
17. Characterisation Factor none
18. Correlation Index none
19. Equilibrium Ratio (K-value) none
20. Base sediment & water (BS&W) %
21. Sulphur Content %
22. CO2 Content %
23. Nitrogen Content %
24. Octane Number none
25. Formation Volume Factor FVF res bbl/STB.
26. GOR SCF/STB
27. Compressibility none
28. Molal Mass lb-mole, bm-mole, ton-mole
29. Specific Heat btu/gm/0C
Sampling and Analysis of Reservoir Fluids
Two methods are used for the sampling of reservoir fluids.

1. Lowering a substance sampling equipment on wireline into the well.
2. Collecting samples of gas and oil at the surface and later combining them
in proportion to the GOR as measured at the sampling.
It is always advisable to collect samples early in the reservoir life preferably just
after completion.

Fluid sampling provides the following information.

1. Solution gas oil ratio.
2. Stock tank gas oil ratio.
3. Separated gas oil ratio at different pressure.
4. Phases volume.
5. Stock tank oil API.
6. Formation volume factor.
7. Bubble point pressure of reservoir fluid.
8. Compressibility of saturated reservoir fluid.
9. Viscosity of reservoir oil as a function of pressure.
10. Fractional analysis of casing head gas sample and saturated reservoir
Fluid sample.
Sampling for analysis is extremely important and necessary due to the fact that
reservoir fluid consists of thousands of components to the extent that its true
composition is impossible to ascertain. The fluid composition is therefore
“Characterized” into discrete fractions reflecting a particular range in property
value or behavior. Composition characterization is employed to achieve Oil and
Gas Processing, Crude Assays and Reservoir Simulation.
The fluid from the reservoir is processed on the surface to produce a salable oil
and gas, either as an end product or feed product for other processes. The fluid
analysis provides the required composition for the thermodynamic property
calculations. Properties such as density are required to size separators and
pipes. Enthalpy and entropy are required to determine heat exchangers and
compressors duty. Equilibrium ratio values are required for the determination of
the amount of gas and liquid to be separated out of a particular reservoir stream
by the separator.
Crude Assays
This is the total analysis of the crude sample to determine its API, Pour Point,
Reid Vapor Pressure, H2S, and Salt, Sulfur, Water and Sediment contents. It also
involves the analytical methods employed to determine or estimate the yield of
the various cuts or products that can be obtained from the crude at the refinery.
Two basic and popular methods used for this analysis are:
1. Chromatograph.
This determines the individual content of the light end (C1 to C5/C6) of
the crude.
2. True Boiling Point Distillation

This defines the heavier hydrocarbons in the crude in terms of a plot of
the distillation temperature versus the percentage volume distilled. The
heavier end or high boiling point materials of the crude are therefore
represented by boiling point ranges or pseudo-component such as
150 - 250 0C BP → 20% Crude Volume


and so on.
Generally, to have the best characterized pseudo-component, one of the crude

other properties such as specific gravity must be known.
Reservoir Simulation
To have a proper understanding of the reservoir fluid and reservoir behavior, an

accurate representation of the fluid composition is required for its simulation.
Proper characterization of the high boiling point fraction is therefore a necessity.
Which means the C7+ must be properly represented in the reservoir phase
equilibrium calculations. An accurate crude analysis is the answer.

Petroleum Fluids Composition

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Petroleum Fluids Composition

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Shell Special Intensive Training Program Phase IV

Oil and Gas Processing

Reservoir Fluid Composition 2

© Univation Page 1 of 46 12/01/00

Reservoir fluid is a complex mixture of several compounds, most of which, are

Reservoir fluids commonly occur in the reservoir as liquid (oil) or gas, or as

Methods of Crude Oil Analysis

Crude oil consists of thousands of different compounds ranging from methane

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determine the quantity to be removed. Table 1-1 illustrates elemental

The chemical analysis of crude can be determined with a lot of

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Evaluation analysis curves produced by this method or analysis are

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Types Of Crude Oil Bases:

There are three methods of classifying the bases of crude oil.

2. USBM Hempel Distillation Classification

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b) Key fraction 2, is fraction with compounds that will boil between

3. Numerical Correlation Indices

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It is determined by the following equation:

TB = Molar Average Boiling Point temperature in 0R

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IC = 473.7γ- 465.8 + 87552 → Eqn. 1-2

γ = Crude specific gravity at 60 0F

Generally, Low IC indicates paraffin and IC = 0 indicates purely

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Physical Properties of Hydrocarbon

Type of Physical Properties

1. Molar Mass or Mole

Pound mole Ô The compound weight in pounds equal in number

Pound Mole = 453.59 Gram mole.

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3. Dew Point Pressure

5. Saturated Hydrocarbons: These are hydrocarbons with very strong

6. Un-Saturated Hydrocarbons: These are made up of weak double or

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7. Isomerism: This is the occurrence of a hydrocarbon of the same chemical

Number of Atoms Number of Isomers

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Reservoir fluids consist mainly hydrocarbon homologous series which

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The paraffin hydrocarbons are saturated open–chain (straight chain)

Typical members of the paraffin series include methane, ethane, propane,

A. Physical Properties of Paraffins

1. Number of carbon atoms of member compounds is such that each

3. They are generally colourless, odourless and, as far as can be

4. They burn with bluish flame. Leaving little carbon residue.

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7. The specific gravity increases with increase in carbon atom number.

8. The freezing point increases as the carbon number increase in the

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10. The heating value or calorific value is a measure of the heating

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Chemical Properties and Uses of Paraffin

Chemically, Alkanes or paraffins are generally non-reactive because of the

Methane is chemically stable because it is compact and saturated. This

(1) Bachaquero Crude (2) Lake Maracaibo (Lagomar Crude

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