Journal of Natural Fibers

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Hibiscus cannabinus L. – Kenaf : A Review Paper

R. Ayadi, M. Hanana, R. Mzid, L. Hamrouni, M. l. Khouja & A. Salhi Hanachi

To cite this article: R. Ayadi, M. Hanana, R. Mzid, L. Hamrouni, M. l. Khouja & A. Salhi Hanachi
(2017) Hibiscus cannabinus L. – Kenaf : A Review Paper, Journal of Natural Fibers, 14:4, 466-484,
DOI: 10.1080/15440478.2016.1240639

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Published online: 29 Dec 2016.

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JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS
2017, VOL. 14, NO. 4, 466–484
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2016.1240639

Hibiscus cannabinus L. – Kenaf : A Review Paper

R. Ayadia,b, M. Hananac, R. Mzidc, L. Hamrounia, M. l. Khoujad, and A. Salhi Hanachib
a
Laboratory of Management and Valorization of Forestry Resources, National Institute for Research in Rural
Engineering, Water and Forests, Ariana, Tunisia; bLaboratory of Molecular Genetics, Immunology and Biotechnology,
Faculty of Sciences of Tunisia, Campus University, El Manar Tunis, Tunisia; cExtremophile Plants Laboratory, Center of
Biotechnology of Borj-Cedria, Hammam-Lif, Tunisia; dForest Ecology Laboratory, National Institute for Research in
Rural Engineering, Water and Forests, Ariana, Tunisia

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) is a valuable fiber and medicinal plant from the Cellulose; fiber; Hibiscus
Malvaceae family. It is an alternative crop that may be a feasible source of cannabinus L.; kenaf; lignin;
cellulose which is economically viable and ecologically friendly. This plant is mesta
cultivated for its fiber although its leaves and seeds have also been used in 关键词
traditional medicine in India and Africa for the treatment of various disease 纤维素; 纤维; 麻槿; 麻槿;
conditions. Kenaf fibers are commonly used for paper pulp and cordage, but it 木质素; 多用途
is also a promising lignocellulosic feedstock for bioenergy production. The
kenaf seed oil can be used for cooking and in different industrial applications.
The present paper is an overview on its ethnobotanical and phytochemical
properties reported in the literature that we have investigated and its great
potential as a valuable multipurpose crop due to numerous uses.

摘要
麻槿（Hibiscus cannabinus L.）是一种锦葵科植物，富有纤维和药用 价值。
从经济可行性和生态友好方面来说，它都是一种纤 维素来源的替代作物。
这种植物的栽培目的主要是获取纤 维，但其叶子和种子也已经在印度和非
洲的传统医学中用 于治疗各种疾病。麻槿纤维通常用于制作纸浆和绳索，
也 是用于生物能源生产的富有前景的木质纤维素原料。麻槿 种子油可用于
烹饪和各种工业应用。本文概述了在我们调 查的文献中报道的麻槿的民族
植物学和植物化学性质，以 及其作为多用途作物的价值和巨大潜力。

Introduction
Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.), an herbaceous annual crop of the Malvaceae family of which cotton and
okra are also members (Paul and Smith 2003), grows in tropical and temperate climates and thrives with
abundant solar radiation and high rainfall. Under good climatic conditions, kenaf can reach a height up to
5 m within 6 to 8 months and produce up to 30 t.ha−1 of dry stem material (Coetzee, Labuschagne, and
Hugo 2008; Wood 2003). In the past, the importance of the crop was mainly focused on paper production,
while the last two decades, kenaf has been characterized as a multipurpose crop owing to its high number of
industrial applications (Falasca et al. 2014). It is considered as an important fiber crop and exploited for its
fibrous stem with numerous industrial applications (paper and pulp, fabrics, textiles, biocomposites,
insulation mats, absorption materials, animal bedding . . .). Recently, kenaf is being considered as an
important medicinal crop (Cheng 2001). Thus, kenaf can be considered a dual nonfood crop cultivated
for its fiber and/or its oil production (Alexopoulou and Monti 2013). Also, it is an important crop for fiber
production, which has received great attention as a polyvalent crop for energy (Alexopoulou et al. 2004),

CONTACT R. Ayadi ayadi.rekaya@yahoo.fr Laboratory of Management and Valorization of Forestry Resources, National
Institute for Research in Rural Engineering, Water and Forests. Rue Hamadi Karray, Ariana 2050 Tunisia.
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/WJNF.
© 2017 Taylor & Francis
 JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS 467

pulp (Baldwin and Graham 2006), thermal insulation boards and bast fiber is used for reinforced
thermoplastic composites (Ardente et al. 2008; Lips et al. 2009) in Mediterranean countries. Kenaf has
been used as a raw material in substitution of wood in pulp production and paper industries, and in textile
processing industry (Ardente et al. 2008). Indeed, the primary economic incentive of kenaf fiber remains to
the bast fibers which produce a high quality of industrial fiber pulp suitable for both textile and technical
uses such as ropes, cordages, sacs, canvases, carpets . . . (Coetzee, Labuschagne, and Hugo 2008). Moreover,
the inner part of kenaf fiber (core), rich in cellulose and hemicellulose, may be a source for the production
of bio-ethanol of second generation (Cosentino et al. 2008), and it is applicable as an adsorbent animal
bedding material (Lips et al. 2009). The efficient use of kenaf to meet the global increasing demands for this
natural fiber is to ensure its stable supply of high quality raw materials (Cheng et al. 2002).
Research and development activities are being continually carried out in the producing as well as
in the consuming countries to develop new technologies and new fiber-based products. Global mind
about a pollution-free environment is being built-up, and people in general are becoming more
inclined to use natural fiber products, which are not only environmentally friendly but also would
serve the intended purpose. Since it is actually impossible for forests to produce an annual quantity
of fiber to meet our domestic demands, non-woods have become one of the major alternative
sources of fibrous material for the 21st century (Hosain et al. 2011). Thus, concerted efforts are
required for the sustainable development of natural fiber industry. The profile of natural fiber must
be enhanced in order to answer demand of the world market. The greatest potential rests with the
production of annual species, such as kenaf, to meet the need. The global demand for natural fibers
is steadily increasing through an also increasing demand for cleaner, greener industrial products
(Andreu and Vidal 2014). Thus, natural fibers are produced in billions of tons around the world and
are inexpensive and readily available. Actually, kenaf is a feasible source of cellulose which is
economically viable and ecologically friendly(Karimi et al. 2014). The actual production of kenaf
in recent years is mainly focused in China, India and Thailand, while the contribution from other
countries is quite small (Alexopoulou and Monti 2013). In Europe, only small amounts of kenaf are
grown in Italy (Lips et al. 2009). According to FAO (2015), the world production of kenaf for the
past 3 years has been stabilized just under the 250,000 t, and in 2015, the total production in Africa
was just 6 % of the world production. The increasing demand for wood production has created
unforeseen pressure on world forest reserves (Clark 2011). Whereas the importance of the crop is
mostly with regard to paper pulp production, the kenaf fiber is characterized as a multipurpose crop
because it has a number of further industrial applications (Alexopoulou and Monti 2013). The
development of agricultural practices for sustainable production holds high potential in diverse
industrial areas such as paper, biofuels, automobile parts, construction and packaging materials,
animal feed and environmental cleaners (Azelee et al. 2014).
Insufficient Tunisian forest resources lead to problems with locally manufacture paper pulp (CEPI
2003). In Tunisia, the Stipa tenacissima (Esparto) is currently used in the pulp and paper industry. Due
to regeneration problems related to the severe climate, characterized by a long period of drought that
can be prolonged to nine months, as well as insufficient and erratic rains in west central Tunisia
(Ghobtane 2010), Esparto pulp production decreased from 170,000 t in 1950–1951 to 20,000 t in
2001–2002(Belkhir et al. 2013; SNCPA 2002). In this review, we highlighted properties of industrial
kenaf that could be an important fiber crop with many alternatives or complementary uses. Owing to
its great economic significance, this species has drawn increasing attention. Such important uses could
significantly increase the economic value of this crop, particularly in developing countries.

History
Kenaf is probably originated in sub-Saharan Africa with evidence of its domestication around 4000
B.C. in the Sudan region (Cheng et al. 2004; Dempsey 1975). For over 6000 years, kenaf was
primarily used as cordage crop and secondarily as a livestock feed (Dempsey 1975). It has been a
source of textile fiber for such products as rope, twine and rugs. Kenaf is a good source of raw
468 R. AYADI ET AL.

material fiber for pulp, paper and other fiber products, and has been introduced since World War II
in China, Russia, Thailand, South Africa, Egypt, Mexico and Cuba (LeMahieu, Oplinger and Putnam
2003). The production and retting process for kenaf remained basically unchanged for thousands of
years, it was first domesticated in northern Africa, including its introduction to India 200 years ago,
to Russia in 1902, and to China in 1935(Dempsey 1975). In the United States, kenaf research and
production began in the 1940’s during World War II to supply cordage material for the war effort.
More than 500 plant species were evaluated in the United States in the 1950s in order to cover the
increasing future fiber demands in the USA (Alexopoulou and Monti 2013). Kenaf was identified as
a possible substitute for jute. In the late 1970s, USDA researchers were evaluating various plant
species to fulfill future fiber demands in the United States, it was determined that kenaf was an
excellent cellulose fiber source for multiple paper products (newsprint, bond paper and corrugated
liner board) (Webber, Bhardwaj, and Bledsoe 2002a; Kalaycioglu and Nemli 2006). In the early
1970s, kenaf was first introduced in Malaysia and it was highlighted in the late 1990s as an
alternative and cheaper source of material for producing panel products such as fiberboard and
particleboard, textiles, and fuel (Abdul Khalil et al. 2010).

Taxonomy
Hibiscus cannabinus L. also called Mesta (Indian), Ambari (Taiwan), Til (North Africa), and Gambo
(West Africa) (Izran et al. 2014) belongs to the Malvaceae family and the Hibiscus genus (Mussig 2010)
which is known for both its economic and horticultural importance (Cheng et al. 2004) and is closely
related to cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) and okra (Hibiscus esculentum L.) (Paul and Smith 2003).
The Hibiscus genus is widespread with more than 400 species; it is divided into six different sections:
Furcaria, Alyogen, Abelmoschus, Ketmia, Calyphyllia, and Azanza. Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) and
roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) are classified taxonomically in the Furcaria section (Liu 2005). This
group includes important fiber, food, and medicinal plants (Ryan and John 2009). In the Furcaria
section, the chromosome number is a multiple of 18 in all the species, from 2n = 36 to 2n = 180 with
high level of polyploidy (Liu 2005; Su et al. 2004), kenaf having 36 chromosomes and A genome diploïd
(Akpan 2000). Recently, de novo assembly of kenaf transcriptome using Illumina sequencing yielded
90175 unigenes, among them, 46,165 were annotated for their function and 317 genes were assigned to
starch and sucrose metabolic pathway which was related to cellulose biosynthesis (Zhang et al. 2015).

Botanical description
Stalks
Kenaf is a dicotyledonous (Figure 1(a)) herbaceous annual plant with a high fiber yield (Kuroda et al. 2005).
This plant contains three types of fibers: bast, core, and pith (Figure 2). The “bast” refers to the outer part of
the fiber that represents about 30% of the dry weight of the stalk. Meanwhile, core is the whiter, inner part
of the fiber which contributes around 70% of dry weight of the stalk. The pith consists exclusively of
parenchymatous cells, which are not typically prismatic but polygonal in shape (Tahir et al. 2011).
According to Abdul Khalil et al. (2010), the inner core fiber (75–60%) produces low quality pulp, and
the outer bast fiber (25–40%) produces high quality pulp. Kenaf requires less than 6 months for attaining a
suitable size for practical application. It has prickly stems which is mostly unbranched and grows up to
4.5 m tall (Figure 1(d)) (Coetzee 2004).

Leaves
According to Webber, Bhardwaj, and Bledsoe (2002a), two general leaf types are produced: entire
(simple) and divided (Figure 1(b, c)). These leaves are alternate from side to side on the stalk and
branches. Cultivar and plant age affect the leaf shape. The young leaves on all kenaf seedlings are
 JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS 469

Figure 1. Botanical description of kenaf plant components, cultivar «Guangdong 743–2 », at National Institute of Research in Rural
Engineering, Waters and Forests, Tunisia. (a) Plantlet of kenaf with dicotyledonous. (b, c)Simple and divided Leaves.(d) Whole plant
of kenaf. (e) Young kenaf flower. (f) Flower. (g) Young fruit after the flowering. (h) Parts of flowers. (i) Monadelphous stamens tube.
(j) Fruit of kenaf. (k) Seed.

Figure 2. Kenaf fiber.

470 R. AYADI ET AL.

simple, entire, and cordate. As the kenaf plant matures and additional leaves are produced, the newer
leaves start to differentiate into the leaf shape characteristic of that particular cultivar. Divided leaf
cultivars can produce 3 to 10 entire juvenile leaves prior to producing the first divided leaf (Webber,
Bhardwaj, and Bledsoe 2002a).

Flowers and pollination

Kenaf plants produce large showy, light yellow, creamy colored flowers that are bell-shaped and widely
open. The flowers of many cultivars have a deep red or maroon colored center (Figure 1(e, f)). The flowers
are solitary, short-stalked and auxiliary which are 8 to 13 cm in diameter with 5 petals, 5 sepals, and
numerous stamens (Webber and Bledsoe 2002) and they open and close in a single day (Coetzee 2004)
(Figure 1(h, i)). The ovary is superior. Although the plants are highly self-fertile, but generally considered
self-pollinated by the twisting closing movement of the petals, or cross-pollinated by domesticated honey
bees (Apis mellifera L.) (Webber and Bledsoe 2002).

Fruit and Seed

The seed capsule (fruit) that is about 1.9–2.5 cm long and 1.3–1.9 cm in diameter (Figure 1(g)), is
hairy and contains five segments which are many-seeded (20–26 seeds) (Figure 1(j)). The seeds are
brown, glabrous, wedge-shaped, 6 mm long, 4 mm wide (Figure 1(k)), their weight is about 35,000 to
40,000 seeds/kg corresponding to 25–29 g thousand grain weight (Webber and Bledsoe 2002).

Roots
Kenaf has a prolific root system with a long taproot and extensive lateral roots (LeMahieu, Oplinger,
and Putnam 2003) allowing it to be more sensitive to changes in soil moisture and the absorption of
deep soil water (Danalatos and Archontoulis 2004).

Propagation and cultivation

Kenaf is most commonly propagated by seed but may also be propagated through cuttings (Grubben and
Denton 2004). The domestic market for kenaf is limited and seed storage becomes part of kenaf culture.
Thus, a major result of market instability in kenaf has been caused by variable seed purchases that result in
seed surpluses (Paul and Smith 2003). According to Sullivan (2003), seed availability is somehow limited
that is also the means of ex-situ conservation of kenaf germplasm resources (Daniel et al. 2012). Because of
their high edible oil content, seeds rapidly lose germination capacity soon after harvest (Carberry and
Abrecht 1990). Under storage conditions at ambient temperatures and humidity, seeds remain viable for
about 8 months (Grubben and Denton 2004).However, within the humid tropical climates of Africa with
average ambient temperature about 35°C and humidity above 60%, viability loss is faster (Daniel et al.
2012). The strategy of seed production strategies are affected by the cultivar, location (especially latitude)
and cultural practices. The first item to address is the cultivar photosensitivity, whether the cultivar is an
ultra-early, an early to medium, or a late maturing cultivar (Webber et al. 2002a). As discussed above, some
cultivars initiate flowering in the southern United States (US) during mid-September and will not produce
sufficient viable seed prior to a killing frost at most US locations, for this reason, seed production is limited
to areas with very limited potential for freezing temperatures (Webber and Bledsoe 2002). Therefore, any
kenaf variety will decrease in purity leading thus, from generation to generation, in increase in seed yields
and a decrease in fiber yields (Ayadi et al. 2011). Hence, the development of successful in vitro culture
techniques including an efficient plant regeneration system is important (Samanthi et al. 2013). The in vitro
propagation methods would be important to propagate this crop for high and stable cellulosic fiber
production, as a large number of genetically identical plants and in a relatively short time for the industrial
plantation. In the most recent study on in vitro shoot regeneration from shoot tips and nodes, Ayadi et al.
 JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS 471

Figure 3. In vitro propagation of kenaf on MS medium.

(2011) found that the highest shoot regeneration frequency (90.5%) was obtained on MS medium
(Figure 3). Shoot tips and nodes explants were cut from two weeks old seedlings and further cultivated
on MS free hormone medium. After 4–6 weeks, regenerated and elongated shoots were subjected to 5
subcultures in order to enhance the multiplication rate. Healthy and well developed shoots were transferred
for acclimatization under greenhouse conditions in pots filled with sandy soil and successfully transplanted
to natural conditions with 70% survival (Ayadi et al. 2011).

Environmental conditions for kenaf growth

Kenaf has a large range of adaptation to climatic conditions and soils (LeMahieu, Oplinger, and Putnam
2003) than other fiber crops grown for commercial use. It has wide ecological adaptability and grows in
tropical and temperate climates and thrives with abundant solar radiation and high rainfall (Liu 2005; Liu
and Labuschagne 2009). The high temperature and moisture are favorable for growth; due to its prolific
root system, with a long taproot and wide-ranging lateral roots, kenaf is allowed to well respond to soil
moisture variations (Lauriault and Puppala 2009). Hence, kenaf moderately tolerates drought (Banuelos
et al. 2002) and salinity (Jin et al. 2012). Whereas, kenaf is a high water-demanding crop (Amaducci et al.
2000; Patané and Sortino 2010), it is described as opportunistic in relation to water availability, with a
high rate of stomatal conductance and transpiration rate when water is not restricted, and a markedly
reduced stomatal conductance and transpiration rate when water availability is limited (Biokenaf Booklet
2007). But the prolonged periods of standing water, especially during the seedling stage, can severely
inhibit growth (LeMahieu, Oplinger, and Putnam 2003).
Although adapted to temperate climates for production, kenaf cannot tolerate frost. In fact,
temperature must remain above 10°C throughout the growing season to maximize yield because
472 R. AYADI ET AL.

it affects biomass and fiber yield as well as seed production. Kenaf typically remains vegetative
until the daylight hour decrease below approximately 12.5 hours when flowering occurs. Besides
temperature, floral induction is photoperiod dependent (Dempsey 1975; Paul and Smith 2003). It
is found growing wild in Africa from the Equator to a limit of latitude 30°N and 30°S and at
altitudes up to 1.250 m (Liu 2005). According to Coetzee (2004), in some major areas, kenaf
could grows in a latitude range of 16°S to 41°N with a mean relative humidity from 68 to 82%
and a temperature during the season ranged from 22.6°C to 30.3°C. The soil origin and
composition do not affect kenaf culture which grows on a wide range of soil types. In fact,
kenaf is better adapted to poor soils than most of commercial crops and can be planted on
marginal land, but the principal requirement is that soils possess good drainage (Dempsey 1975;
Liu 2005) and not being infected by nematodes, particularly Meloidogyne spp., which has been
identified to be a major problem affecting kenaf production causing stunted growth and death of
seedlings (Agbaje et al. 2008).

Crop status
The increasing demand for wood products has created unexpected pressure on world forest reserves
to which have extended into many different fields of life textiles, food additives (based on cellulose),
optical screens for laptops, casings for televisions, computers and mobile telephones and even
computer keyboards (Clark 2011); in the other hand, demand for pulp and paper has increased
extremely during the last 10 years in many countries with limited forest resources (Ayadi et al. 2011;
Labidi et al. 2008). Due to increase in global warming and other environmental issues related to
wood production, it have also raised the question of how to utilize other indigenous rapid growing
plants to fulfill the needs of infrastructure applications (Imtiaz et al. 2014). So, the interest in
nonwood lignocellulosic fiber resources has increased to assist with forest preservation efforts
(Kalaycioglu and Nemli 2006). For this reason, the availability of alternative, less expensive non-
wood fibrous, raw materials is critical to cater to the growing demand production of lignocellulosic
fiber-based panel (Halvarsson et al. 2008).
Kenaf is a multipurpose crop with various harvestable components such as leaves and tender shoots
that are suitable for forage; the woody core has attributes for forest-product substitutes, absorbents,
and structural materials; and seeds have an oil and protein composition similar to cotton seed (Webber
and Bledsoe 2002; Akil et al. 2011). However, the bast fibers remain the primary economic incentive to
grow kenaf which are expanding into new markets of nonwoven fabrics, and reinforced composite
materials in automotive, aerospace, packaging and other industrial applications (Sen and Jagannatha
2011).
According to FAO (1998, 2008), kenaf has received the greatest valorization because of its greater
adaptability and easy of handling than allied fiber crops and commercially cultivated in more than 20
countries especially in India, China, Thailand, and Vietnam. Now, China, India, and Thailand account for
95% of world kenaf production. In 2006, the total kenaf production was 0.33 million tons of which India,
China, and Thailand produced, respectively, 42, 25, and 11%, and the rest (22 %) was produced by other
countries of the world (FAO 2006; Faruq et al. 2013). Kenaf cultivation has declined significantly since 1990
(FAO 2008) due to land unavailability, discord with other food crops and slow technological advancement
in mechanization. However, from the reports of Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO 2008), the
demand for kenaf has never been diminishing, and in fact it is still growing (Tahir et al. 2011).

Economics of production and markets

The successful introduction of any new crop depends on establishment of markets for the raw and processed
crop materials; there appear to be significant markets for kenaf fibers in the manufacture of pulp, paper, and
paperboard products, and as synthetic fiber substitutes. Thus, production of kenaf as an industrial raw
material will necessarily be localized in the same region as processing facilities (LeMahieu , Oplinger, and
 JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS 473

Putnam 2003). Furthermore, a producer would also need to consider the impact of kenaf on government
programs and its effects on crop rotations and on productivity of other crops in a rotation (Webber et al.
2002a).
According to FAO’s forest products statistics (2011), the production of paper and paperboard has
increased gradually over the period 2008–12: from 390 million tons in 2008 to 400 million tons in
2012. In fact, in 2008, recovered paper consumption amounted to 202 million tons (51% of the total)
compared with 214 million tons (about 54% of the total) in 2012. The world annual production and
prices for hemp, jute, flax, and kenaf shows that kenaf is more economically favorable and producing
reasonably high yield with a good selling price. Commercially, kenaf prices have escalated between 5
to 8 times as a result of new demands by composite industries that include building, automotive,
defense, and aerospace, in their efforts to combat the current environmental issues, and in meeting
the government policy(Tahir et al. 2011). Kenaf was priced at $400 per ton in 1995 and from $278 to
$302 per ton in 2000, and from the viewpoint of energy consumption, it takes 15 Megajoule (MJ) of
energy to produce 1 kg of kenaf; whereas it takes 54 MJ to produce 1 kg of glass fiber (Akil et al.
2011; Nishino 2004). The yield per hectare varies significantly. It is reported that the kenaf yield
ranges from 12–30 tons ha−1 a year which is generally 3–5 times higher than Pinus radiata
(LeMahieu, Oplinger, and Putnam 2003; Villar et al. 2009). The differences in yield are related to
different parameters: kenaf cultivars, soil type, location, climate and the management practices that
could be an important consideration in selecting the perfect cultivar for a given region and a desired
end user (Alexandre et al. 2007; Mahapatra et al. 2009). In addition, an excellent management
strategy to include kenaf with a legume in a crop rotation which has the potential to provide
numerous advantages crop production well reduced pest problems and increased soil fertility
(Webber et al. 2002a). Indeed, kenaf can produce two crops per year (Mossello et al. 2010).
Another attractive technical development is the combination of natural fibers with biopolymers in
natural fiber reinforced plastics, e.g. based on kenaf in the automotive industry, electronic products
and other bio-based industry materials (Nishimura 2006; Serizawa et al. 2006). Natural-fiber-
reinforced biopolymers often exhibit improved properties at lower prices. As in other sectors of
the global economy, China has come to be a major player in the world fiber markets, and shifts in its
domestic market and politically set priorities have enormous impacts elsewhere (Mussig 2010).

Uses of kenaf
All the component parts of a kenaf plant, i.e. leaves, fiber and seeds have an industrial importance.
The combined attributes of these components provide ample potential product diversity to continue
use and development of this crop (Webber and Bledsoe 2002). The traditional uses of the crop were
to produce fiber and food. In the other hand, a range of new applications have been added such as
medicines, oil absorbents. . . (Alexopoulou and Monti 2013).

The traditional use of kenaf

*Fiber use
Historically, kenaf fiber was first used as cordage, rope, burlap cloth and fish net because of its rot
and mildew resistance (Cook 1960). It has also been identified as an excellent source of cellulosic
fiber for the manufacturing of a large range of paper products (Villar et al. 2009)in some countries as
the substitute for wood (Zhang 2003). Because of environmental problems (artificial fiber produce
long-time pollution) and increased paper consumption, the application of kenaf fiber has drawn
tremendous attention in the world (Bert 2002). In fact, pulping kenaf fiber can benefit the environ-
ment because it requires less energy and chemical inputs for processing than standard wood pulping
(Ahmed et al. 2008; Villar et al. 2009).
In addition, kenaf can be either pulped alone or blended with recycled paper (Tahir et al. 2011).
When used alone, one can produce high quality kenaf fiber suitable for making specialty papers such
474 R. AYADI ET AL.

as security paper, tea-bags, currency notes, etc. Kenaf paper is stronger, whiter, longer lasting, more
resistant to yellowing, and has ink adherence better than wood paper (Tahir et al. 2011; Zhang 2003).
Moreover, the long bast fiber could be used to manufacture products such as high grade pulps for
the pulp and paper industry, protective packing for fruits and vegetables, filters, composite board
and textiles, and the short fiber or core fiber could be used to manufacture products such as animal
bedding and horticultural mixes (Dutt et al. 2009; Mossello et al. 2010; Villar et al. 2009).

*Food use
The seeds of kenaf plant produce edible oil that is used for first class cooking oil and margarine
production. They can also be used for cooking (flour) and lubrication, soap manufacture, linoleum,
paints, and varnishes (LeMahieu, Oplinger, and Putnam 2003). Moreover, kenaf oil can be con-
sidered nutritionally healthy because of the relatively high amount of mono-unsaturated and poly-
unsaturated fatty acids (Coetzee, Labuschagne, and Hugo 2008). In addition, seed production of
kenaf is also economically important since it is a good source of oil (16–22%) (Patané and Sortino
2010). According to Webber et al. (2002a), kenaf can also be a good animal forage with a high level
of crude protein in leaves. Dried kenaf leaves have 30% crude proteins and are eaten as vegetable in
some countries. It also has potential for livestock feed (Zhang 2003). Additionally, the powder from
dry kenaf leaves have been added in several types of food and it was found that the content of
calcium and fiber was improved (Alexopoulou et al. 2015).

New applications of kenaf

*Medicine
Kenaf is a valuable medicinal plant (Wong et al. 2014) that produces a diverse array of interesting
potential bioactive molecules for instance phenolic compounds, anti-tumor compounds, and phy-
tosterols, with antioxidant, cardio-protective, anti-inflammatory, anti-hypertensive and anti-prolif-
erative activities, which have been pharmacologically investigated(Maganha et al. 2010). Plants rich
in natural antioxidants such as polyphenols, flavonoids are related to reduce the risk of certain types
of cancer that has led to a revival of interest in plant-based foods and drugs (Durgo et al. 2012).
Moreover, kenaf has been prescribed quite a long time in traditional folk medicine in Africa and
India, indeed, it is composed of various active components including tannins, saponins, polyphe-
nolics, alkaloids, essential oils and steroids(Agbor et al. 2005a; Kobaisy et al. 2001). It has been
recognized that Africans have also used peelings from the stems to treat fatigue and anemia as a
hematinic agent (Agbor et al. 2005b; Lee et al. 2007). It is used as vegetable, blood tonic and a
remedy for liver diseases. An earlier study revealed its antioxidant activity in the protection of the
cell membrane integrity from the effect of oxidant (Agbor et al. 2005c). Kenaf leaves were also
applicable in treating dysentery, and blood and throat disorders (Lawton 2004). In addition, the leaf
extract of H. cannabinus may therefore have implications in the management of artherosclerosis
(Agbor et al. 2004). The seeds were used outwardly to treat aches and bruises and they were also
considered to be fattening. In addition, this plant has been reported to be an anodyne, aperitif,
aphrodisiac, purgative and stomachic (Lawton 2004; Lee et al. 2007). Recently, it was found that its
oil has high contents of poly-unsaturated fatty acids. Its seeds can cure many health disorders and
diseases such as blood pressure, cholesterol poise, and some types of cancers (Alexopoulou and
Monti 2013). Plants rich in natural antioxidants such as polyphenols, flavonoids are related to reduce
the risk of some cancer, which has led to a revival of interest in plant-based foods and drugs (Durgo
et al. 2012). Wong et al. (2014) prove that the kenaf seed extract and kenaf seed oil could be potential
sources of natural anti-cancer agents and further investigations on using kenaf seeds for anti-
proliferative properties are warranted.
 JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS 475

*Oil and chemical absorbents

Kenaf seed oil has been suggested as a possible biodiesel feedstock (Rathana et al. 2010). In the other
hand, kenaf core is strong, absorbent and it can be used to clean up oil spills as well as chemicals. It
is also nontoxic, nonabrasive and more effective than classical remediate, like clay and silica. For its
low density, once oil is absorbed, the product floats on the surface, which makes collection easier
(Liu 2005; Sameshima 2000).

*Medium for mushroom cultivation

Use of kenaf core with wood powder as plant medium to produce mushrooms is much better than only
using wood powder. In fact, the yield could be doubled compared to using only wood powder. Kenaf
medium was commercially used in mushroom cultivation in Japan and China (Cheng 2001). Kenaf
potting soil is a substitute for peat moss, a nonrenewable resource (Ramaswamy et al. 2003).

* Natural fiber/plastic compounds

The plastic compounds of natural fiber based on kenaf can replace glass-reinforced plastics in many
applications, such as automotive industry, packaging, and construction/housing. The compounds
have the mechanical and strength characteristics of glass-filled plastics but are less expensive and
completely recyclable which can be used in the automotive industry, construction, housing, and food
package industry (Zhang 2003).

*Textile application
Currently, one of the major challenges in the textile industry is a related environmental problem. Textile
industries are facing great pressure to reduce pollutant emissions. This drives textile manufactures to seek
new approaches to producing environmentally friendly products, such as recyclable and biodegradable
textile materials. More and more attention has been drawn to agricultural products, wastes, and
derivatives because of their renewability (Zhang 2003). With the cotton industry floundering in sustain-
ability issues, kenaf fibers offer a valuable alternative. The idea of making fabrics from kenaf has been
practiced since the early 1990s. But the quality of kenaf fabric is not yet good enough for making apparel.
The bast fibers offer the advantage of renewability and biodegradability that is essential for making
environmentally friendly textile products (Zhang 2003). Kenaf is a relatively new textile material. Since
kenaf contains a relatively high content of lignin, hemicelluloses and other materials (pectin, waxes) in
addition to cellulose; therefore, it is expected that the bleaching and dyeing behavior differs from other
pure cellulosic fibers such as cotton (Zhang 2003). Kenaf fibers have a long staple, meaning very fine and
strong yarn can be spun. This makes them suitable for quality textiles. Kenaf textiles are also naturally
very absorbent, and even fire-retardant, making it especially ideal for outerwear or shoes. Bast fibers are
simple to process. Blended with cotton, kenaf fibers can be made into yarn and woven into fabrics. These
textiles are aesthetically pleasing, lightweight, and have a soft feel.

*The automotive industry

The 1996 Ford Mondeo features interior automobile panels is made of kenaf fiber. Kenaf
International supplies the fiber which is processed by the supplier to Ford. The company expects
that sales to European automobile manufacturers will regularly increase, as the industry becomes
comfortable with the product and the kenaf products from KII Automotive Group are capable of
meeting required demand (Alexopoulou and Monti 2013; Zhang 2003).

*Construction and housing industry

The kenaf plastic compounds are molded into lightweight panels that can replace wood and wood-based
products in many applications. This product has the power to be the first economically priced plastic
lumber that can be engineered for use as building materials in housing industry. Kenaf core particles can
also be treated with fire retardants to produce particleboards for the building industry which have abilities
to reduce the spread of flame and the release of heat when exposed to fire (Izran et al. 2009a, 2010b).
476 R. AYADI ET AL.

*Environment cleaning
The global demand for natural fibers is steadily increasing through an also increasing demand for cleaner,
greener industrial products (Andreu and Vidal 2014). Kenaf plants can absorb CO2 and NO2 from the
atmosphere 3 to 5 times faster than forests (Liu 2005; Othman and Akil 2008). Kenaf is one of the crops
with the highest carbon monoxide (CO) absorption capacity, with one ton of kenaf absorbing 1.5 tons of
atmospheric CO (Le Roux 2007).

*Animal bedding and poultry litter

Kenaf bedding has superior absorbency, with a labor saving, and costs less than most traditional
litter and bedding products comprised of wood shaving, saw dust or shredded paper (Li 2002).
Hence, kenaf core fibers can be used as animal bedding material such as horses, cattle, poultry and
rodents (Lips et al. 2009).

*Bioenergy production
Kenaf biomass would appear as a potential material for great sustainable energy, hence that is a
promising lignocellulosic feedstock for bioenergy production (bioethanol, biohydrogen, bioenergy)
provider in the coming future (Saba et al. 2015). Indeed, it is presently being used as a source of
biofuel in several countries, including the USA and China (Singh 2013).

Phytochemistry
Previous phytochemical studies on kenaf made by Seca et al. (2000, 2001)) have reported the
aliphatic composition of the bark and core and the identification of new lignans isolated from the
core.

Fiber
Due to the rising consumption of paper and paperboard materials, the importance of kenaf as a wood
substitute has increased. The amount and quality of pulp hinges on the plant cell wall composition
which are mainly made of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, proteins, and/or lignin, that provide
mechanical support to individual cells as well as to the whole plant (Chowdhury et al. 2012;
Vanholme et al. 2010). Lignocellulosic materials contain cellulose and hemicelluloses that are linked
together by lignin. Cellulose and hemicellulose are both polymers built up by long chains of sugar units
that after pretreatment and hydrolysis can be modified into intermediate products which can be
transformed into biofuels or other industrially important products (Ozturk et al. 2010).
According to Abdul Khalil et al. (2010), the chemical composition in kenaf fibers indicated in
Table 1 showed that the kenaf core fibers were higher in holocellulose and lignin, while kenaf bast
fibers were higher in α-cellulose, extractive and ash content in comparison with both types of kenaf
fibers. α- cellulose content in bast fiber (55%) was higher than in the core (49%). This high α-
cellulose content is considered to provide high strength in paper formation and other fiber end
products.
The principal building blocks of lignin are hydroxycinnamyl alcohols (monolignols), including
p-coumaryl, coniferyl, and sinapyl alcohols (Weng et al. 2008). According to Vanholme et al. (2008),

Table 1. Chemical composition of different fractions of kenaf fibers (Abdul Khalil et al. 2010).
Kenaf whole (core + bast) Kenaf core Kenaf bast
Extractive (%) 6.4 4.7 5.5
Holocellulose (%) 87.7 87.2 86.8
α-Cellulose (%) 53.8 49.0 55.0
Lignin (%) 21.2 19.2 14.7
Ash (%) 4.0 1.9 5.4
 JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS 477

the resulting units of monolignols are called as guaiacyl (G), syringyl (S) and p-hydroxyphenyl (H)
units. Bast fiber of kenaf is comprised of lignin with a high S/G ratio (5:4) and a low amount of H
units (S: 83.3, G: 15.4 and H: 1.3%) (Gutiérrez et al. 2004).

Leaves
The screening results of phytochemical of Hibiscus cannabinus aqueous extract indicated the
presence of some pharmacologically active principles such as phenolic compounds, tannins, sapo-
nins, alkaloids, and steroids which may confer medicinal properties to this plant (Agbor et al. 2004).
According to Kobaisy et al. (2001), a light yellow essential oil of H. cannabinus was gained in a
yield of 0.11% per fresh weight. Results of the GC-MS analysis of the oil displayed 57 constituents
accounting for >79% of the total oil composition. However, its leaves are low in calories and rich in
protein and essential oils such as (E)-phytol (28.16%), (Z)-phytol (8.02%), n-nonanal (5.70%),
benzene acetaldehyde (4.39%), (E)-2-hexenal (3.10%) and 5-methylfurfural (3.00%) when compared
to other leafy vegetables. In addition, they are also rich in calcium, phosphorus, and amounts of
Vitamin C.
The leaves of this herb are useful in the prevention and treatment of scurvy, treatment of
jaundice, stimulating the stomach and aiding its action (Bindhu and Umadevi 2013).H. cannabinus
has been used in a folk medicine for bilious conditions, bruises, and fever. It has been also an
analgesic, aperitif, aphrodisiac, fattening, purgative (Bindhu and Umadevi 2013). The study also
reveals that the ascorbic acid present in kenaf leaf extract has been used as reducing agent. The
biosynthesized silver nanoparticle shows good antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli, Proteus
mirabilis and Shigella flexneri (Bindhu and Umadevi 2013).

Seed
The kenaf seeds are composed of various active components including tannins, saponins, poly-
phenols, alkaloids, essential oils, and steroids (Agbor et al. 2005a; Kobaisy et al. 2001). However,
only few studies have been reported with regards to the anticancer effect of kenaf. Kenaf seed
contains various bioactive constituents such as phytosterols, tocopherols, phenolic acids and fatty
acids(Coetzee, Labuschagne, and Hugo 2008; Nyam et al. 2009). Yazan et al. (2011) showed that
kenaf seed oil can be extracted conventionally by using the organic solvents such as n-hexane or
petroleum either. The effect of anticancer kenaf seed oil from supercritical carbon dioxide fluid
extraction was more cytotoxic, notably towards the human leukemic and human breast cancer cell
lines in a dose-dependent manner possibly via the induction of apoptosis (Chan et al. 2014; Yazan
et al. 2011).
Kenaf seeds yield vegetable oil that is edible for human consumption (Chan and Ismail 2009).
Furthermore, the oil contains vitamin E with high antioxidant, β-sitosterol with anticancer effects, and
alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), as the essential omega-3 fatty acid with anti-inflammatory and antithrom-
botic activity. The three main bioactive compounds in kenaf seed oil: vitamin E, β-sitosterol, and ALA are
known to contribute greatly as chemopreventive agents (AbdelGhafar et al. 2013; Mariod et al. 2010).
The antioxidant activity of the extracts of seedcake has been extensively studied (Mariod et al. 2006;
Matthaüs 2002). Recently, Mariod et al. (2012) reported that the kenaf seedcake (seed residues) extract/
fractions showed inhibitory activity of β-carotene bleaching and corn oil oxidation. Moreover, the
extract/fractions were scavenged for the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical and the ethyl
acetate fraction showed the highest DPPH radical scavenging activity. Therefore, the rich phenolic
fractions of kenaf seedcake can represent an excellent source of natural antioxidants. The antioxidant
activity of the extracts from kenaf seedcake might also result from the presence of plant protein (33.0%
protein).
478 R. AYADI ET AL.

Industrial process: from field harvest to fiber extraction and final product obtention
(munder et al. 2005)
Trees take many years to reach a harvestable size, however, kenaf grown as an annual crop will reach
a mature size in just 120–150 days after the seeds are sown, producing the largest biomass of any
agricultural crop—far more than trees. The fiber in Kenaf is found in the core (wood) and in the bast
(bark) which constitutes 40% of the plant. The plants, which reach heights of 8–20 feet, are harvested
for their stalks from which the fiber is extracted. For production of good quality fibers, the crop is
harvested soon after the commencement of flowering, Harvesting too early will result in lower yields
and weak fibers.

Harvesting
Cutting and drying
The harvest method depends on the production location, the equipment availability, processing
method, and final product use (Weber et al. 2002b). Private industries have developed an assortment
of mechanical harvesters and post-harvest equipment to separate the bark from the core material,
and the bast fibers from the core fibers (Webber et al. 2002b). Manual harvesting is still common
practice, however, stalks should be cut into a length of 600 mm with special machines (i.e. drum
mower) using specific knifes. The drying period takes up to 14 days until reducing the moisture
content less than 14% (Munder et al. 2005).

Retting
The process of separation and extraction of fibers from nonfibrous tissues and woody part of the
stem through separation, dissolution and decomposition of pectins, gums and other mucilaginous
substances is called retting (Pallesen Bodil Engberg 1996). The process usually involves moisture
with bacteria or chemicals to remove the unwanted bark material from the kenaf fiber strands within
the bark (Weber et al. 2002b). Fungi and bacteria dissolve and digest the lignin and pectin of the
stalk, ideally at 34°C, causing a separation of the wood body from the bark ring (Dempsey 1975).
After the retting process which can take up to 4 weeks, the fiber plants have to be dried again.

Baling and storage

For optimal and longer storage, the fiber straw has to be baled in round or rectangular bales. The
balers are designed to form regular flax layers within rolls of parallel stems. The regularity of layers
will ensure an easier processing in the next steps. Then storage is performed under a closed roof to
ensure lasting constant fiber qualities.

Processing of fiber plants

The process starts with the opening of the stored bales followed by several steps of impurities
elimination, metering of plant straw, decortication, fiber cleaning and opening, cutting of fibers into
a defined length, baling of long fiber and ends by cleaning of waste air (Munder et al 2005).
Opening bales could be done by three different basic processes: the guillotine, the hopper feeder
and the bale cutter. Oftenly, fibers contain metallic impurities, sand, stones, seeds and leaves that
need to be eliminated before starting the process. Then, in order to homogenate the working flow
and to ensure stable working effects for machine processing that follows, a metering system with a
technological buffer is inserted into the machine line which converts the incoming straw into a
continuous mass output. In most cases, decortication is done mechanically, however, other methods
such as steam explosion and chemical or biological disintegration are possible (Munder et al. 2005).
The aims of the decortications are to demolish the stalks, to loosen the natural adhesion between
fibers, to disaggregate the fiber bundles and to separate the fibers from the shives. Fiber cleaning is
 JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS 479

Table 2. Fibers properties according their industrial use (Munder et al. 2005).
Moisture
Fiber length Fineness Tensile strength Shive content content
Final product (mm) (tex) (cN/tex) (%) (%)
Internal boards and mats of cars, vehicles, 70–90 3–18 >40 <2 <10
trains, aircrafts
Heat insulation mats for building 50–70 3–10 >30 <4 <12
Coarse yarn 30–60 2–8 >40 <1 <12
Pulp and paper 2–4 2–6 >25 <2 <12
Adsorption material for various industries <2 2–20 - <15 <8

performed by mechanical shaking and heavy particles are separated by gravity. Fibers have to be
separated from shives and dust at the cleaning step. Cleaned fibers still aggregated and need to be
opened by fiber openers or carding systems in order to obtain thinner units and elementary fibers.
Since the next applications require defined fiber lengths, a defined and exact cutting is necessary by
using a very accurate and adjusted blade and counterblade. In general, a guillotine or rotating knives
of drum or disk wheel choppers can be used. After that, the fibers have to be baled for more
conveniently handling, transportation and temporary storage (Weber et al. 2002b). Using hydraulic,
crank and knuckle-joint bale presses bulk-density of fibers reach up to 150–200 kg/m3 (Munder et al.
2005). Large amounts of dust arise from these several steps, consequently, and for health and hygiene
precautions, this waste air has to be cleaned using particular filters. As final product, the processed
fibers are endowed with mechanical properties, namely fiber length, fineness, tensile strength,
elongation, and cleanness. The fiber length varies in a range of 50–200 mm after processing, while
fineness varies between 2.5 and 15 tex, cleanness should be under 2%, properties that meet the
requirements of many industrial applications. According to the industrial application and use,
Table 2 shows the fiber properties that are specifically required (Munder et al. 2005).

Importance of kenaf
According to Jian-guang et al., the main merits of kenaf are high biomass, short life cycle, fast
growing, wide growth area, strong adaptability to environment and low cost in cultivation. In fact,
kenaf has been actively cultivated in recent years for the following reasons:
* Two kenaf species account for one-third of the world production, including (Hibiscus canna-
binus L.) along with a closely related species called roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.). This plant is can
rapidly substitute jute, because is cheaper to produce and has less labor intensive requirements
(Faruq et al. 2013).
*Exceptional papermaking characteristics: kenaf paper is a bio-based product, less chemicals, heat
and time are required to pulp kenaf fiber because they are not as tough as wood pulp and contain
less lignin.
*In agriculture practice, kenaf plant needs few treatments during the growth as, for example, low
quantities of chemical fertilizers.
*Plastics have a problem of not being biodegradable and thus they are environmentally un-
friendly in a world where there is increasing interest in use of natural fibers in diverse industrial
sectors (Zwane and Masarirambi 2009). Kenaf absorbs CO2 at a significantly high rate (Ardente et al.
2008).
*Therefore, kenaf is a potentially suitable species for phytoremediation in the tropics with a
combined purpose of biomass production especially to improve the ecological as well as economic
valorization of degraded areas (Mun et al. 2008).
480 R. AYADI ET AL.

Abbreviations
cN/tex: centiNewton/tex
FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization
GC-MS: Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
MJ: Megajoule
MS: Murashige and Skoog
spp.: species
t: ton
t.ha−1: ton per hectare
tex: 1 g/1000 m of a fiber
USDA: United States Department of Agriculture

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