Three Aspects of Music in Ancient and Greece. Mary T. Guerrant

Three Aspects of Music in Ancient China and Greece
Author(s): Mary T. Guerrant

Source: College Music Symposium, Vol. 20, No. 2 (Fall, 1980), pp. 87-98
Published by: College Music Society
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Views and Viewpoints
Three Aspects of Music in

Ancient China and Greece
Mary T. Guerrant
Lubbock, Texas
THE TWO GREAT CIVILIZATIONS OF CHINA AND GREECE, musk had SU

a central position that its history represents a chronicle of the rela
ship between man and his universe. There are many parallels in
meaning and function of music to be found in both cultures. Early G
culture has been chosen for its significance as the cornerstone of wes
civilization, and the Chinese for the reason that it was of primary cult
influence in the far east.
Although some basic ideas concerning music in China and Greece
came from earlier periods and rested primarily on myth or tradition, the
beginning of systematized concepts of the philosophy of music developed
in these countries during a period strongly influenced by philosophers
and founders of great religions. In the sixth, fifth and fourth centuries
B.C. Lao-tse, Confucius and Hsun Tzu in China and Pythagoras, Plato
and Aristotle in Greece were teachers and guides to new and important
principles and beliefs. The time span chosen for discussion in China is ap-
proximately 550 B.C., the birth of Confucius, to the end of the Chou
dynasty in 256 B.C. During this dynasty court music reached its zenith
and together with li or ritual, music occupied the most prominent place in
the education of a gentleman. The Greek period begins with Pythagoras
(circa 530 B.C.) and continues to 320 B.C., when the rejection of tradition
with a consequent vulgarization of music resulted in an almost virtual dis-
appearance of classical music as it had been understood in earlier centu-
ries.
Chinese civilization in large measure was the creation of revered and
highly respected sages. Li, which constituted the proper etiquette or rit-
ual, and music were believed to uphold the order and harmony of the uni-
verse. Music was regarded as the essence of the harmony existing between
Heaven, Earth and Man - the all-pervading influence - and was thought
essential in achieving harmony and order in the material world. The pri-
mary role of music was not to please the senses but to convey eternal truths
88 COLLEGE MUSIC SYMPOSIUM
and make man receptive to these truths. Lii P

stated that he was "able to speak of music only w
the meaning of the world."1 An ancient lege
the elements and the course of the seasons to
sic master Wen of Cheng. Before being able
power he had to reach the music in his own h
To be a truly cultured person in Greek soci
in music and as a result by it. The origin of the
ity associated with the creative force in natur
Greek myths testify to the mystic power of m
tamed the Greeks with his lyre by changing t
of men - in the true sense of humanity. "The
been placed among the stars; it did more t
brutes human."2 Music was considered a huma
by which man "is introduced to the higher le
ing in the orderly life and creative activities of
Greece as in China music was metaphysical in
Ethical considerations were primary in th
tudes toward music and the study of music w
tance in both educational systems. Plato lik
study of music because of its moral value. Th
science of governing men was dependent on t
controlling their passions, and considered mu
to accomplish this end. Thus the molding of
been the single most important function of m
on metaphysical aspects such as the belief that
order and is the image of the universe, or tha
tween heaven and earth.
Probably the practical merits of music in ancient China and Greece
consisted chiefly in regulating the movements of dance and poetry. In
Greece music had its most important development in drama in which mu-
sic, dance and poetry were combined. In China these three forms were in-
tegrated in religious ritual. The Chinese idea that "without poetry [or
meaning] there can be no music"4 parallels the Greek view, as the Greek
word for music {mousike) implied both music and poetry, the poet in
Greece being his own composer. The tonal nature of both ancient lan-
JCurt Sachs, The Rise of Music in the Ancient World (New York: Norton, 1943), d. 106.
2Walter Wiora, The Four Ages of Music, trans. M. D. Herter Norton (New York: The
Norton Library, 1965), p. 74.
3F. Eby and C. F. Arrowood, History and Philosophy of Education Ancient and Medieval
(Englewood Cliffs: Prentice- Hall, 1940), p. 269.
4J. H. Levis, Foundations of Chinese Musical Art (1936; reprint New York: Paragon
Book Reprint Corp., 1963), p. 192.
MUSIC IN ANCIENT CHINA AND GREECE 89
guages made an extremely close union of music and po

music of both cultures, being essentially monophon
character, followed the tonal inflections of the langua
organic unity not attainable in languages of a non-tonal
The Character of the Music
Most of the information concerning the music of ancient time

China and Greece comes to us in literature and the writings of ph
phers. The incomplete Harmonics of Aristoxenus from the fourth c
B.C. is the best early source pertaining to Greek musical theory
probably to its improvisatory nature and lack of precise notation,
are only some twenty examples of Greek classical music extant, the
being dated approximately 250 B.C.
During the Ch'in dynasty in China (221-206 B.C.) there was a w
sale burning of books, music and instruments. As a partial conseque
this act, the earliest actual examples of classical music extant come
the beginning of the Tang dynasty in A.D. 618. However, the classic
sic of China is somewhat easier to reconstruct than that of Greece,
some of the traditions concerning music were put into written fo
early as The Book of Songs (Shih Ching) covering a period approxi
1 122-600 B.C. Presumably all the poems contained in this book wer
inally set to music, though the music has not survived. The very nat
the book, which consists of poems to be sung, indicates the affini
tween music and the expression of both the nobility and common p
Valuable insights are also given in the earliest actual musical treatis
Lu Shih CKun CKiu written by Lu Pu-We about 320 B.C. Chinese cl
music had a much longer continuity than the Greek, due probably in
measure to the reverence for tradition which has ever characterized
Chinese culture. It is thus reasonable to assume that the musical examples
from the Tang dynasty previously cited reflect faithfully the principles of
the ancient music.6
The origin of Chinese music theory, according to legend, is ascribed
to the Emperor Huang Ti, the "yellow" emperor and third divine ruler in
the third millenium B.C. The musical system of this emperor was known
as "all-pervading influence" or "universal kindness." The foundation tone
(our tonic or key-note) was designated as "yellow bell" and was conceived
as being three-faceted. It was a sacred eternal principle, the foundation or
basis of the state, and a note of definite pitch in music. The foundation
5B. M. Becker, Music in the Life of Ancient China, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chi-
cago, 1957, p. 22.
6Levis, p. 182.
tone was obtained by the Emperor's Music Ru

when he cut a node of bamboo in such a way as to
voice when he spoke without passion. He then m
by the singing of the male and female phoenix -
for the female. All of these could be derived from the foundation tone.
Theoretically this procedure consisted of cutting bamboo pipes of
differing lengths, resulting in a chain of ascending fifths and descending
fourths. By arranging the first five sounds in the series of ascending fifths
in scale order - F, G, A, C and D - the five note scale was constructed. Any
of these five tones could serve as a focal point and beginning for a new
mode of the scale, the mode being characterized by this particular note
acting as its principal and final note.
The symbolism underlying Chinese ritual required the founda-
tion tone and the scale based on it to move in conformity with the twelve
months and the twelve hours. For this purpose, the Chinese recognized
the twelve notes (consecutive half-steps) within an octave as a means of
transposing their five-note scale. These twelve pitches, all generated by
the foundation tone, were rearranged in stepwise fashion and further or-
ganized into two six-note series, depending on their generation either by
ascending fifths or descending fourths. This was concerned with the yang
and yin theory of complementarity - the opposing male and female ele-
ments in the universe - and simply meant that tones in these two six-note
series could be properly sounded together in ritual harmony. (See Appen-
dix.)
Eight categories of instruments were used and mentioned as early as
The Book of Songs (1 122-600 B.C.). Each instrument was valued for its dis-
tinctive "color" or timbre, with which the Chinese were particularly con-
cerned in their music. The categories were: wood, metal, stone, bamboo,
earth, skin, silk, string and wind. Later in the fourth century B.C. these
categories became associated with^yang- and^m, the Five Elements, the car-
dinal directions and numerology.7
The music in China as in Greece was essentially monodic, consisting
of a single melodic line. This is conducive to inventing ways of varying
and enlivening the single tone for added interest, and these techniques
were employed in both cultures. However, in China emotion seems to
have emanated more from single sounds than in Greece. Curt Sachs says
of Chinese music that "Each note is an entity in itself, calculated to evoke
in the mind of the hearer a special reaction. The timbre being thus of the
utmost importance, there are very great possibilities of modifying the col-
oring of one and the same tone."8
7Becker, p. 89.
8Sachs, p. 108.
MUSIC IN ANCIENT CHINA AND GREECE 9 1
The origin of music theory in Greece is assigned traditio

thagoras (circa 530 B.C.) who may have been influenced
ideas of the Egyptian priests and of Mesopotamian culture.
ples were then taught as part of a discipline designed to br
lift. In his view the same laws governing the rhythmic mov
stars, spacing them apart, also determine rhythm and tonal
in music. Pythagoras conceived mathematics to be the key t
ing the universe and was of the opinion that music was
audible and demonstrated in sound the pure world of numb
sis for his cycle of fifths, from which all the tones of the Gre
be derived, he used the interval of the pure fifth, which th
employed, it is thought, at a much earlier date to generate t
scale.
In the Greek system any of the seven notes in an octave could be the
starting point of a scale, or mode, which was constructed in a descending
pattern. Each mode consisted of two four-note patterns called tetra-
chords. Each tetrachord encompassed a perfect fourth; the intervals
framed by the perfect fourth varied according to the particular mode.
Each mode was regarded as possessing a special ethical quality or ethos.
The Greeks, like the Chinese, recognized the twelve notes or consecutive
half-steps in an octave for purposes of transposition.
Rhythmically, Chinese classical music theory admitted only 4/4 time
but in practice it was more flexible. In spite of certain requirements mak-
ing it mandatory for the rhythm to follow the nature of the words and to
follow the melody, there was doubtless freedom as to individual
treatment.9 In Greece there was probably no real distinction between the
musical rhythms and the poetic meters.
Three Areas of Contrast
The three areas of the philosophy of music in ancient Chin

Greece I should like to compare are:
A. The spiritual or transcendental view of music which d
mined the proper relationship of man to the universe and
the Great One or Divine Being,
B. The moral or ethical aspect of music which determine
proper relationship of the individual to society and was acc
plished through education, and
C. The political implications of music which were thought to
helpful in establishing the proper relationship between the
er and/or government and the people.
9Levis,p. 183.
The Spiritual or Transcendental
In China law and strictness were imposed on

attained in any other society, for music "was roo
universal idea that nobody can visualize or even
regarded music as an image of the universe and
in their view, it was assumed that music was also
heaven.
Correctness or propriety in music was considered essential to the cos-

mos. Man had no control over time and space, substance and power, but
sound he created himself and it was a reflection of what was in his heart.
Music could either strengthen or weaken the equilibrium of the world and
was thus accepted as a serious responsibility.
Many of the ancient Chinese beliefs concerning the transcendental
nature of music were held in common by Greek philosophers. Pythagoras
and Plato both regarded music as an image of the universe and governed
by the same laws. Similarly, in their view all things were one, resulting
ideally in a world in harmony. This harmony uniting the human soul to
the soul of the world was to them evidenced most clearly in the art of mu-
sic. Their rationale was that music, being the most faithful reproduction
of the laws of nature due to its rhythmic character, approximated most
closely the rhythm and order in the universe. Plato viewed music as a copy
of the Ideal Order which was revealed to the scholar in the study of philos-
ophy. For this reason it was included as a discipline in preparation for the
study of philosophy.
It should be noted that the symbolic interpretations and philosophi-
cal speculations in early Chinese and Greek music did not represent the
outlook of the whole people. Primarily these views were the property of
the intellectual elite. For the masses of people music served to heighten
and enliven the festivals, to lighten the drudgery of work or to accompany
ritual. Either it was pure entertainment or functional in relation to their
religious practices. The Book of Rites, one of the Chinese classics, expresses
it in this manner: "Those who know only sound but not its tones are birds
and beasts; those who know the tone but not its music are the multitude. It
is only the chiln-tzu [perfect gentleman] who can know music."11 Aristotle
in his Politics has much the same idea when he says, "Let the young pursue
their studies until they are able to feel delight in noble melodies and
10Sachs,p. 109.
nCh'u Chai and Winberg Chai, ed. and trans., The Sacred Books of Confucius (New
York: University Books, 1965), pp. 340-341.
rhythms and not merely in that common part of music

slave or child and even some animals find pleasure."12
The Moral or Ethical Aspect of Music
It is most often in connection with character that Conf

his students about music. One's character, he said, should
by the study of poetry, established by the study of li [ritu
finish by the study of music."13 This implies not a sleek refin
fers to a clarity and balance of all the proper elements m
character of a true gentleman.
To Confucius as to the ancient Greek philosophers mu
tant above all as an instrument of education. In Chinese hu
ual) and music were even more important than gymnas
were in the system of Plato and Aristotle. During the Cho
256 B.C.) the aristocrats learned at an early age the rudime
arts" which comprised archery and charioteering, calli
matics, music and rituals. Hsiin Tzu, in a passage describin
tion of the perfect gentleman in musical activities and str
portance, says, "He makes his purpose conform to the Ta
Heaven] by using the bells and drums; he makes his heart
the lyre and lute; he dances with the shield and axe; he dec
feathers; he moves in time to the stone chime and flutes."
sic the expression of joy - always characterized by calmn
and balance - was ideally attained, and this was realiz
tremely significant function of music. In the playing or si
ble person there was to be no staccato, no accelerando,
cendo or decrescendo, nor anything which might arouse
or lust. In Confucius' words, "the noble-minded man's mu
delicate, keeps a uniform mood, enlivens and moves. Such
harbor pain or mourn in his heart, violent and daring mov
eign to him."15 Serenity in a man's heart was thought to b
ily through music of the proper type. Furthermore, in t
guage the calligraphic symbol for music (yuo) and serenity
Confucius and other philosophers made a definite d
tween the music of a vulgar-minded man and the mu
minded man. He himself found the ritual music Shao so beautiful that "for
12Sachs, p. 255.
13Becker, p. 56.
14Chai. d. 257.
l5Sachs,p. 106.
three months he forgot the taste of meat."16 Th

and good in influence, Confucius compared w
beautiful in form but not good in influence. The
music respectively of a predynastic period an
effect of music was the primary test of its statu
In the classical stage of Hellenic civilization
music to soothe and to stir the mind was understood to affect the moral
qualities of the nation. It could strengthen or weaken the character, create
good and evil, order and anarchy, peace and unrest. These ideas were not
original with the Greeks, as they had existed in China and Egypt at an ear-
lier date. Plato enthusiastically advocated the study of music because of its
moral value in controlling the passions, in filling the soul with the desire
for noble conduct and sound judgment, and in producing a spirit of tem-
perance. Essentially these were the same qualities attributed to the disci-
pline and study of music in Chinese culture. Plato was of the opinion that
music was the most important part of education, as rhythm and harmoni-
ous tones supposedly penetrated deep into the soul and imparted grace
and good form. A cultured person (who has studied music) in his reason-
ing would have a keen sense of the false and inadequate in nature and art
and would keep his distance from them. He should be able to recognize
beautiful forms and images, take them with joy into his soul and thus
fashion himself after them. As a result this person would become "noble
in character and conduct."17 Aristotle in his Politics, Book VIII, gives his
rationale for the study of music. "Music is taught as a recreation, but it
serves a higher purpose. The noble employment of leisure is the highest
aim which a man can pursue; and music is valuable for this purpose. Mu-
sic, if it were a mere amusement, should not be taught to children. . . . But
music is a moral discipline and a rational enjoyment."18
Since music in Greece occupied such a prominent place in the educa-
tional system, it was chosen very carefully so as to have the maximum
benefit in molding character. Melodies of bad tonality, that is to say inap-
propriate modes, were avoided, and those particularly appropriate for
strengthening the character were stressed. The seven modes were believed
to have strongly marked individual character or ethos, capable of affecting
the morality of those who used them. For example the Mixolydian mode
was thought to make men sad and grave, the Phrygian to inspire enthu-
siasm and the Dorian to produce a moderate and balanced temperament.
16 Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 5th ed., s.v. Chinese Music.
17Wiora, p. 76.
18Aristotle, Politics, Book VIII, ed. R. McKeon (New York: Random House, 1941),
pp. 1125-1126.
The assumption has been made that the three pitch region
dle and low were associated with certain ethical qualities.
different arrangement of intervals in each mode contribu
ance in emotional power thought to be exhibited in the m
this an ethical view of modes known as tiao is found in Ch
referring to the various possible modes of the pentatonic
respective ideological values. These ethical connotations w
determined by the particular starting note of the respecti
indicated previously that each note of the five-note scale w
one of the five virtues, and that six of the possible notes in
associated with the male or yang principle and six with th
principle. These correlations may have determined the va
cal values assigned to the different modes of the scale.
The Political Implications
It was believed that the emperor of China held his thr

mandate of Heaven. He was considered the tonic note or foundation tone
of the earthly harmony, and when attuned his empire flourished. The leg-
endary kingdom of the Emperor Huang Ti (third millenium B.C.) was
cited as an exemplary period. Supposedly the people of this kingdom
were able to control their passions perfectly, resulting in such an accord
between Heaven and Earth that China, or the Middle Kingdom as it was
called, became an earthly paradise. Since music was believed to have such
a great influence on cosmic and social life, it is not surprising that it was
considered imperative for each emperor to find the correct foundation
tone on which to found his musical system. The thought was that the good
or proper kind of music helped to create perfect peace in the empire as a
result of inspiring men to good actions. In the opposite manner bad music
was considered to inspire men with evil thoughts, thus leading to bad ac-
tions such as riots. Hsiin Tzu in his chapter On Music reveals a political as-
tuteness in his description of the benefits of the proper kind of music as an
outlet for passions.19 He reasoned that when music is even and moderate
the people are in harmony and not riotous. When the music is dignified
and reverent the people are in unity and not contentious. If the people
remain in harmony and unity they feel safe and secure and are satisfied
with their sovereign. As a result his glory will be great and all the people of
the world will be willing to accept his leadership.
The theory of complementarity, a hallmark of Chinese philosophy, is
19Chai,p.255.
evident in the close relationship of music and l

pline possible while li (ritual) made outward con
were opposite in function. From the Book of Ri
ninth chapter on music, Hsiin Tzu's thinking on
ual is made clear. "Music, coming from within,
the mind and heart] while li, acting from witho
[of outward bearing and manner]."20 Music was
harmony of Heaven and Earth and li the order
theory was that music led to common union, f
affection. Li led to distinction and therefore to
affection and respect coexisted to a great extent
and peace would be assured.
Both Chinese and Greek philosophers believed
a considerable degree the constitution of the k
the science of governing men depended on the s
controlling their passions. Since music was dete
desirable outlet for the emotions, it was accorde
cultures for an ultimately practical purpose - t
stability in the kingdom or state.
Conclusions
As has been noted there are some striking similarities in the

systems and philosophies of ancient China and Greece in respect
areas. The importance of music in education was firmly estab
both cultures. Music was regarded as having the power either t
or strengthen the equilibrium of the world by its effect on char
correctness in and appropriateness of music was stressed to pro
strong society. Music and poetry were considered inseparab
tained a remarkable organic unity, partially due to the close relat
music to the tonal inflections of the languages. Perfect clarity of m
meaning was the goal of both cultures, as the music-poems embo
respective moral and philosophical values of the two countries.
According to tradition the close connection between divin
musical harmony, and government was established in China in
millenium B.C. It appears to have been an older and more integr
Chinese philosophy than was true in Greece. The musical system
emperor was thought to determine to a substantial degree the
the dynasty. In Greece music was not regarded as having such an
influence on government.
20/^.,p.343.
Unquestionably music had a unique position in the spiritu

osophical life of ancient China and Greece. However, it se
been more deeply rooted in these areas in China. Music w
China, conceived of as being the wisdom of the heart. Never
tude toward music been more idealistic nor the conception of
in ancient China. This is summed up very perceptively in th
that "the Chinese have not philosophized about their musical
do in the West; . . . rather have they evolved their musical
shrine and illustrate their natural philosophy and give pe
bodiment to its principles."21
Appendix
The Chinese five-note scale was generated from the foundation tone
F and consisted of ascending fifths and descending fourths. The rat
used was 3:2 for the interval of a fifth and 4:3 for the interval of a fourth.
c d
F G A
Rearranged, these to
C and D. The twelve
correlated with the tw
C D E F* G« A*
F
/WAV
G A B Cfl D*
The six upper liis represen

represent yang, the male
these give the appearance
^Grove's Dictionary, Idem.
These tones represent the twelve notes found

used for purposes of transposition. The lils r
F, Ffl, G, G& , A, A* , B, C, Ct* , C, D, D*, E
The perfect fifth was realized as the natural "

tone or fundamental. The Chinese thought of
to the perfect fifth above. The twelve lils may
fashion thus:
A« F C
D* G
G* D
C« A
F« E
B
This predates Pythagoras' circle of fifths which similarly included all

twelve notes within an octave and was derived from the interval of the
pure fifth.

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Three Aspects of Music in Ancient China and Greece

Author(s): Mary T. Guerrant

Three Aspects of Music in

THE TWO GREAT CIVILIZATIONS OF CHINA AND GREECE, musk had SU

and make man receptive to these truths. Lii P

guages made an extremely close union of music and po

The Character of the Music

Most of the information concerning the music of ancient time

tone was obtained by the Emperor's Music Ru

The origin of music theory in Greece is assigned traditio

Three Areas of Contrast

The three areas of the philosophy of music in ancient Chin

The Spiritual or Transcendental

In China law and strictness were imposed on

Correctness or propriety in music was considered essential to the cos-

rhythms and not merely in that common part of music

The Moral or Ethical Aspect of Music

It is most often in connection with character that Conf

three months he forgot the taste of meat."16 Th

The Political Implications

It was believed that the emperor of China held his thr

evident in the close relationship of music and l

As has been noted there are some striking similarities in the

Unquestionably music had a unique position in the spiritu

The six upper liis represen

^Grove's Dictionary, Idem.

These tones represent the twelve notes found

F, Ffl, G, G& , A, A* , B, C, Ct* , C, D, D*, E

The perfect fifth was realized as the natural "

This predates Pythagoras' circle of fifths which similarly included all

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