Gaussian Elimination

Major: All Engineering Majors

Author(s): Autar Kaw

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Transforming Numerical Methods Education for STEM
Undergraduates
 Naïve Gauss Elimination

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 Naïve Gaussian Elimination
A method to solve simultaneous linear
equations of the form [A][X]=[C]

Two steps
1. Forward Elimination
2. Back Substitution
 Forward Elimination
The goal of forward elimination is to transform the
coefficient matrix into an upper triangular matrix

 25 5 1  x1  106.8 
 64 8 1  x  = 177.2 
   2  
144 12 1  x3  279.2

25 5 1   x1   106.8 
 0 − 4.8 − 1.56  x  =  − 96.21
   2  
 0 0 0.7   x3   0.735 
 Forward Elimination
A set of n equations and n unknowns
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + ... + a1n xn = b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + ... + a2 n xn = b2
. .
. .
. .
an1 x1 + an 2 x2 + an 3 x3 + ... + ann xn = bn

(n-1) steps of forward elimination

 Forward Elimination
Step 1
For Equation 2, divide Equation 1 by a11 and
multiply by a21 .

 a21 
 a ( a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + ... + a1n xn = b1 )
 11 
a21 a21 a21
a21 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = b1
a11 a11 a11
 Forward Elimination
Subtract the result from Equation 2.
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + ... + a2 n xn = b2
a21 a21 a21
− a21 x1 + a a12 x2 + ... + a a1n xn = a b1
_________________________________________________
11 11 11

 a21   a21  a21

 a22 − a12  x2 + ... +  a2 n − a1n  xn = b2 − b1
 a11   a11  a11

or a x + ... + a x = b
'
22 2
'
2n n
'
2
 Forward Elimination
Repeat this procedure for the remaining
equations to reduce the set of equations as
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + ... + a1n xn = b1
'
a22 x2 + a23
'
x3 + ... + a2' n xn = b2'
'
a32 x2 + a33
'
x3 + ... + a3' n xn = b3'
. . .
. . .
. . .

an' 2 x2 + an' 3 x3 + ... + ann

'
xn = bn'

End of Step 1
 Forward Elimination
Step 2
Repeat the same procedure for the 3rd term of
Equation 3.
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + ... + a1n xn = b1
'
a22 x2 + a23
'
x3 + ... + a2' n xn = b2'
"
a33 x3 + ... + a3" n xn = b3"
. .
. .
. .

an" 3 x3 + ... + ann

"
xn = bn"
End of Step 2
 Forward Elimination
At the end of (n-1) Forward Elimination steps, the
system of equations will look like
a11 x1 + a12 x 2 + a13 x3 + ... + a1n x n = b1
'
a22 x2 + a23
'
x3 + ... + a2' n xn = b2'
a x + ... + a x = b
"
33 3
"
3n n
"
3
. .
. .
. .

( n −1) (n −1 )
ann xn = bn

End of Step (n-1)

Matrix Form at End of Forward
Elimination
a11 a12 a13  a1n   x1   b1 
0     ' 
'
a22 a23  a2 n x2
' '
b2
    
0 0 a33  a3n   x3  =  b3 
" " "

    
           
 0 0 0 0 ann   xn  bn 
(n −1 )
    (n-1 )
 Back Substitution
Solve each equation starting from the last equation

25 5 1   x1   106.8 
 0 − 4.8 − 1.56  x  = − 96.21
   2  
 0 0 0.7   x3   0.735 

Example of a system of 3 equations

Back Substitution Starting Eqns
a11 x1 + a12 x 2 + a13 x3 + ... + a1n x n = b1
'
a22 x2 + a23
'
x3 + ... + a2' n xn = b2'
"
a33 x3 + ... + an" xn = b3"
. .
. .
. .

( n −1) (n −1 )
ann xn = bn
 Back Substitution
Start with the last equation because it has only one unknown
( n −1)
b
xn = n
( n −1)
a nn
 Back Substitution
( n −1)
b
xn = n
( n −1)
a nn

bi(i −1) − ai(,ii−+11) xi +1 − ai(,ii−+12) xi + 2 − ... − ai(,in−1) xn

xi = (i −1) for i = n − 1,...,1
aii

(i −1)
− ∑ aij(i −1) x j
n
bi
j =i +1
xi = (i −1) for i = n − 1,...,1
a ii
 THE END

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 Additional Resources
For all resources on this topic such as digital audiovisual
lectures, primers, textbook chapters, multiple-choice tests,
worksheets in MATLAB, MATHEMATICA, MathCad and
MAPLE, blogs, related physical problems, please visit

http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu/topics/gaussian_elimi
nation.html
 Naïve Gauss Elimination
Example

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 Example 1
The upward velocity of a rocket is given at three
different times

Table 1 Velocity vs. time data.

Time, t (s ) Velocity, v (m/s )

5 106.8
8 177.2
12 279.2

The velocity data is approximated by a polynomial as:

v(t ) = a1t 2 + a 2 t + a3 , 5 ≤ t ≤ 12.

Find the velocity at t=6 seconds .
 Example 1 Cont.
Assume
v(t ) = a1t 2 + a2t + a3 , 5 ≤ t ≤ 12.

Results in a matrix template of the form:

t12 t1 1  a1   v1 
 2   a  = v 
t 2 t2 1  2  2
t32
 t3 1
   
 a3   v3 


Using data from Table 1, the matrix becomes:

 25 5 1  a1  106.8 
 64 8 1 a  = 177.2 
   2  
144 12 1  a3  279.2
 Example 1 Cont.
 25 5 1  a1  106.8   25 5 1  106.8 
 64 8 1 a 2  = 177.2  ⇒  64 8 1  177.2 
       
144 12 1  a 3  279.2 144 12 1  279.2

1. Forward Elimination
2. Back Substitution
Forward Elimination
 Number of Steps of Forward
Elimination
Number of steps of forward elimination is
(n−1)=(3−1)=2
 Forward Elimination: Step 1
 25 5 1  106.8  Divide Equation 1 by 25 and
 64 8 1  177.2 
  64
multiply it by 64, = 2.56 .
144 12 1  279.2 25
[25 5 1  106.8]× 2.56 = [64 12.8 2.56  273.408]

. [64 8 1  177.2]
Subtract the result from − [64 12.8 2.56  273.408]
Equation 2
[0 − 4.8 − 1.56  − 96.208]

 25 5 1  106.8 
Substitute new equation for  0 − 4.8 − 1.56  − 96.208
Equation 2  
144 12 1  279.2 
Forward Elimination: Step 1 (cont.)
 25 5 1  106.8 
 0 − 4.8 − 1.56  − 96.208
Divide Equation 1 by 25 and
  144
144 12 1  279.2  multiply it by 144, 25 = 5.76 .

[25 5 1  106.8]× 5.76 = [144 28.8 5.76  615.168]

Subtract the result from [144 1  279.2]

.
12
Equation 3 − [144 28.8 5.76  615.168]
[0 − 16.8 − 4.76  − 335.968]
25 5 1  106.8 
Substitute new equation for  
Equation 3  0 − 4.8 − 1. 56  − 96 . 208 
 0 − 16.8 − 4.76  − 335.968
 Forward Elimination: Step 2
25 5 1  106.8  Divide Equation 2 by −4.8
 0 − 4.8 − 1.56  − 96.208 
  and multiply it by −16.8,
 0 − 16.8 − 4.76  − 335.968 − 16.8
= 3.5 .
− 4.8
[0 − 4.8 − 1.56  − 96.208]× 3.5 = [0 − 16.8 − 5.46  − 336.728]
[0 − 16.8 − 4.76  335.968]
Subtract the result from
Equation 3 − [0 − 16.8 − 5.46  − 336.728]
[0 0 0.7  0.76]

25 5 1  106.8 
Substitute new equation for  0 − 4.8 − 1.56  − 96.208
Equation 3  
 0 0 0.7  0.76 
Back Substitution
 Back Substitution
25 5 1  106.8  25 5 1   a1   106.8 
 0 − 4.8 − 1.56  − 96.2 ⇒  0 − 4.8 − 1.56 a  = − 96.208
     2  
 0 0 0.7  0.7   0 0 0.7   a3   0.76 

Solving for a3
0.7 a3 = 0.76
0.76
a3 =
0.7
a3 = 1.08571
 Back Substitution (cont.)
25 5 1   a1   106.8 
 0 − 4.8 − 1.56 a  = − 96.208
   2  
 0 0 0.7   a3   0.76 

Solving for a2
− 4.8a2 − 1.56a3 = −96.208
− 96.208 + 1.56a3
a2 =
− 4.8
− 96.208 + 1.56 ×1.08571
a2 =
− 4.8
a2 = 19.6905
 Back Substitution (cont.)
25 5 1   a1   106.8 
 0 − 4.8 − 1.56 a  = − 96.2
   2  
 0 0 0.7   a3   0.76 

Solving for a1
25a1 + 5a2 + a3 = 106.8
106.8 − 5a2 − a3
a1 =
25
106.8 − 5 ×19.6905 − 1.08571
=
25
= 0.290472
Naïve Gaussian Elimination Solution
 25 5 1  a1  106.8 
 64 8 1 a2  = 177.2 
     
144 12 1  a3  279.2

 a1  0.290472
a  =  19.6905 
 2  
 a3   1.08571 
 Example 1 Cont.
Solution  a1  0.290472
a  =  19.6905 
The solution vector is
 2  
 a3   1.08571 

The polynomial that passes through the three data points is then:

v(t ) = a1t 2 + a2t + a3

= 0.290472t 2 + 19.6905t + 1.08571, 5 ≤ t ≤ 12

v(6 ) = 0.290472(6 ) + 19.6905(6 ) + 1.08571

2

= 129.686 m/s.
 THE END

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Naïve Gauss Elimination
Pitfalls

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Pitfall#1. Division by zero
10 x2 − 7 x3 = 3
6 x1 + 2 x2 + 3x3 = 11
5 x1 − x2 + 5 x3 = 9

0 10 − 7  x1   3 
6 2 3   x2  = 11
    
5 − 1 5   x3   9 
Is division by zero an issue here?
12 x1 + 10 x2 − 7 x3 = 15
6 x1 + 5 x2 + 3x3 = 14
5 x1 − x2 + 5 x3 = 9

12 10 − 7  x1  15
6 5 3   x2  = 14
    
 5 − 1 5   x3   9 
 Is division by zero an issue here?
YES
12 x1 + 10 x2 − 7 x3 = 15
6 x1 + 5 x2 + 3x3 = 14
24 x1 − x2 + 5 x3 = 28

12 10 − 7  x1  15 12 10 − 7  x1   15 

6 5 3   x2  = 14  0
     0 6.5  x2  = 6.5
    
24 − 1 5   x3  28 12 − 21 19   x3  − 2

Division by zero is a possibility at any step

of forward elimination
Pitfall#2. Large Round-off Errors
 20 15 10  x1   45 
− 3 − 2.249 7   x  = 1.751
   2  
 5 1 3   x3   9 

Exact Solution

 x1  1
 x  = 1
 2  
 x3  1
Pitfall#2. Large Round-off Errors
 20 15 10  x1   45 
− 3 − 2.249 7   x  = 1.751
   2  
 5 1 3   x3   9 

Solve it on a computer using 6 significant digits with chopping

 x1   0.9625 
 x  =  1.05 
 2  
 x3  0.999995
Pitfall#2. Large Round-off Errors
 20 15 10  x1   45 
− 3 − 2.249 7   x  = 1.751
   2  
 5 1 3   x3   9 

Solve it on a computer using 5 significant digits with chopping

 x1   0.625 
 x  =  1.5 
 2  
 x3  0.99995

Is there a way to reduce the round off error?

 Avoiding Pitfalls
Increase the number of significant digits
• Decreases round-off error
• Does not avoid division by zero
 Avoiding Pitfalls

Gaussian Elimination with Partial Pivoting

• Avoids division by zero
• Reduces round off error
 THE END

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 Gauss Elimination with
Partial Pivoting

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 Pitfalls of Naïve Gauss Elimination
• Possible division by zero
• Large round-off errors
 Avoiding Pitfalls
Increase the number of significant digits
• Decreases round-off error
• Does not avoid division by zero
 Avoiding Pitfalls
Gaussian Elimination with Partial Pivoting
• Avoids division by zero
• Reduces round off error
 What is Different About Partial
Pivoting?
At the beginning of the kth step of forward elimination,
find the maximum of

akk , ak +1,k ,................, ank

If the maximum of the values is a pk
in the p th row, k ≤ p ≤ n, then switch rows p and k.
Matrix Form at Beginning of 2nd
Step of Forward Elimination
a11 a12 a13  a1n   x1   b1 
 0 a' '
a23  ' 
a 2 n x2   ' 
b2
 22    
 0 a32
'
a '
33  a3n   x3  =  b3 
' '

    
           
 0 a'n 2 a '
n3 a '
n4
'
   
ann   xn  bn 
'
 Example (2nd step of FE)

6 14 5.1 3.7 6   x1   5 
0 − 7 6 1 2   x 2   − 6
    
0 4 12 1 11  x3  =  8 
    
 0 9 23 6 8   x 4  9
 
0 − 17 12 11 43  x5   3 

Which two rows would you switch?

Example (2nd step of FE)

6 14 5.1 3.7 6   x1   5 
0 − 17 12 11 43  x   3 
  2   
0 4 12 1 11  x3  =  8 
    
 0 9 23 6 8 x
   
4 9
0 − 7 6 1 2   x5   − 6

Switched Rows
 Gaussian Elimination
with Partial Pivoting
A method to solve simultaneous linear
equations of the form [A][X]=[C]

Two steps
1. Forward Elimination
2. Back Substitution
 Forward Elimination
Same as naïve Gauss elimination method
except that we switch rows before each
of the (n-1) steps of forward elimination.
Example: Matrix Form at Beginning
of 2nd Step of Forward Elimination
a11 a12 a13  a1n   x1   b1 
 0 a' '    ' 
a23 
'
a 2 n x2 b2
 22    
 0 a32'
a33 
'
a3n   x3  =  b3 
' '

    
          
 0 a'n 2 ' '
an 3 an 4 ann   xn  bn 
'
    '
Matrix Form at End of Forward
Elimination
a11 a12 a13  a1n   x1   b1 
 0 a'     ' 
a23  a2 n x2
' '
b2
 22    
0 0 a33  a3n   x3  =  b3 
" " "

    
          
 0 0 0 0 ann   xn  bn 
(n −1 )
    (n-1 )
Back Substitution Starting Eqns
a11 x1 + a12 x 2 + a13 x3 + ... + a1n x n = b1
'
a22 x2 + a23
'
x3 + ... + a2' n xn = b2'
"
a33 x3 + ... + an" xn = b3"
. .
. .
. .

( n −1) (n −1 )
ann xn = bn
 Back Substitution
( n −1)
b
xn = n
( n −1)
a nn

(i −1) n
(i −1)
bi − ∑ aij x j
j =i +1
xi = (i −1) for i = n − 1,...,1
a ii
 THE END

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 Gauss Elimination with
Partial Pivoting
Example

http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu
 Example 2
Solve the following set of equations
by Gaussian elimination with partial
pivoting

 25 5 1  a1  106.8 
 64   
8 1 a 2 = 177.2  
     
144 12 1  a 3  279.2
 Example 2 Cont.
 25 5 1  a1  106.8   25 5 1  106.8 
 64 8 1 a  = 177.2  ⇒  
    
2   64 8 1  177 .2 
144 12 1  a3  279.2 144 12 1  279.2

1. Forward Elimination
2. Back Substitution
Forward Elimination
 Number of Steps of Forward
Elimination

Number of steps of forward elimination is

(n−1)=(3−1)=2
 Forward Elimination: Step 1
• Examine absolute values of first column, first row
and below.
25 , 64 , 144
• Largest absolute value is 144 and exists in row 3.
• Switch row 1 and row 3.

 25 5 1  106.8  144 12 1  279.2

 64 8 1  177.2  ⇒  64 8 1  177.2 
   
144 12 1  279.2  25 5 1  106.8 
Forward Elimination: Step 1 (cont.)
144 12 1  279.2 Divide Equation 1 by 144 and
 64 8 1  177.2  64
  multiply it by 64, = 0.4444.
 25 5 1  106.8  144

[144 12 1  279.2]× 0.4444 = [63.99 5.333 0.4444  124.1]

.
Subtract the result from [64 8 1  177.2]
Equation 2 − [63.99 5.333 0.4444  124.1]
[0 2.667 0.5556  53.10]

Substitute new equation for 144 12 1  279.2

Equation 2  0 2.667 0.5556  53.10 
 
 25 5 1  106.8 
Forward Elimination: Step 1 (cont.)
144 12 1  279.2 Divide Equation 1 by 144 and
 0 2.667 0.5556  53.10  25
  multiply it by 25, = 0.1736.
 25 5 1  106.8  144

[144 12 1  279.2]× 0.1736 = [25.00 2.083 0.1736  48.47]

.
[25 5 1  106.8]
Subtract the result from
Equation 3 − [25 2.083 0.1736  48.47]
[0 2.917 0.8264  58.33]

Substitute new equation for 144 12 1  279.2

Equation 3  0 2.667 0.5556  53.10
 
 0 2.917 0.8264  58.33
 Forward Elimination: Step 2
• Examine absolute values of second column, second row
and below.
2.667 , 2.917
• Largest absolute value is 2.917 and exists in row 3.
• Switch row 2 and row 3.

144 12 1  279.2 144 12 1  279.2

 0 2.667 0.5556  53.10  ⇒  0 2.917 0.8264  58.33
   
 0 2.917 0.8264  58.33  0 2.667 0.5556  53.10 
 Forward Elimination: Step 2 (cont.)
Divide Equation 2 by 2.917 and
144 12 1  279.2
 0 2.917 0.8264  58.33 multiply it by 2.667,
  2.667
 0 2.667 0.5556  53.10  = 0.9143.
2.917
[0 2.917 0.8264  58.33]× 0.9143 = [0 2.667 0.7556  53.33]

.
[0 2.667 0.5556  53.10]
Subtract the result from − [0 2.667 0.7556  53.33]
Equation 3
[0 0 − 0.2  − 0.23]

144 12 1  279.2 
Substitute new equation for  0 2.917 0.8264  58.33 
Equation 3  
 0 0 − 0.2  − 0.23
Back Substitution
 Back Substitution
144 12 1  279.2  144 12 1   a1   279.2 
 0 2.917 0.8264  58.33  ⇒  0 2.917 0.8264 a  =  58.33 
     2  
 0 0 − 0.2  − 0.23  0 0 − 0.2   a3  − 0.23

Solving for a3
− 0.2a3 = −0.23
− 0.23
a3 =
− 0.2
= 1.15
 Back Substitution (cont.)
144 12 1   a1   279.2 
 0 2.917 0.8264 a  =  58.33 
   2  
 0 0 − 0.2   a3   − 0.23

Solving for a2
2.917 a2 + 0.8264a3 = 58.33
58.33 − 0.8264a3
a2 =
2.917
58.33 − 0.8264 ×1.15
=
2.917
= 19.67
 Back Substitution (cont.)
144 12 1   a1   279.2 
 0 2.917 0.8264 a  =  58.33 
   2  
 0 0 − 0.2   a3   − 0.23

Solving for a1
144a1 + 12a2 + a3 = 279.2
279.2 − 12a2 − a3
a1 =
144
279.2 − 12 ×19.67 − 1.15
=
144
= 0.2917
Gaussian Elimination with Partial
Pivoting Solution

 25 5 1  a1  106.8 
 64 8 1 a  = 177.2 
   2  
144 12 1  a3  279.2

 a1  0.2917 
a  =  19.67 
 2  
 a3   1.15 
 Gauss Elimination with
Partial Pivoting
Another Example

http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu
 Partial Pivoting: Example
Consider the system of equations
10 x1 − 7 x2 = 7
− 3 x1 + 2.099 x2 + 6 x3 = 3.901
5 x1 − x2 + 5 x3 = 6
In matrix form
 10 − 7 0  x1   7 
− 3 2.099 6  x  3.901
   2 =  
 5 − 1 5  x3   6 

Solve using Gaussian Elimination with Partial Pivoting using five

significant digits with chopping
 Partial Pivoting: Example
Forward Elimination: Step 1
Examining the values of the first column
|10|, |-3|, and |5| or 10, 3, and 5
The largest absolute value is 10, which means, to
follow the rules of Partial Pivoting, we switch
row1 with row1.

Performing Forward Elimination

 10 − 7 0  x1   7  10 −7 0  x1   7 
− 3 2.099 6  x  = 3.901

 5
 2   
− 1 5  x3   6 
⇒ 
 0 − 0.001 6  x  = 6.001
 0 2.5
 2   
5  x3   2.5 
 Partial Pivoting: Example
Forward Elimination: Step 2
Examining the values of the first column
|-0.001| and |2.5| or 0.0001 and 2.5
The largest absolute value is 2.5, so row 2 is
switched with row 3

Performing the row swap

10 −7 0  x1   7  10 −7 0  x1   7 
 0 − 0.001 6  x  = 6.001

 0
 2   
5  x3   2.5 
⇒ 0
 2.5 5   x  =  2.5 
 2   
2.5  0 − 0.001 6  x3  6.001
 Partial Pivoting: Example
Forward Elimination: Step 2

Performing the Forward Elimination results in:

10 − 7 0   x1   7 
 0 2.5 5   x  =  2.5 
  2   
 0 0 6.002  x3  6.002
 Partial Pivoting: Example
Back Substitution
Solving the equations through back substitution

10 − 7
6.002
0   x1   7  x3 = =1
 0 2.5 5   x  =  2.5  6.002
  2   
 0 0 6.002  x3  6.002 2.5 − 5 x3
x2 = = −1
2.5

7 + 7 x 2 − 0 x3
x1 = =0
10
 Partial Pivoting: Example
Compare the calculated and exact solution
The fact that they are equal is coincidence, but it
does illustrate the advantage of Partial Pivoting

 x1   0   x1   0 
[X ] calculated =  x2  = − 1 [X ] exact =  x 2  = − 1
 x3   1   x3   1 
 THE END

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Determinant of a Square Matrix
Using Naïve Gauss Elimination
Example

http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu
 Theorem of Determinants
If a multiple of one row of [A]nxn is added or
subtracted to another row of [A]nxn to result in
[B]nxn then det(A)=det(B)
 Theorem of Determinants
The determinant of an upper triangular matrix
[A]nxn is given by

det (A ) = a11 × a22 × ... × aii × ... × ann

n
= ∏ aii
i =1
 Forward Elimination of a
Square Matrix
Using forward elimination to transform [A]nxn to an
upper triangular matrix, [U]nxn.

[A]n×n → [U ] n×n

det ( A) = det (U )
 Example
Using naïve Gaussian elimination find the
determinant of the following square
matrix.
 25 5 1
 64 8 1
 
144 12 1
Forward Elimination
 Forward Elimination: Step 1
 25 5 1
 64 8 1 Divide Equation 1 by 25 and
  64
multiply it by 64, = 2.56 .
144 12 1 25
[25 5 1]× 2.56 = [64 12.8 2.56]
. [64 8 1]
Subtract the result from − [64 12.8 2.56]
Equation 2
[0 − 4.8 − 1.56]
 25 5 1 
Substitute new equation for  0 − 4.8 − 1.56
Equation 2  
144 12 1 
 Forward Elimination: Step 1 (cont.)
 25 5 1 
 0 − 4.8 − 1.56 Divide Equation 1 by 25 and
  multiply it by 144, 144 = 5.76 .
144 12 1  25
[25 5 1]× 5.76 = [144 28.8 5.76]
[144 12 1]
− [144 28.8 5.76]
.
Subtract the result from
Equation 3
[0 − 16.8 − 4.76]

25 5 1 
Substitute new equation for  0 − 4.8 − 1.56 
Equation 3  
 0 − 16.8 − 4.76
 Forward Elimination: Step 2
Divide Equation 2 by −4.8
25 5 1 
 0 − 4.8 − 1.56  and multiply it by −16.8,
  − 16.8
 0 − 16.8 − 4.76 = 3.5 .
− 4.8
([0 − 4.8 − 1.56]) × 3.5 = [0 − 16.8 − 5.46]
.
[0 − 16.8 − 4.76]
Subtract the result from
Equation 3 − [0 − 16.8 − 5.46]
[0 0 0.7]

Substitute new equation for

25 5 1 
 0 − 4.8 − 1.56
Equation 3  
 0 0 0.7 
 Finding the Determinant
After forward elimination

 25 5 1 25 5 1 
 64 8 1 →  0 − 4.8 − 1.56
   
144 12 1  0 0 0.7 
.

det (A ) = u11 × u 22 × u33

= 25 × (− 4.8)× 0.7
= −84.00
 Summary

-Forward Elimination
-Back Substitution
-Pitfalls
-Improvements
-Partial Pivoting
-Determinant of a Matrix
 Additional Resources
For all resources on this topic such as digital audiovisual
lectures, primers, textbook chapters, multiple-choice tests,
worksheets in MATLAB, MATHEMATICA, MathCad and
MAPLE, blogs, related physical problems, please visit

http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu/topics/gaussian_elimi
nation.html
 THE END

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