DESIGN OF SEGMENTAL

TUNNEL LININGS
 SEGMENTAL LININGS
• Usually used in conjunction with shield
machines
• Used for the majority of the MRT and
DTSS tunnels
• The MRT tunnels have ‘one-pass’ lining
systems
• The DTSS tunnels have two pass linings,
an initial segmental lining, and an inner
lining to allow protection from the corrosive
sewage
 SEGMENTAL LININGS
• Modern linings are generally of reinforced
concrete
Other materials used:
• Spheroidal graphite iron (modern
development of cast iron) – high flexibility,
high resistance to corrosion, high cost
• Steel
• Steel & plastic fibre reinforced concrete
(the way of the future?)
 CONCRETE SEGMENTS

SUPPORTING THE GROUND AT THE TAIL

OF THE SHIELD
 RING DESIGN ISSUES
• Earth and ground water pressures, segment
design for those pressures
• Joint design
• Jacking and grouting loads
• Grouting around lining
• Demoulding, handling and stacking
• Fire Protection
• Durability
• Watertightness
• Effect of future, adjacent developments
• Tunnels in close proximity
SEGMENTAL LINED TUNNEL
 RING LAYOUT
Bolt Pocket

Staggered key/joints –
gives more rigidity
Key
Top Top

Circumferential joint
Longitudinal (or radial) joint
 LINING DESIGN FOR CCL 2 & 3

General Arrangement
– Internal diameter: 5.8m
– Thickness: 275mm, Length: 1.4m
– 5 segments (67.5o) + key (22.5o)
– Radial joints to be staggered, i.e. to
avoid cruciform joints
– Curved bolts of 24mm diameter in bolt
holes of 34 mm diameter (straight bolts
being used for CCL 4 and 5)
SOIL LOADS ON RING
 GROUND LOADS

ph = K x pv
so pd = ((1-K)/2) x pv
Total load = Uniform load + distortional load + water load
 VALUES FOR K FOR SINGAPORE
LTA Design Criteria (based on
measurement, back-calculation)
• E,M, F2 0.75
• B,O,G4,F1 0.5
• S4 0.4
• S2, S3 (FCBB), G2 0.3
? Not sure how much these values reflect true ‘Ko’,
how much they are influenced by construction?
Symbol Description
ro radius to extrados of tunnel lining
γ average unit weight of overburden
k constant
ν12)
Young's modulus for lining ( replaced by E/(1-ν
E where lining continuous along tunnel)
Ec, ν Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio of ground
second moment of inertia of lining per unit
I length of tunnel
Ie effective value of I for a jointed lining
Ij effective value of I at joint in a lining
ratio of radius of lining centroid to that of
η extrados
hw water table from ground surface
Based on Muir Wood (1975) and Curtis
(1976), moments and forces can be
calculated as:

Moment, M = ro2 (2Sn + St) cos2θ

θ/6

Deflection, u1 = ro4(2Sn+St)cos2θ
θ/18EI
Normal Force, N = ro (Sn+2St)cos2θ θ/3 +
pwro + No

where Sn and St are the normal and shear

stresses
 Muir Wood/Curtis (cont.)
Normal Stress, Sn = (1-Q2)po/2[1+Q2(3-
2ν
ν/3-4ν
ν)],
Shear Stress, St = (1+2Q2)po/2[1+Q2(3-
2ν
ν/3-4ν
ν)]

Q2 = Ecro3/12EI(1+ν
ν)

No = σv'(1+k)ro/(2+(1-k)(2-2ν
ν)Ecro/EA(1-
2νν)(1+νν))
 Muir Wood/Curtis (cont.)

If shear between lining and ground is

ignored,
Sn = 3(3-4ν
ν)po/2(4Q2+5-6ν)
ν),
ν)
M =poro2 (3-4ν
ν)cos2θ
θ/2(5-6ν
ν+4Q2)
u1 =ro4(2Sn)cos2θ
θ/18EI
N = poro (3-4ν
ν)cos2θ
θ/2(5-6ν
ν+4Q2) + pwro
 LOADS ON RING
• Water loading (uniform)
• Uniform earth loading (uniform)
• Distortional loading (not uniform)
Normal stresses calculated by superposition
of effects of all three
Moments in lining due to distortional loading
only
 TYPICAL N AND M FOR
UNJOINTED RING
M = Moment in lining
N = Normal force in lining
 FOUR JOINTS IN LINING
- EFFECT ON MOMENTS 1

No effect on lining
Stiffness – joints at
points of
contraflexure
 FOUR JOINTS IN LINING
- EFFECT ON MOMENTS 2

Significant
Reduction in
Stiffness and
therefore moment
 EFFECT OF JOINTS
• If more than 4 joints, then the lining will
always be less stiff than an unjointed
lining. Use formula from Muir Wood:
Il = Ij + (4/n) 2 I
Where: Il is moment of inertia of jointed lining
Ij is the moment of inertia of the joint
n is the number of joints (if >4)
I is the moment of inertia of the unjointed lining
 EFFECT OF JOINTS
• More joints means more flexibility, which
means larger deflection, but less moment
• Linings often designed allowing for joints
to calculate maximum deflection (worst
case), but no joints to calculate maximum
moment (also worst case)
 SEGMENT DESIGN – TREAT AS
SHORT COLUMN

M
DESIGN AND DETAILING OF
JOINTS
THREE METHODS OF FORMING
JOINTS
 CASTING & CONSTRUCION
TOLERANCES – EFFECT ON JOINTS

Block joint – small rotation causes load to be thrown into side of block
ROTATION AT JOINT
ECCENTRICITY DUE TO STEP

e2 = R1.s/(R1-R2), for concave / convex joint

e2 =s/2 for convex / convex joint, as R2=-R1

Convex / convex minimises effect of stepping
 EFFECT OF ECCENTRICITY
• Causes additional moment in segment.
Increase is: (e1 + e2).N
• Position of contact affects splitting forces
and joint detailing
• Results in offset between waterproofing
gaskets
SPLITTING AT JOINT – CAUSED
BY TENSILE STRESSES
 DESIGN OF CONVEX/
CONCAVE JOINTS

2b is the width of the contact area

p is the maximum contact pressure
DESIGN OF CONVEX/
CONVEX JOINTS

2b is the width of the contact area

pmax is the maximum contact pressure
TENSILE SPLITTING STRESSES
 JOINT
DETAILING
1. Reinforcement to avoid
splitting at joint must be
fully anchored – full
strength weld or mat
2. Keep contact zone
>50mm from edge of
segment
3. Key width should be >2x
segment thickness to
avoid overlapping
tension zones
Bars at radial joint
welded
JACKING & GROUTING
LOADS
SHOVE RAMS

Typically 100T per ram

 LATERAL BENDING LOADS
CAUSED BY POOR BUILD

Can also result from:

• highly asymmetrical jacking forces
• use of overly fluid, long setting grouts
 DESIGN TO MINIMISE DAMAGE
DURING SHOVING
• Place reinforcement to form beams on the long
sides of the segment, which increases the
resistance to bending of the segment
• If leading edge of ring is not plane, the shoving
forces can cause cracking, as it is not possible to
provide sufficient resistance to potential loads.
Therefore important to keep leading edge of ring in
a plane – use packing if necessary to correct
• Need to specify grouts that hold the ring in place
during shoving – otherwise steps/lips can develop
Reinforcement detailed
to form beam at circle
joint
GROUTING AROUND
LINING
GROUT AROUND LINING, OPEN
FACE SHIELD IN BOULDER BED
PIPES FOR
GROUTING
LAID ALONG THE
INSIDE OF THE
TAILSKIN
 PURPOSE OF GROUTING
AROUND THE RINGS
• Filling the void reduces the settlement
• Provide even contact between the ground
and the ring – hence even loading. Poor
grouting has resulted in two major tunnel
failures in UK.
• Hold the ring during shoving – if the rings
are able to move around there will be
cracking and stepping, and serious loss of
durability
 GROUTING CONTROL
• Grout to a minimum pressure,
independent of volume (typically slightly
higher than water pressure)
• Grout to a minimum volume (typically
minimum volume of void around ring)
• Grout to a maximum pressure (typically
about overburden pressure), but only if
minimum volume has been achieved
• Grouting controls should be specified by
designer, at least in general terms
CONTROLLING THE FLOTATION
OF THE RING
• The bouyancy force per m of lining (K) is:
K=(πD2/4)(ρg- ρt)g
Where D is the diameter of the lining, ρg is
the density of the grout and ρt is the
density of the tunnel (including the air
inside)
• The shear strength of the grout to resist
such forces, τy = =(πs/4)(ρg- ρt)g,
Where s is the width of the tail void
 GROUT REQUIREMENTS
• Must be pumped through small grout pipes
(typically 25mm ID)
• Must change properties soon after
injection, to gain shear strength and fix
ring in place
• Long term strength not important – but
must be durable, not subject to attack by
groundwater
 GROUTS
• Fast setting – i.e. cement/silicate – gives
inItial gel in about 2 minutes – need to
inject using 2 lines, mix at point of injection
– problems with clogging of lines
• High shear – typically sand/fly ash/cement
or lime/superplasticizer – grading of sand
important
 GROUTS - TESTING
• Fast setting – Time to gel, strength before
next shove (say 30 minutes). Strength at 1
week + of less importance than quick
strength. Only small strength required –
say 200kPa.
• High shear – Yield, by scissometre,
workability, by slump cone, bleed under
pressure by baroid filter press, seperation
in water
DEMOULDING, HANDLING
AND STACKING
CAGE FOR
SEGMENT – IN
MOULD
After pouring the concrete, setting
and curing, the segment must be
removed from the mould, moved
and stacked.

To avoid cracking, ignore

reinforcement and ensure that the
tension stresses are less than
the modulus of rupture.

Ft = 0.45√Fcu/Load factor

Use dynamic load factor of 1.5 for

Demoulding.
 CONCRETE SEGMENTS

If supports are too far apart or too

close together the centre of the
segment will crack

Too close together – ideally

should be 0.21 x length of
segment from end

STACKING OF SEGMENTS – AT CASTING YARD,

DURING TRANPORTATION AND ON SITE
FIRE PROTECTION
 FIRE RESISTANCE
• Following CP 65, a minimum 240mm
segment thickness required to meet
‘deemed to comply’ provisions
• For 6m diameter tunnels less than about
30m in depth, this requirement governs
the thickness of the lining
• Even meeting the ‘deemed to comply’
provisions does not guarantee
performance in a fire
EXPLOSIVE SPALLING OF CONCRETE –
CAUSED BY STEAM ESCAPING
 FIRE PROTECTION –
POSSIBLE MEASURES

1. Full restraint of
reinforcement
2. Use of fire protection
boards
3. Use of polypropylene
fibres, added to
concrete mix – in a fire
these melt, letting out
the steam that otherwise
causes explosive
spalling
 DURABILITY &
WATERTIGHTNESS
CONCENTRATION OF SALT DUE TO WATER
LEAKAGE INTO TRANSIT TUNNEL
 WATERPROOFING THE
SEGMENT
• Use low permeability concrete – good mix
design, aggregate selection, additives
(such as silica fume)
• Apply waterproofing compound, such as
epoxy paint
Coated segments for
CCL 4
 CONCRETE SEGMENTS

GASKET GROOVE – GASKETS TYPICALLY GLUED

INTO PLACE
4xhydroswelling gasket, as used on NEL-
Swells in contact with water
EPDM gasket, as used on NEL – requirement
to have two gaskets, one EPDM
one hydroswelling

EPDM has hollow structure

- Gives compressibility
Example of layout used
on NEL – flat block joint,
separate EPDM and
swelling gaskets
EPDM GASKET
Ability to seal over significant
range of gap, even with steps
 EPDM GASKET
Must consider both the sealing capacity of the gasket at maximum
gap and the force on the lining at minimum gap – may break
off corner of segment.
EPDM reasonably flexible, because of hollow structure
 SEALING CAPACITY OF
HYDROSWELLING GASKET

Rapid reduction in sealing capacity with gap size- particularly in salt water
FORCE/COMPRESSION OF
HYDROPHILIC GASKET
Co-extruded EPDM and hydroswelling gasket
as used on Circle line,
only single gasket required
Single gasket allows wider gasket to be used
– greater tolerance for steps
SINGLE VS DOUBLE GASKET
Advantages:
• Solo EPDM can be a problem at corners –
hydroswelling will seal if on EPDM carrier
• Solo, low hydroswelling, cannot seal if there is a
gap due to build tolerances, joint rotation
• Solo, high hydroswelling suffer large loss of
swelling with time
• Can use wider gasket if only one – can cope with
larger build tolerances
Disadvantage:
• Only one line of defence - if gasket is damaged
 GASKET TESTING
• Testing should be specified by designer
• Typically, test pressure to be resisted is
twice maximum current water pressure –
to allow for aging of gaskets
• Test step (offset of gaskets) usually higher
than maximum specified step in
construction tolerances
TESTING FOR C824
 ACHIEVING DURABILITY
• High strength, low permeability concrete
• Crack width control (0.2mm normal case,
0.3mm considering future developments)
• Coating to reduce permeability further
(used to be coal tar epoxy, now using a
curing compound)
• Joints - Good gaskets, good build, good
grout
• Grout holes – swelling gasket on plug
 WATERPROOF LININGS
• Minimise water flow into tunnel
(consolidation settlements, size of sumps
and pumps)
• Most importantly, needed for durability of
reinforced concrete lining
• Need to consider both cracks in concrete
and watertightness of joints – typically
20km of joint/km of MRT tunnel
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
 FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
• Future developments tend to cluster
around infrastructure hubs
• Infrastructure tunnels should make some
allowance for future development
• LTA tunnels designed for additional 15mm
distortion on diameter
• Done by calculating additional moment
from added distortion
 DAMAGED AND LEAKING LININGS

A cracked and/or leaking tunnel will

be a maintenance problem for the
next 120 years +
 AVOIDING DELIVERING A
CRACKED OR LEAKING TUNNEL

What we do not want

STEPS

Segments not flush

ring-to-ring.
Gaskets do not have
required overlap,
so the joint leaks
 STEPS
• Prime cause is not using a grout that
‘holds’ the ring during shoving – if the ring
is floating in liquid grout it will move about
• Can occur if the TBM is wrenched around
a tight curve, due to the lateral forces from
the tail skin/brushes
• Can occur if the wrong taper is used, so
the shield and rings are headed in different
direction
 LEAKS

Leaks can also occur due to:

• Cracks through the
segment
• Damaged gasket
• Leakage through grout
holes
CRACKS

Segment cracked
right through, due to
bending failure.
Crack should be
epoxy grouted, but
will be long term
maintenance problem
DAMAGE DUE TO SHOVING –
CIRCLE LINE 1
 LATERAL BENDING LOADS
CAUSED BY POOR BUILD

Can also result from:

• highly asymmetrical jacking forces
• use of overly fluid, long setting grouts
 CRACKING
• Cracking of segments can also be caused
by overstressing during demoulding,
transport or stacking
• Probably will not see cracks until installed
in tunnel, when the leakage will show them
up
KEY BLOWN OUT BY EXCESSIVE
GROUT PRESSURE
Design and construction
problem

1. Parallel sides to key

gave limited resistance
2. Excessive grout
pressure
CORROSION OF N-S LINE TUNNEL
Main problem at joints, due to leakage.
Poor gaskets a major cause
 FIRE DAMAGE - STOREBELT

Explosive spalling. This can be avoiding by incorporating

Polypropylene fibres in concrete mix
QUALITY TUNNEL
Needs:
•Good design
•Good material selection
•Good moulds
•Correct casting & curing
•Careful handling
•Careful tunnelling
•Good build
•Good grouting

Everything has to be right!