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Characteristics of Singapore Marine Clay at Changi

Article  in  Geotechnical and Geological Engineering · August 2008

DOI: 10.1007/s10706-008-9179-2

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Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:431–441
DOI 10.1007/s10706-008-9179-2

ORIGINAL PAPER

Characteristics of Singapore Marine Clay at Changi

A. Arulrajah Æ M. W. Bo

Received: 22 August 2006 / Accepted: 24 February 2008 / Published online: 15 March 2008
Ó Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2008

Abstract Singapore marine clay at Changi is a out to determine the mineralogical properties and to
quartenary deposit that lies within valleys cut in the visually record the marine clay colour and texture.
Old Alluvium. It is locally known as Kallang
formation. The pre-reclamation site characterization Keywords Dissipation testing
Laboratory testing

and laboratory testing was carried out by conducting Mineralogy
Shear strength
Site investigation
marine sampling boreholes, in situ dissipation tests
and field vane test. In situ dissipation tests were List of Symbols
conducted with the piezocone, flat dilatometer, self- Cc Compression index
boring pressuremeter and BAT permeameter. The ch Coefficient of consolidation due to horizontal
purpose of the site characterization was to determine flow
the consolidation characteristics, strength character- ckv Vertical hydraulic conductivity change index
istics, stratigraphy, and mineralogy of Singapore Cc Recompression index
marine clay. The consolidation properties of marine cu Undrained shear strength
clay are required prior to land reclamation activities cv Coefficient of consolidation due to vertical flow
in order to predict the magnitude and rates of Ca Secondary compression index
settlement with the expected fill load and future eo Initial void ratio
service load as well as for the design of soil Gs Specific gravity
improvement works. The shear strength properties kh Horizontal hydraulic conductivity
are required for slope stability analyses during kv Vertical hydraulic conductivity
reclamation and for the stability analyses of shore mv Coefficient of volume compressibility
protection works. Clay mineralogy tests and photo- OCR Overconsolidation ratio
graphic identification of the marine clay was carried St Degree of sensitivity of marine clay
z Depth below seabed in meters
cbulk Bulk density
A. Arulrajah (&) cw Unit weight of water
Faculty of Engineering and Industrial Sciences (H38) 0
rvo Vertical effective stress
Hawthorn, Swinburne University of Technology,
P.O. Box 218, Melbourne, VIC 3122, Australia
e-mail: aarulrajah@swin.edu.au 1 Introduction
M. W. Bo
DST Consulting Engineers Inc., Thunder Bay, ON, The research site is located in the Changi East
Canada Reclamation site in the Republic of Singapore. The

123
432
project comprised the land reclamation and ground
improvement works for the future expansion of
Changi International Airport comprising the run-
way, taxiways, turn-offs and associated airport
facilities. The area was submerged underwater
with seabed elevation varying from -2 mCD to
-8 mCD (Admiralty Chart Datum, where mean sea
level is +1.6 mCD). The Northern Area of the
project is underlain by marine clay up to 40 m
thickness in certain areas and it is this portion of
the project area that was investigated in this
research study. A large numbers of boreholes were
carried out in the project site prior to reclamation
to obtain general characteristics and mineralogy of
Fig. 1 Project site plan
(Choa et al. 2001)
123
Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:431–441
the marine clay. Figure 1 indicates the project site
plan.
Physical and compressibility parameters of the
marine clay at Changi were characterized from the
laboratory tests while the shear strength parameters
were evaluated from the field vane shear tests data
obtained. Clay mineralogy tests and photographic
identification of the marine clay was carried out to
determine the mineralogical properties and to visu-
ally record the marine clay texture. The objective of
this paper is to report on the characteristics of the
consolidation, strength and mineralogy of Singapore
marine clay at Changi, as determined from laboratory
and in situ tests.
Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:431–441
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Marine Site Investigation
Extensive soil investigation works consisting of
marine boreholes, in situ tests and laboratory tests
were carried out for the preliminary site investigation.
Undisturbed samples taken from boreholes were
tested in the laboratory to determine the physical,
mineralogical, strength and consolidation character-
istics of the marine clay.
Marine soil investigation works were planned with
the aid of the geophysical seismic reflection survey.
Boreholes were drilled at locations with thick marine
clay and other locations for determination of the
marine clay profile. Due to the large extent of the
project area and variations in the underlying soil
profile, a large number of marine boreholes were
carried out with the use of offshore jack-up pontoons.
Continuous undisturbed sampling was carried out
throughout the marine clay layer for all boreholes.
2.2 Bathymetric and Seismic Reflection Surveys
Marine bathymetric surveys together with marine
geophysical seismic reflection surveys of the project
area were carried out with the help of a water surface-
towed boomer profiling system. The elevations of the
bases of the compressible layers and the distribution
of soft marine clay pockets deposited in submarine
valley cuts were determined from the marine bathy-
metric and seismic reflection surveys.
The seismic survey vessel was fitted with a Del
Norte DDMU 540 trisponder, Atlas Deso 20 echo
sounder and a boomer profiling system. The survey
operation was run at lines of 50 m spacing in
alternate directions. Cross lines were run at 50 m
spacing in alternate directions. For horizontal control
of the survey, a trisponder positioning system was
used to control the location of the survey vessel along
pre-computed lines. A total of four shore stations
were used at any one time. For vertical control of the
survey, the tidal reduction of the survey area was
carried out using tides observed at a tide gauge. Tidal
data was obtained from the Port of Singapore
Authority (Hydrographical Department).
The echo sounder enabled the contouring of the
seabed elevation profile while the boomer enabled the
isoline of the base elevation of the marine clay to be
433
plotted. Hence the geological sequence description
could be obtained based on the interpretation of the
boomer data and this could be correlated with
the existing marine boreholes data provided over
the survey area. Figure 2 shows the typical geological
profile of the project site.
2.3 Laboratory Testing of Singapore Marine Clay
Laboratory tests to determine the physical and
consolidation characteristics of the marine clay such
as liquid limit, moisture content and consolidation
tests were carried out on the retrieved soils samples.
The objective of these tests was to establish the
characteristics of the foundation soil and to obtain the
soil parameters needed for the design.
2.3.1 Vertical Hydraulic Conductivity
To determine the vertical hydraulic conductivity of
the Singapore marine clay at Changi, oedometer
consolidation tests were conducted. The oedometer
specimens were 63.5 mm in diameter and 19 mm in
height. The samples were conventionally trimmed
horizontally (i.e., the loading surface is perpendicular
to the axis of the sampling tube) so that the
compressibility and coefficient of consolidation due
to vertical flow could be measured. The consolidation
load was applied in 24 h loading stages with a load
increment ratio of unity. Vertical hydraulic conduc-
tivity (kv) was obtained from e-log k relation and
taken at the natural void ratio. kv values were
generally calculated from coefficient of consolidation
results:
kv ¼ cv mv cw ð1Þ
where cv is the coefficient of consolidation due to
vertical flow; mv is the coefficient of volume
compressibility and cw is the unit weight of water.
2.3.2 Horizontal Hydraulic Conductivity
As the oedometer test does not permit horizontal
drainage, Rowe cell tests (Rowe 1966) which have
provisions for horizontal drainage were used to
determine coefficient of consolidation due to hori-
zontal flow (ch) and horizontal hydraulic conductivity
(kh) of the marine clay. The Rowe cell used was
75 mm in diameter and 30 mm in thickness. The
123
434
Fig. 2 Typical geological
profile at the project site
prepared samples were 72.5 mm in diameter and as
such the thickness of the side drain was 2.5 mm. The
consolidation load was applied in 24 hours stages
with a load increment ratio of unity. Horizontal
hydraulic conductivity, kh was taken from values at
the natural void ratio and calculated from coefficient
of consolidation.
2.4 In situ Dissipation Testing of Singapore
Marine Clay
In situ dissipation tests provide a means of evaluating
the in situ coefficient of consolidation due to
horizontal flow and horizontal hydraulic conductiv-
ity of marine clays. Dissipation tests by using
piezocone (CPTU), dilatometer (DMT), self-boring
123
Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:431–441
pressuremeter (SBPT) and BAT permeameter (BAT)
were utilised in the characterization of the coeffi-
cient of consolidation due to horizontal flow and
horizontal hydraulic conductivity of the marine clay.
The method of carrying out the in situ dissipation
tests using the various equipment has been discussed
by Arulrajah et al. (2004, 2006a, b) and Bo et al.
(1998).
2.5 Field Vane Shear Strength Testing
of Singapore Marine Clay
Following the completion of each marine sampling
borehole, the rig on the offshore jack-up pontoon was
shifted about 1 m and a field vane shear test (FVT)
was next carried at 1 m depth intervals. A Geonor
Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:431–441 435

field vane was used in the testing and both undis-
turbed and remoulded shear strength were obtained
from the tests. The method of conducting and
analysing the field vane shear test has been described
by Flaate (1966) and Norwegian Geotechnical Soci-
ety (1979). Field vane shear testing in Singapore
marine clay at Changi has previously been reported
by Bo et al. (2000, 2003a, b) and Arulrajah et al.
(2004, 2006b).
For many naturally deposited clay soils, the
undrained shear strength is much less when the soils
are tested after remoulding without any change in the
moisture content. This property of clay is called the
sensitivity. The degree of sensitivity (St) is the ratio
of the undrained shear strength (cu ) in an undisturbed
state to that in a remoulded state:
St ¼ cu ðundistrubedÞ=cu ðremouldedÞ
3 Results
3.1 Laboratory Testing of Singapore Marine Clay
The characterization study involved the execution of
about 50 marine soil investigation boreholes. The soil
investigation results indicated the presence of two
distinct layers of marine clay which are the ‘‘upper
marine clay layer’’ and the ‘‘lower marine clay
layer’’. The ‘‘intermediate stiff clay layer’’ which is
also present is in reality the desiccated layer of the
lower marine clay, which separates these two distinct
marine clay layers. A typical soil profile and
geotechnical parameters of a soil investigation bore-
hole carried out in the project site is shown in Fig. 3.
The range of physical and consolidation charac-
teristics of the upper, lower and intermediate marine
ð2Þ clay is tabulated in Table 1. Typically the upper

PRIOR TO RECLAMATION W ATER CLAY FIELD VANE SHEAR COMPRESSION PRECONSOLIDATION

2 2
BOREHOLE PB-39 CONTENT (%) FRACTION (%) STRENGTH( kN/m ) INDEX PRESSURE( kN/m )

0
SEABED -3.29 m CD 4 0 50 100 0 20 40 60 0 50 100 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 100 200 300

FINE TO MEDIUM SAND

-5

VERY SOFT MARINE

CLAY WITH SOME SEA
-10 SHELL FRAGMENTS

-15 SOFT SILTY CLAY

FIRM SILTY CLAY

Elevation (m CD)

-20

SOFT MARINE CLAY

-25

-30 SOFT TO FIRM SILTY CLAY

WITH TRACES OF ORGANIC
MATTERS

CLAYEY SILTY SAND

-35 STIFF CLAYEY SAND

DENSE SILTY SAND EFFECTIVE

OVERBURDEN
PRESSURE
DENSE CLAYEY SAND

-40
PL M/C LL

Fig. 3 Typical soil profile and geotechnical parameters of a soil investigation borehole (Bo et al. 2000)

123
436 Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:431–441

Table 1 Range of physical and consolidation characteristics 0.6 m2/year while the coefficient of consolidation due
of Singapore marine clay to horizontal flow (ch) is between 2 and 3 m2/year.
Parameters Upper Intermediate Lower The lower marine clay ranges to a depth of
marine clay stiff clay marine clay 30–50 m below the seabed. The lower marine clay
has a liquid limit of 65–90%, plastic limit of 20–30%
cbulk (kN/m3) 14.23–15.7 18.64–19.6 15.7–16.67
and water content of 40–60%. The lower marine clay
WC (%) 70–88 10–35 40–60
is lightly overconsolidated with OCR of 2. The lower
LL (%) 80–95 50 65–90
marine clay has a compression index (Cc) of 0.6–1.0
PL (%) 20–28 18–20 20–30
and secondary compression index (Ca) of 0.012–0.023.
eo 1.8–2.2 0.7–0.9 1.1–1.5
The coefficient of consolidation due to vertical flow
Gs 2.6–2.72 2.68–2.76 2.7–2.75
(cv) of the lower marine clay is between 0.8 and
Cc 0.6–1.5 0.2–0.3 0.6–1.0
1.5 m2/year while the coefficient of consolidation due
Ca 0.012–0.025 0.0043–0.023 0.012–0.023
to horizontal flow (ch) is between 3 and 5 m2/year.
Cr 0.09–0.16 0.08–0.15 0.14–0.2 The intermediate stiff clay is sandwiched between
2
cv (m /yr) 0.47–0.6 1–4.5 0.8–1.5 the upper marine clay and lower marine clay. This
cvr (m2/yr) 3–7 10–30 4–10 3–5-m thick layer comprises of predominantly stiff
ch (m2/yr) 2–3 5–10 3–5 sandy silt or sandy clay. The intermediate stiff clay
OCR 1.5–2.5 3–4 2 has a liquid limit of about 50%, plastic limit of
18–20% and water content of 10–35%. The interme-
marine clay ranges between 0 and 5.5 m to about diate stiff clay is moderately overconsolidated due to
10–25 m below the seabed. The upper marine clay has dessication, with OCR of 3–4. The intermediate stiff
a liquid limit of between 80% and 95%, plastic limit clay has a compression index (Cc) of 0.2–0.3 and
of between 20% and 28% and water content of secondary compression index (Ca) of 0.0043–0.023.
70–88%. The upper marine clay is generally over- The coefficient of consolidation due to vertical flow
consolidated with OCR of about 1.5–2.5. The upper (cv) of the intermediate marine clay is between 1 and
marine clay has a compression index (Cc) of 0.6–1.5 4.5 m2/year while the coefficient of consolidation due
and secondary compression index (Ca) of 0.012–0.025. to horizontal flow (ch) is between 5 and 10 m2/year.
The coefficient of consolidation due to vertical flow Figure 4 shows the vertical hydraulic conductivity
(cv) of the upper marine clay is between 0.47 and versus depth plots for the marine clay. Vertical

Fig. 4 Vertical hydraulic 0

conductivity versus depth
plot from laboratory testing 5
Location 2
Location 3
Location 4
Location 5
10

15
Depth (m)

20

25

30

35

40
1.00E-10 1.00E-09 1.00E-08 1.00E-07
Vertical Hydraulic Conductivity, kv(m/s)

123
Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:431–441 437

1.75 for Singapore marine clay at Changi. This has been

compared to other clays in the figure and differences
1.50 Ckv Marine Canadian Clays are apparent due to the different formation and
Ckh Marine Canadian Clays
Ckv Varved Canadian Clays
deposition histories of these soft soils.
1.25
Ckh Varved Canadian Clays
Ckv Other Clays
Consolidation tests were carried out with Rowe
Ckh Other Clays cell and the horizontal hydraulic conductivity (kh)
Ckv Bothkennar
Ckh Bothkennar
values were calculated from coefficient of consoli-
1.00
Ckv Singapore Marine Clays dation due to horizontal flow (ch). kh from laboratory
Ckv Ckh Singapore Marine Clays
tests versus depth plots are shown in Fig. 6. Hori-
0.75
zontal hydraulic conductivity values were found to
range between 3 9 10-9 and 8 9 10-8 m/s, which is
0.50 much higher than the laboratory vertical hydraulic
conductivity. The kh/kv ratio for the Singapore marine
0.25 clay at Changi is about 1.5 and as such, the hydraulic
conductivity anisotropy is not significant for the
Singapore marine clay at Changi.
0.00
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
eO
3.2 In situ Dissipation Testing of Singapore
Fig. 5 Relationship comparison with ckv to eo of various clays Marine Clay
from laboratory testing (Bo et al. 1998)
The coefficients of consolidation due to horizontal
hydraulic conductivity values, (kv) from laboratory flow, ch as obtained from various in situ tests prior to
tests were found to range between 2 9 10-10 and reclamation is shown in Fig. 7. The pre-reclamation
1.5 9 10-8 m/s for the Singapore marine clay. CPTU dissipation test indicates the ch values in the
Vertical hydraulic conductivity values from labora- marine clay vary between 2 and 4 m2/year. All the
tory tests do not show a systematic decrease with in situ tests indicate large ch values in the interme-
increasing depth. diate stiff clay layer.
The relationship between in situ initial void ratio The coefficients of horizontal hydraulic conduc-
and vertical hydraulic conductivity change index tivity, kh as obtained from the various in situ
(ckv) as shown in Fig. 5, is found to be ckv = 0.3eo dissipation tests are shown in Fig. 8. Based on the

Fig. 6 Horizontal 0
hydraulic conductivity Location 1

versus depth plot from Location 2

laboratory testing 5 Location 3

Location 4

10
Depth (m)

15

20

25

30
1.00E-10 1.00E-09 1.00E-08 1.00E-07

Horizontal Hydraulic Conductivity, kh (m/s)

123
438 Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:431–441

Fig. 7 Coefficient of 0
CPTU2: Prior to reclamation
consolidation due to
DMT2 (A and C readings): Prior to reclamation
horizontal flow from
SBPT2 (pore pressure cell): Prior to reclamation
various in situ dissipation -5
Laboratory results: Prior to reclamation
tests

-10

Elevation (mCD)
-15

-20

-25

-30
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
2
c h (m /yr)

Fig. 8 Coefficient of 0
horizontal hydraulic
conductivity from various
in situ dissipation tests -5

-10
Elevation (mCD)

-15

-20

-25 CPTU2: Prior to reclamation

DMT2 (A and C readings): Prior to reclamation
SBPT2 (pore pressure cell): Prior to reclamation
BAT2: Prior to reclamation
Laboratory Result: Prior to reclamation
-30
1.00E-11 1.00E-10 1.00E-09 1.00E-08 1.00E-07
k h (m/s)

results obtained, the BAT was found to give the
lowest values whereas the dilatometer and CPTU
gave the highest values. The same observation has
been reported by Bo et al. (1998) and Chu et al.
(2002) in the reclamation site for tests carried out
prior to land reclamation. The laboratory results are
also close to that of the BAT results. Horizontal
hydraulic conductivity of in situ tests was found to
range between 10-8 and 10-10 m/s for the marine
clay. Dilatometer and CPTU values range between
10-9 and 10-10 m/s while the BAT and SBPT are in
the 10-9–10-10 m/s range.
3.3 In situ Shear Strength of Singapore Marine
Clay
The undrained shear strength of the upper marine
clay is between 10 and 30 kPa while that of the lower
marine clay is between 30 and 60 kPa. The sensitivity
of the marine clay at Changi varies from 3 to 8 which

123
Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:431–441 439

Fig. 9 Variation of field 0

vane sensitivity with depth
-5

-10

-15

DEPTH (m)
-20

-25

-30

-35

-40

-45
0 5 10 15 20 25
FIELD VANE SENSITIVITY

can be described as highly sensitive. Figure 9 indi-
cates the sensitivity of the marine clay at the Northern
Area of the project site.
The undrained shear strength obtained from the field
vane tests was analysed to obtain empirical correlations
of the undrained shear strength (cu) and the normalized
shear strength ratios of the marine clay. The empirical
correlations obtained from the field vane tests were
reported by Bo et al (2003b) as follows:


cu ¼ 10 þ 1:6z kN m2 ðfor upper marine clayÞ
ð3Þ


cu ¼ 10 þ 2z kN m2 ðfor upper marine clayÞ
ð4Þ

cu r0vo ¼ 0:37 ð5Þ
0
where z is the depth below seabed in meters and rvo
is the vertical effective stress.
The empirical correlations obtained indicate that
the marine clay is soft and slightly overconsolidated.
Details discussion on undrained shear strength can be
found in Bo et.al (2003b).
4 Discussion
4.1 Laboratory Testing
Tavenas et al. (1983) stated that permeability anisot-
ropy is not a significant parameter in most massive
marine clays. Larsson (1981) stated that isotropy of
Swedish clay with the difference between kh and kv is
in the range of measurement error. Rowe (1966)
stated that oedometer consolidation tests carried out
on a small diameter Rowe cell should give lower
value of ch and kh if the fabric effect is significant.
This may not be the case for Singapore marine clay at
Changi, which is of recent Quaternary age, where the
type of clay is homogeneous with less frequent silt-
sand lamination.
Tavenas et al. (1983) has explained that in the
oedometer test there is a non-homogeneous condition
and coefficient of consolidation due to horizontal
flow, cv is much faster near the drainage boundary
than in the middle of the specimen. However cv
values are taken as an intermediate value and it would
be difficult to transform into hydraulic conductivity
values using the suggested equation. This is because
proper quantification of corresponding mv, void ratio
and effective stress is difficult. This could thus be the
reason for the non-systematic variation of the
hydraulic conductivity values. However, vertical
hydraulic conductivities were evaluated from cv
values derived from Taylor’s method (Taylor 1948)
which is likely to give a closer estimation to the
actual in situ hydraulic conductivity.
Leroueil et al. (1992) stated that ckv deduced from
oedometer tests under-estimates the real values.
Tavenas et al. (1983) explained that the underesti-
mation of void ratio versus log hydraulic conductivity

123
440
relationship at small void ratios could be associated
with the use of mean values instead of void ratio at
the upper boundary where hydraulic conductivity is
measured.
4.2 In situ Testing
Among the in situ tests the ch values in the marine
clay layers from SBPT are the highest overall while
that from the CPTU test indicate the least variations
with depth. It is observed that all the methods
indicate large ch values in the intermediate stiff clay
layer. It can be said that the in situ tests results vary
from one test method to another and the results are
relatively higher overall as compared to the labora-
tory testing results.
Based on the results of the in situ horizontal
hydraulic conductivity obtained, the BAT was found
to give the lowest values whereas the dilatometer and
CPTU gave the highest values. The results from the
BAT tests can be used as the baseline data since the
system measures horizontal hydraulic conductivity
directly whereas the other in situ tests required the
introduction of additional parameters to evaluate the
hydraulic conductivity indirectly from ch values.
4.3 Geology and Formation History of Singapore
Marine Clay
The marine clay found in the project site belongs to
the marine member of the Kallang Formation (Public
Works Department Singapore 1976). This formation
is underlain by Old Alluvium. The preliminary site
investigation and geophysical survey of the project
site revealed that the Singapore marine clay at Changi
consists of two marine members locally known as the
upper and the lower marine clays. These soft to
medium stiff clay members are recent deposits of
estuarine origin. The upper and lower marine clays
are separated by a layer of medium stiff to stiff clay
2–5 m in thickness. This layer locally termed as
intermediate clay is reddish in colour and is believed
to be the desiccated crust of the lower marine clay
resulting from the exposure of the seabed to the
atmosphere during the rise and fall of the sea levels in
the geological past.
It is the onset of the Wurm/Wisconsin glacial
period approximately 75,000 years ago which
brought on an extremely rapid drop of sea level to
123
Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:431–441
about 140 m below the present sea level about
18,000 years ago. There has been a tremendous
transgression of the sea over the land in the last
10,000–20,000 years. With further uplift of land and
regression of the seas, more erosion and deposition
took place. These cycles of aggregation and erosion
had occurred many times throughout the geological
ages before giving rise to the present marine clay
formation in Eastern Singapore (Yong et al. 1990).
This is evident in the geological profile of the project
site, in which three successive layers of marine clay
are observed, suggesting that at least three cycles
must have taken place.
5 Conclusions
The characterization study indicated the presence of
two distinct layers of marine clay which are the
‘‘upper marine clay layer’’ and the ‘‘lower marine
clay layer’’. The ‘‘intermediate stiff clay layer’’ which
is also present is in reality the desiccated layer of the
lower marine clay, which separates these two distinct
marine clay layers. Singapore marine clay can be
described as highly plastic silty clay, except for the
intermediate stiff clay.
The upper marine clay has a liquid limit (LL) of
between 80% and 95%, plastic limit (PL) of between
20% and 28% and water content (WC) of 70–88%.
The upper marine clay is generally overconsolidated
with OCR of about 1.5–2.5. The upper marine clay
has a compression index (Cc) of 0.6–1.5 and second-
ary compression index (Ca) of 0.012–0.025. The
laboratory testing results indicate that the coefficient
of consolidation due to vertical flow (cv) of the upper
marine clay is between 0.47% and 0.6 m2/year while
the coefficient of consolidation due to horizontal flow
(ch) is between 2 and 3 m2/year.
The lower marine clay has a liquid limit of
65–90%, plastic limit of 20–30% and water content
of 40–60%. The lower marine clay is lightly over-
consolidated with OCR of 2. The lower marine clay
has a compression index (Cc) of 0.6–1.0 and second-
ary compression index (Ca) of 0.012–0.023.The
laboratory testing results indicate that the coefficient
of consolidation due to vertical flow (cv) of the lower
marine clay is between 0.8 and 1.5 m2/year while the
coefficient of consolidation due to horizontal flow
(ch) is between 3 and 5 m2/year.
Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:431–441
The intermediate stiff clay is sandwiched between
the upper marine clay and lower marine clay. The
intermediate stiff clay has a liquid limit of about
50%, plastic limit of 18–20% and water content of
10–35%. The intermediate stiff clay is moderately
overconsolidated due to dessication, with OCR of
3–4. The intermediate stiff clay has a compression
index (Cc) of 0.2–0.3 and secondary compression
index (Ca) of 0.0043–0.023.The laboratory testing
results indicate that the coefficient of consolidation
due to vertical flow (cv) of the intermediate marine
clay is between 1 and 4.5 m2/year while the coeffi-
cient of consolidation due to horizontal flow (ch) is
between 5 and 10 m2/year.
Vertical hydraulic conductivity values, (kv) from
laboratory tests was found to range between
2 9 10–10 and 1.5 9 10-8 m/s for the Singapore
marine clay. The relationship between in situ initial
void ratio and vertical hydraulic conductivity change
index, ckv is found to be ckv = 0.3eo for the
Singapore marine clay at Changi. Horizontal hydrau-
lic conductivity values were found to range between
3 9 10-9 and 8 9 10-8 m/s, which is slightly higher
than the laboratory vertical hydraulic conductivity.
The kh/kv ratio for the Singapore marine clay at
Changi is about 1.5 and as such, the hydraulic
conductivity anisotropy is not significant for the
Singapore marine clay at Changi.
The pre-reclamation in situ CPTU dissipation test
indicates the ch values in the marine clay vary
between 2 and 4 m2/year. Horizontal hydraulic
conductivity of in situ tests was found to range
between 10-8 and 10-10 m/s for the marine clay.
Dilatometer and CPTU values range between 10-9
and 10-10 m/s while the BAT and SBPT are in the
10-9–10-10 m/s range. The results from the BAT
tests can be used as the baseline data since the system
measures horizontal hydraulic conductivity directly.
The BAT results are also in good agreement with the
laboratory testing results.
0
The cu/rvo ratio of the marine clay was found to be
0.37. The sensitivity of the marine clay at Changi varies
from 3 to 8, which can be described as highly sensitive.
Photographic identification of Singapore marine
clay indicated that upper- and lower-marine clay
layers is brownish-blue and consisted of organic
deposits and fine sand particles. The intermediate stiff
clay layer is reddish due to oxidation of the layer as a
result of exposure of the seabed to the atmosphere
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441
during the rise and fall of the sea levels in the
geological past.
Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank
Dr. A. Vijiaratnam the Former Chairman of SPECS
Consultants (Singapore) Pte. Ltd. for his support in the
submission of these research findings.
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