1.
Conies form aerodynamically satisfactory sur-
Conic Lofting of
Streamline Bodies
The Basic Theory of a Phase of
Analytic Geometry Applicable to Aircraft
By Roy A. Liming*
INTRODUCTORY NOTE
By H. V. Schwalenburg†
T HE problem involved in obtaining satisfac-
tory surface contours for assemblies such as
are required in modern aircraft development
demands for its successful solution the co-ordin-
ated, concentrated efforts of all those concerned
with both the design and manufacturing pro-
cesses. Even the casual observer can see that, if
optimum performance is to be realized, the
external skin or covering, whether made of thin
sheet stock or precision machined from heavier
plate stock, must be continuously smooth.
This freedom from abrupt changes of curva-
ture, representing a streamline ideal, can be
ultimately attained only through the joint con-
tributions of the engineering, lofting, template,
tool, and jig departments.
In North American Aviation practice, the basic
dimensions of the aeroplane shape are determined
by means of a joint study, usually to reduced
scale, tenth or quarter, depending upon the over-
all dimensions of the shape under consideration,
prepared by a basic linesman in collaboration
with the design staff: Mathematical (analytic)
procedures are immediately instituted for the
development of the full-scale lines, with the result
that most of the work by-passes the traditional
lofting function. The tooling departments are thus
able to prepare the templates, tools, and jigs
necessary for the construction and inspection of
the aeroplane.
NEED FOR SCIENTIFIC BODY
DEVELOPMENT
Earlier in the history of the industry 'cut-and-
try' methods were used in obtaining body lines.
The loftsman would simply pass a curve pleasing
to the eye through the few points determined by
the designer. Since relatively low-speed aircraft
were being designed, small inequalities were of
little importance. Refinements of techniques to
* Held of Engineering Lofting Mathematics, North American
Aviation Inc.
† Chief Industrial Engineer, North American Aviation Inc.
222
faces.
2. Conic surfaces lend themselves to easy, accur-
ate and economical fabrication and assembly.
3. Conies can be easily constructed projectively
(graphically).
4. Conies can be easily defined mathematically.
5. Conies possess an extremely high degree of
flexibility in applications to streamline prob-
lems in general.
6. Conic (quadric) surfaces possess a high degree
of aesthetic appeal.
Projective Theory of the Conic
The most important single characteristic of the
conic curve from the aircraft lofting viewpoint is
theflexibilitywith which it adapts itself to widely
varying conditions. Because of the susceptibility
reduce parasitic drag were not warranted. Delicate of the conic section to graphic construction tech-
precision checks of faired lines were neither re- niques, anyone possessing elementary knowledge
quired nor even inherent in the techniques em- of basic projective geometry can develop a conic
ployed.
However, the advent of high sub-sonic speeds
curve with controlled case, speed, and accuracy.
Since the basic theory of conic sections with
made mandatory certain refinements in stream- reference to the standard positions given in plane
lining techniques as well as aerodynamic improve- analytic geometry finds little use in streamline
ments in general design. applications an approach from the viewpoint of
The war itself accelerated and actually rendered synthetic and analytic projective geometry has
imperative a change from the slow lofting proced- been employed.
ures suitable mainly for single unit construction The conic constructions which have been found
in custom-built shops. The necessity of presenting useful are based upon the following dual theorems
body data in a form which would facilitate the from projective geometry:
fabrication of parts at points remote from the 1. Pascal's theorem. If six points are points on a
original design source and still ensure proper co-
point conic, then the pairs of opposite sides of
ordination and ready assembly at assembly points any simple hexagon having these points as
far removed from the various sub-assembly
vertices intersect in three collinear points. (See
fabricators compelled a change of lofting pro- FIG. 1A.)
cedures.
2. Brianchon's theorem. If the six sides of a hexa-
Under the impact of these influences scientific gon are tangent to a conic (form a line conic)
body development had to be adopted. 'Cut-and-
the lines joining the pairs of opposite vertices
try', 'trial-and-error', 'fit-by-eye' curves and fair- intersect in a single point. (See FIG. 1B.)
ings were relegated into the limbo of the inade-
quate and out-of-fashion. Since the general equation of the conic may be
expressed in the form Ax2+Bxy + Cy2+ Dx + Ey
+ F= 0, five distinct parameters are obviously in-
Conic Lofting volved, and five conditions must be known if a
A system of new techniques has thus been specific case is to be solved.
developed and introduced to make possible the These five given conditions may take the form
development and fairing of the complex geo- of points through which the conic is to pass, or
metrical shapes peculiar to the high-speed aero- five lines to which the conic is to be tangent, or
planes of today, with greater case, speed and any combination of points and lines so long as the
accuracy. total number of conditions isfive.The projective
In the 'fairing-by-eye' days, aircraft surfaces constructions for two such combinations of con-
were developed from combinations of curves ditions are given, based upon Pascal's theorem.
consisting indiscriminately of a wide range of The construction required to pass a conic
degrees. In present-day design, however, surfaces through five given points (no three collinear) is
can be defined primarily by means of conic given in FIG. 2. FIG. 3 illustrates the procedure
sections, relatively simple curves of second degree. required to develop a conic determined by two
Theflexibilityof the conic section in applications point-slopes and an intermediate control point.
to fairing problems stems basically from the This latter combination is the most important in
infinitely large number of such curves which can aircraft body development, since by simply vary-
be obtained from the families of conics that are ing the position of the intermediate control point
generated by the intersection of a plane with a a family or pencil of conics can be constructed, all
cone. of which are tangent to the given lines at the given
points. This flexibility of adjustment to suit special
Advantages conditions is extremely useful, indeed indispens-
Conies offer the following advantages in stream- able, to the streamline fairing of aircraft shapes.
line developments: Since the solution of certain lofting problems
Aircraft Engineering

of streamline bodies requires the construction of
tangents to conics, a convenient method, based
upon Pascal's theorem, is given in FIG. 4.
Analytic Theory of the Conic
The projective geometry construction techni­
ques just noted have a very convenient parallel in
analytic geometry. Equations of conics may be
calculated analytically, based likewise upon Pas­
cal's theorem and Brianchon's theorem. The ad­
vantages offered by analytic definition of conics
cannot be overstated. Calculation is always pre­
ferred to layout.
July 1947
The following specific advantages accruing to
the analytic method should be carefully noted:
1. Physical limitations, especially of size, which
are peculiar to all graphical construction, can
be eliminated.
2. Graphical errors and construction tolerances
which cause inaccuracies in conic construc­
tions have no existence in analytic analysis.
3. Any required degree of accuracy is possible in
the solution of a given problem, given the
equation of the conic.
4. Extremely long body curves of shallow curva­
ture are amenable only to calculation.
5. Modification and redesign can be quickly and
positively oriented.
6. A quick check upon the accuracy of graphical
layout is available.
7. Complete dimensional information in mathe­
matically accurate tabular form can be pro­
vided.
Five-Point Conic Equation
Since the general equation of the conic (given
above) is seen to depend on only five arbitrary
conditions, five constants must be evaluated
before the exact equation of the curve can be
written. This can be done, for example, if the co­
ordinates of five points on the conic are known.
To write the equation of a conic through five
given points, it is found to be most convenient to
write the equation of the family of conics passing
through four of the points (see FIG. 5), and then
introduce a parameter so that the conic which
passes through the fifth point can be uniquely
determined.
Since each two of this family of conics intersect
in these points, any two distinct conics of the
family may be employed as the base conics of the
family. From an analytic viewpoint, the most con­
venient base conics are the two degenerate conics
of the family. A point conic is degenerate if, and
only if, it consists of two straight lines, distinct
or coincident.
From FIG. 5, the following equations may be
written:
Then αβ = 0 and γδ = 0 are the equations of the
two degenerate conics used as the base conics of
the family, and
kαβ +γδ= 0 (1)
(Concluded on p. 228)
223
The I.C.A.N. Standard Atmosphere BOOKS RECEIVED
All books received from Publishers are listed under this heading.
Extended reviews of a selection are published later. Inclusion in
this list, therefore, neither implies nor precludes, in any particular
instance, further notice,
Untersuchungen über Reibungsvermin der ungen au
Tragflügeln insbesonderc mit Hilfe von Grenzschich-
tabsaugung. W. Pfenninger. E.T.A. Mitt. No. 13.
108 pages, illustrated. [Leeman. Swiss Frs. 14.]
The Nautical and Aeronautical Technical Institute and
Museum, Rotterdam. Pamphlet, illustrated.
[Technical Nautical and Aeronautical Institute,
Rotterdam. Free.]
Aeronautical Laboratories Quarterly Bulletin. Booklet,
illustrated. [National Research Council of Canada,
Ottawa.]
Report for 1945—1946. [The British Council, 3
Hanover Street, W.1. Free.]
Phénoplastes: Bakélites. P. M. Mouthéard, 171 pages,
illustratcd.[Dunod, Paris. Frs. 330]
Power Units for Future Aircraft. F. R. Banks. Booklet,
illustrated. [University College, Nottingham.1s.6d.]
Properties and Strength of Materials. Fifth Edition.
J. D. Haddon. (Introduction to Aeronautical
Engineering.Vol. III.) 192 pages, illustrated. [Pitman.
8s. 6d.]
The Royal Society Empire Scientific Conference,
June—July 1946. Preliminary Report. Booklet
67 pages. [The Royal Society, Burlington House,
W.1. Free]
Tables of Spherical Bessel Functions. Vol. I. 375 pages.
[Columbia University Press, New York. $7.50.]
Practical Analytic Geometry with Applications to
Aircraft. R. A. Liming. 327 pages, illustrated.
[Macmillan. 25s.]
Cinematique de l'Avion. F. Hussendt. 81 pages,
illustrated. [Dunod, Paris. Frs. 290.]
Spring Design and Calculations. J. A. Roberts. 114
pages, illustrated'. [Herbert Tery, Redditch. 10s. 6d.]
Construction des Avions. G. du Merle. 855 pages,
illustrated. [Dunod, Paris. Frs. 2,350.]
Introduction to Aerodynamics of a Compressible
Fluid. H. W. Liepmann and A. E. Puckett. 262
pages, illustrated. [John Wiley, New York (Chap-
man and Hall) $4.00.]
Aircraft Woodwork. R. H. Drake. 196 pages, illustrated
[Macmillan. 18s.]
British Catalogue of Plastics. Ed. E. Molloy. 704 pages,
illustrated. [National Press, Russell Street, Drury
Lane, W.C.2. 50s.]
Timber Information. Timber Information Leaflets
Nos. 1—30.
Chemical Seasoning of Timber. Pamphlet. [Timber
Development Assn. 75 Cannon Street, E.C.4 Free.]
Stainless and Heat Resisting Steels. E. G. Gregory
and E. N. Simons. 131 pages, illustrated. [Hutchin-
son. 8s. 6d.]
I Pioneri dell' Aviazione Italians. M. Cobianchi.
470 pages, illustrated. .[Associazione Culturale
Acronautica, Rome. Lire 500.]
The Escalator Method in Engineering Vibration
Problems. J. Morris. 270 pages, illustrated. [Chap-
man & Hall. 2ls.]
Aircraft Strength of Materials. H. D. Conway. 256
pages, illustrated. [Chapman & Hall. 2ls.]
The Compounding, Pigmenting and Thickening of
'Positex'. C. M. Blow. Pamphlet. [The British
Rubber Development Board, 19 Fenchurch Street,
E.C.3. Free.]
Introduction to Aeronautics. C. F. Toms. 404 pages
illustrated. [Griffin. 40s.]
The Aircraft Builders. An account of British Aircraft
Production 1935-1945. 96 pages. [H.M. Stationery
Office. 9d.]
Special Radio Technical Division—PICAO. Final
Report—First Session. 84 pages, illustrated. [Pro-
visional International Civil Aviation Organization,
Montreal. 3s. 9d.]
Developments in Rubber. 12 reprints of lectures, etc.,
illustrated. [Andre Rubber Co. Ltd., Surbiton.
Free.]
The Industrial Charter. Pamphlet. 1s.
The Industrial Charter. Popular Edition Pamphlet. 3d.
[Conservative and Unionist Central Office, Abbey
House, Victoria St., S.W.I.]
International Air Transport 1947. 466 pages, illustrated.
[Todd Reference Books. 25s.]
Plastics in Industry. A. E. Williams. Booklet, illus-
trated. [Emmott & Co., Manchester. 2s. 6d.]
Home Grown Timber Trees. Booklet. [Timber
224 Development Association.Aircraft
Free.] Engineering
Spacing Design and Calculations. J. A. Roberts. 114
pages, illustrated. [Herber Terry & Sons, Redditch.
10s. 6d.]
Conic Lofting of Streamline Bodies
A Technique Used by North American Aviation
(Concluded from page 223)
is an equation of the family consisting of all the
conics passing through the four points A, B, C
and D. The value of the parameter k is determined
by imposing the fifth condition upon the conic,
i.e. by evaluating equation (1) for the fifth point
(point E of FIG. 5) through which the conic is to
pass.
Obviously,
The. equation of the family is thus simply a
linear combination, i.e. the sum of the products
of the equations of the straight lines constituting
the degenerate base conics of the family. Further,
since the terms consist of the product of the
equations of two straight lines, the highest expon-
ent will be 2; therefore the equation is of second-
degree, or that of a conic curve. Finally, the four
points A, B, C and D can be shown to lie on the
locus of the equation.
Two Point-Slope Conic Equation
Since the practical use of the conic section in
aircraft drafting has revolved almost exclusively
aboutfittingthe conic to thefiveconditions which
include two point-slopes and a control point, the
application of the general analytic theory just
developed to this particular case is of immediate
concern.
In FIG. 6, each two conics have double contact
at A and B. In other words, points A and B and
points C and D of FIG. 5 coincide in this case. The
point and the tangent (slope) being two condi-
tions, the total number of conditions is still five,
as in the case of the conic determined by five
points.
228
Thus, all the conics of the family have the same
tangents t1 and t2 at A and D respectively; con-
versely, every conic which is tangent to t1 at A
and to t2 at D is uniquely determined by a third
point and therfore belongs to the family.
There are two distinct degenerate conics in the
family; the tangents t1 and t2 form the one, and
the chord of contact (taken twice) constitutes the
other.
If t1 = 0, t2 = 0 represent the equations of the
two tangents, and l = 0 represents the equation of
the chord AD, then the equation of the family
of conics (cf. equation 1) becomes
t1t2 + kl2 = 0 (3)
and the parameter k is expressed
To develop the equation of any particular
conic of the family, it is merely necessary to
evaluate k in equation (4) for the co-ordinates
of a specified third point, designated as the control
point. When this value is substituted in equation
(3) that expression analytically defines the one
and only conic (of the family) which passes
through the given control point.
Criteria Governing Calculation Procedures
The equations of the degenerate base conics
may be expressed in either the standard point-
slope or two-point form of plane analytic geo-
metry. In the former case, it is necessary to calcu-
late the slopes of the lines from the given co-
ordinate data; in the latter case direct substitution
of given co-ordinates is employed.
In any successful system of industrial applica-
tions of this type choice of procedure must be
governed by the following criteria:
1. Number of chances for error.
2. Mechanical speed of development through
adaptation to available calculator equipment.
3. Maximum utility of developed data.
4. Directness of procedure in calculation of re-
quired data from original basic data.
5. Simplicity of checking procedure.
6. Conformity to design procedures.
The influence of these criteria upon the formu-
lation of a highly efficient system of calculation
techniques will be shown in a subsequent paper.
Aircraft Engineering