Experimental Performance Evaluation of Electric

Vehicles (EV) Based on Analysis of Power and

Torque Losses
Juan D. Valladolid∗† , Ronald Albarado∗ , David Mallahuari∗ and Diego Patiño †
∗ Dep.
of Automotive Engineering
Universidad Politecnica Salesiana, Cuenca, Ecuador
Email: jvalladollid@ups.edu.ec, ralbarado@est.ups.edu.ec, dmallahuari@est.ups.edu.ec
† Dep. of Electronics Engineering

Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia

Email: patino-d@javeriana.edu.co

Abstract—Nowadays, due to different pollution factors, the
electric vehicle is considered as a solution for the energy and
environmental crisis, but it has not yet managed to outperform
internal combustion vehicles due to limited energy density,
therefore, it is necessary to study in which parts of the electric
vehicle the greatest losses of powers occur to find the most optimal
points of operation of the EV, which opens up possibilities to
raise energy optimization issues and thus try to obtain greater
efficiency and autonomy, this paper presents a methodology
for the analysis of energy efficiency in electric vehicles (EV).
To obtain a measurement of the real power in the wheels, a
MAHA LPS 3000 dynamometer bank was used. In addition, a
data acquisition system (DAS) that records different variables
necessary for the analysis obtained directly from the ECU
through the on-board diagnostic port (OBD), according to the
analysis performed, it is concluded that the power losses are not
a function of the value of the state of charge (SOC), the results
of the calculated losses and the analysis in measurements are
detailed in power curves for different systems (electric motor,
inverter and mechanical transmission). Finally, efficiency curves
are presented, showing the optimum operating points of each
component analysed.
Index Terms—Electric vehicle, power losses, torque losses,
inverter, dynamometer bank, efficiency.
I. I NTRODUCTION
With energy challenges and environmental crisis, electric
vehicles (EV) have become an important development factor
in the current automotive industry [1], the EVs have been de-
veloped and introduced to the automotive fleet intensively be-
cause of the advantages of high efficiency and zero emissions
[2].However, EVs are not yet competitive enough compared
to conventional vehicles since they are limited by low energy
density [3].
The performance analysis or energy efficiency in the EV
is a challenging theme of automotive systems design, which
allows new approaches to develop strategies for consumption
optimization.
From that, efficiency studies are generated, for example
in [4] which, by using a variable voltage control technique,
allows the vehicle to operate at light loads and low speeds
with maximum efficiency and minimum acoustic noise.
In addition, motor efficiency models that can be adjusted
throughout the operating region including the constant power
and torque region [5], furthermore, [6] presents zero current
control methods of the d-axis and optimized d-axis current,
thus the efficiency of the IPMSM can be significantly im-
proved.
Another study shows that with the use of a traction inverter
made with SIC MOSFET power modules the battery range
improves [7] or with the use of the direct torque DSC
technique it was adopted to reduce the inverter losses the entire
operating speed range [8].
Different forms are used in the literature to calculate the
power losses in an EV, either the loss of power in the inverter
[9], [8], [10], the loss of power in the electric motor [11], [12],
[13], and loss of power in mechanical transmission [14], [15],
[16].
This article presents a study to obtain the power losses
of a Kia Soul EV electric vehicle belonging to the Salesian
Polytechnic University, (the specifications are listed in Table
I), to obtain efficiency curves, which allow analyzing in which
place are the most optimal operating points and in which
components are the greatest losses of power.
To obtain the power losses, a bank of the MAHA LPS 3000
dynamometer [17], was used (which measures the real value
of power in the wheels), the data acquisition system (DAS)
that records different variables necessary for the analysis
obtained directly from the ECU of the vehicle [18], the tests
were performed during the work cycles with the throttle fully
actuated as experienced in [19], always ensuring that the
measurement conditions are similar, but with a different [SOC]
value, finally obtaining the 4 best tests on which this study is
based.
With the results obtained, opportunities are opened to gener-
ate optimization strategies for components such as the inverter,
the mechanical transmission and the electric motor, as well as
obtaining optimization maps to reduce the mentioned losses.
This work is organized as follows: Section II presents the
electric motor model and power loss equations, using mea-

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 sured data. The technique of calculating the loss of power in !
the mechanical transmission of the high-speed wheel reducer ω 2 L2 2ψf ω ψf2
is shown in Section III, section IV shows the results of the PF e = + i2oq + ioq + 2 (3)
Rc Rc L
analysis and section V shows the conclusions of the paper.
II. M OTOR MODEL AND LOSS EQUATIONS Where, Ra is armature resistance, ioq is q-axis copper loss
current, ω is electrical motor angular velocity, Ψf is permanent
A. Efficiency magnet flux-linkage, Rc is iron loss equivalent resistance and
The term efficiency refers to the relationship between the L is motor inductance.
output power and the input power, while the power loss is
the difference between the input power and output power, C. Friction Loss
CREADO CON UNA VERSIÓN PARA ESTUDIANTES DE AUTODESK
mentioned power loss are iron loss, copper loss, inverter loss,
friction loss, stray loss, mechanical loss in transmission. The setup of experiment for motor efficiency testing on
the dynamometer bank for the EV is shown in Fig.4. The
Pout Pin − Ploss dynamometric bank used is a MAHA LPS 3000 [17], from the
η= = (1)
Pin Pin lab. Friction torque is produced between motor bearings and
Where, η is energy efficiency, Pout is power output, Pin is the dynamometer. The friction loss is expressed as equation
power input , and Ploss is power loss. (4) [13].

CREADO CON UNA VERSIÓN PARA ESTUDIANTES DE AUTODESK

CREADO CON UNA VERSIÓN PARA ESTUDIANTES DE AUTODESK

B. Copper Loss and Iron Loss

Pm = Tm ω/np (4)

Where, np is number of pole pairs, Tm is friction torque

Ra
id iod and Tdrag is dynamometer dragging torque.
The friction torque Tm can be measured by dragging the
icd
motor using the dynamometer bearings in a static test of
vd Rc ωLqioq the EV, the dragging torque Tdrag consists of two parts: the
friction torque and no-load iron loss torque.

Tdrag = Tm + Ti0 (5)

(a)
Where, Ti0 is no-load iron loss torque (Nm) and could be
Ra
iq ioq expressed as equation (6).
ωLdiod
icq
Ti0 = n2p ωc ψf2 /Rc (6)
vq Rc

ωΨf Where, ωc is motor mechanical rotating speed.

D. Inverter Loss
(b)
For the analysis of inverter power loss, the following
equations could be used, where the inverter data provided
Fig. 1. Equivalent circuits for the (IPMSM) model, taking iron losses into
CREADO CON UNA VERSIÓN PARA ESTUDIANTES DE AUTODESK
account. (a) d-axis. (b) q-axis. by the manufacturer is needed, the inverter with pulse width
modulation (PWM) implemented with IGBT power switches
Where, iq is q-axis armature current, iod is d-axis copper and anti-parallel diodes is used, [10], these losses consist of
loss current, icd is d-axis iron loss current, icq is q-axis iron switching and conduction losses.
loss current, vd is d-axis terminal voltage , vq is q-axis terminal a) IGBT conduction loss: The IGBT conduction loss
voltage. model for a sine wave PWM inverter driving a 3-phase motor
The copper losses are caused by the electrical resistance of is expressed in equation (7).
the motor windings [10] and iron losses consist of hysteresis
losses and eddy current losses [12], to calculate copper loss    
and iron loss, an equivalent circuit model is used, shown VCE0 Ip rc VCE0 Ip rc
PQCav = Ip + + Ip Dm + 3π PF
in Fig.1, the electric motor is an interior permanent magnet 2π 8 4 2
synchronous motor (IPMSM). Copper loss and iron loss could (7)
be derived as equations (2) and (3) [13]. Where, VCE0 is IGBT conduction voltage, rc is IGBT
conduction resistance, Ip is peak value of the motor phase
2
current , Dm is the duty cycle modulation parameter and P F

ωψf
PCu = Ra ioq + (2) is the power factor of the motor inductive load.
Rc

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 ADO CON UNA VERSIÓN PARA ESTUDIANTES DE AUTODESK
CREADO CON UNA VERSIÓN PARA ESTUDIANTES DE AUTOD
b) IGBT switching loss: Assuming IGBT switching R2 1 R1
times are independent of the device current and DC voltage
then IGBT switching energies may be assumed to be propor-
2 Input (Motor)
tional to equation (8) and (9).

3
VDC Ip R4 R3
Eon = Eon−test (8)
VDC−test IC−test Intermediate Axle
4
.

VDC Ip CREADO CON R

UNA R5
Eof f = Eof f −test (9) 6 VERSIÓN PARA ESTUDIANTES DE AUTODESK
VDC−test IC−test

Where, Eon , Eof f are the IGBT on and off switching Output (Axle) Output (Axle)
energies and Eon−test and Eof f −test are values supplied on
manufacturer datasheet under test conditions VDC−test and
IC−test . Fig. 2. Gearbox transmission diagram
Averaging the switching losses over a switching cycle yields
the IGBT switching loss model in equation (10). CREADO CON UNA VERSIÓN PARA ESTUDIANTES DE AUTODESK
A. Losses in mechanical transmission
CREADO CON UNA VERSIÓN PARA ESTUDIANTES DE AUTODESK
fs Within the mechanical transmission the main losses of
PQSav = (Eon + Eof f ) (10)
π power that exist are: The loss of power by the oil that is
mainly caused by the friction between the component and the
Where, fs is PWM switching frequency. oil [20], the windage loss is due to the loss of power caused
c) Diode conduction loss: Are calculated in an analogous by the rotation of the components in the reducer and the oil
way to the IGBT conduction losses (11). mist in the space [21] and the friction loss in the bearing, the
factors that affect the loss of bearing power are complex and
    variable, since they depend on the torque [14]. Finally, Fig.3
VF 0 IP rD VF 0 IP rD
PDCav = IP + −IP Dm + 3π PF shows the vehicle on the dynamometer and the flow of losses
2π 8 4 2 described above.
(11)
In this case, it was not possible to access the inverter
data provided by the manufacturer,but when making a relation
between the power of the battery and the power of the motor. Electric Inverter Battery
motor
Fig.11, the results of losses of power in the inverter are
obtained.

Transmission
III. P OWER LOSS IN TRANSMISSION OF HIGH SPEED
WHEEL REDUCER

The high speed wheel reducer of an electric vehicle adopts Roll Roll

a two-stage helical gear transmission form, this structure is Wheel

Final
Wheel
gear
shown in Fig.2, where, (R1-R2) are bearings, (1-4) are gears,
transmission losses can be divided into two groups: torque Roll Roll

dependent losses (losses caused mainly by gears and bearings)

and torque independent losses (speed losses that are related to Fig. 3. Vehicle on chassis dynamometer test bench, with flow diagram of the
the lubrication method and include wind losses and agitation losses.
CREADO CON UNA VERSIÓN PARA ESTUDIANTES DE AUTODESK
of the oil) [15].
To obtain the power losses in the mechanical transmission, IV. E XPERIMENTATION
the formulas presented in [14] could be used, in this case this Fig.4 shows the power measurement experiment for which
component cannot be accessed, but previously the losses in the MAHA LPS 3000 dynamometer bank was used, [17] this
the motor (copper loss, iron loss, friction loss) and inverter bank establishes some measurement conditions such as:
loss were calculated.
• The tire pressure must be 30 PSI.
Therefore, equation (12) is proposed to calculate this loss.
• The tire tread temperature must reach an optimum tem-
perature (30°C).
Ptrans = Ploss − PF e − PCu − Pm − Pinv (12) • Secure the vehicle with tension straps.

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 • Follow the measurement protocol that governs the dy- the red line shows the power measured on the wheels with
namometer bank. dynamometer bank, and the yellow line shows the recorded
• Store and analyze the obtained data . loss of power, it is observed that the power losses increase
Several tests with a different [SOC] value were performed, as rpm function , due to the factors described in the previous
of which the 4 best were chosen. section.
The data acquisition system (DAS) used in this experimen-
Test 1 [SOC 83%] Test 2 [SOC 34,5%]
tation records power [KW], torque [Nm], battery voltage [V], 80
PrEMOLAB
80
PrEMOLAB
speed [rpm] and battery current [A] of the EV. with a sampling PrBANCO PrBANCO

Power [KW]

Power [KW]
60 60
PrLOSS PrLOSS
rate of Ts = 0,25s [18]. 40 40
Fig.5, shows the DAS block diagram. Data is obtained 20 20
through the OBD II port directly from the ECU, then stored 0 0
500 600 700 800 900 500 600 700 800 900
in a software (EMOLAB) and finally analyzed. Wheel speed [rpm] Wheel speed [rpm]
Test 3 [SOC 27,5%] Test 4 [SOC 24%]
80 80
PrEMOLAB PrEMOLAB
TABLE I PrBANCO PrBANCO

Power [KW]

Power [KW]
60 60
S PECIFICATIONS OF ”KIA SOUL” EV. PrLOSS PrLOSS
40 40
Parameter name Value
20 20
Curb weight (kg) 1490
Max. speed (km/h) 145 0 0
500 600 700 800 900 500 600 700 800 900
Wheel radius (m) 0.31 Wheel speed [rpm] Wheel speed [rpm]
Motor continuous/peak power (W) 81400
Motor pole pairs 4 Fig. 6. Result of the total power and lost power measurement curves
Battery voltage (V) 360
Battery capacity (Ah) 75
B. Torque Loss
The 4 tests in Fig.7, show that loss of power is due to a
loss of torque, the blue line shows a calculated torque based on
the actual engine torque multiplied by the transmission ratio
of (8,206). The red line shows the torque measured on the
wheels by the dynamometer bank, and the yellow line shows
the loss of produced torque .

Test 1 [SOC 83%] Test 2 [SOC 34,5%]

800 800
Torque [Nm]

Torque [Nm]
600 600
TrEMOLAB
400 TrEMOLAB 400 TrBANK
TrBANK
TrLOSS
200 TrLOSS 200

0 0
500 600 700 800 900 500 600 700 800 900
Wheel speed [rpm] Wheel speed [rpm]
Fig. 4. Motor efficiency experiment setup on the dynamometer. Test 3 [SOC 27,5%] Test 4 [SOC 24%]
800 800
Torque [Nm]

Torque [Nm]

600 600
TrEMOLAB TrEMOLAB
400 TrBANK 400 TrBANK
TrLOSS TrLOSS
200 200

0 0
500 600 700 800 900 500 600 700 800 900
Wheel speed [rpm] Wheel speed [rpm]

Fig. 7. Result of torque and lost torque measurement curves

C. Copper, iron and friction losses

Fig. 5. Block diagram of the data acquisition system for the EV
A. Loss power
The results of the 4 power loss tests are shown in Fig.6.
The blue line shows the power of the electric motor, this was
measured with the software (EMOLAB) mentioned above,
For the calculation of these losses, equations (2), (3), (4) are
used, to obtain the curves of copper loss (blue line), iron loss
(red line), and friction loss (yellow line) respectively, shown
in Fig.8.
D. Inverter loss
The losses in the inverter are shown in Fig.9, the blue line
shows the loss of power that exists from the battery to the
motor, and the red line shows the loss in the inverter.

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 300
Test 1 [SOC 83%]
400
Test 2 [SOC 34,5%] F. Comparison between battery power and motor power.
PLOSS [Cu] PLOSS [Cu]
PLOSS [Fe] PLOSS [Fe] Performing a comparison between the battery power and the
Power[W]

Power[W]
200 PLOSS [Friction] PLOSS [Friction]
200 motor power, a relation is obtained that indicates the power
100 losses in the inverter are greater at high speeds Fig.11.
0 0
4000 5000 6000 7000 4000 5000 6000 7000 Test 1 [SOC 83%] Test 2 [SOC 34,5%]
Motor speed [rpm] Motor speed [rpm] 80 80
PBAT PBAT
Test 3 [SOC 27,5%] Test 4 [SOC 24%] PMOTOR PMOTOR

Power [KW]

Power [KW]
400 400
PLOSS [Cu] PLOSS [Cu] 60 60
PLOSS [Fe] PLOSS [Fe]
Power [W]

Power [W]
PLOSS [Friction] PLOSS [Friction]
40 40
200 200

20 20
4000 5000 6000 7000 4000 5000 6000 7000
0 0 Motor speed [rpm] Motor speed [rpm]
4000 5000 6000 7000 4000 5000 6000 7000 Test 3 [SOC 27,5%] Test 4 [SOC 24%]
Motor speed [rpm] Motor speed [rpm] 100 100
PBAT PBAT
PMOTOR PMOTOR

Power [KW]

Power [KW]
Fig. 8. Result of the calculation of power losses in copper, iron and caused 80 80
by friction 60 60

40 40
Test 1 [SOC 83%] Test 2 [SOC 34,5%] 20 20
6 4 4000 5000 6000 7000 4000 5000 6000 7000
PBattery-motor Loss PBattery-motor Loss
PInverter Loss PInverter Loss Motor speed [rpm] Motor speed [rpm]
Power [KW]

Power [KW]

4
2
2
Fig. 11. Result of the curves of the measurement of battery power and motor
0 power
0

-2 -2
4000 5000 6000 7000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Motor speed [rpm] Motor speed [rpm] Inverter efficiency Torque efficiency
100 90
Test 3 [SOC 27,5%] Test 4 [SOC 24%]
6 6
Efficiency [%]

Efficiency [%]
PBattery-motor Loss PBattery-motor Loss
PInverter Loss PInverter Loss 98
Power [KW]

Power [KW]

4 4
80
2 2 96

0 0
94 70
4000 5000 6000 7000 4000 5000 6000 7000
-2 -2
4000 5000 6000 7000 4000 5000 6000 7000 Motor speed [rpm] Motor speed [rpm]
Motor speed [rpm] Motor speed [rpm]
(a) (b)
Fig. 9. Result of power loss curves in the inverter Transmission efficiency Efficiency according to losses
100
95

Efficiency [%]
Efficiency [%]

99.8
90
99.6
85
E. Mechanical loss in transmission Eff[Cu]
99.4
80 Eff[FE]
Eff[Friction]
The estimate of the power losses in the transmission, (wheel 99.2
75 4000 5000 6000 7000
4000 5000 6000 7000
reduction assembly) is shown in Fig.10, the blue line shows Motor speed [rpm] Motor speed [rpm]

the total losses , the red line shows the power losses in the (c) (d)
mechanical transmission.
Fig. 12. Result of efficiency curves based on speed

Test 1 [SOC 83%] Test 2 [SOC 34,5%]

15 12
PLOSS [KW]
PLOSS-TRANS [KW]
PLOSS [KW]
PLOSS-TRANS [KW]
V. A NALYSIS RESULTS
Power [KW]

Power [KW]

10
10
8
Analyzing the results of the experimentation, the efficiency
5
6
curves shown in Fig.12 are obtained, in the inverter it is ob-
served that while the vehicle speed increases, the efficiency of
0 4
4000 5000 6000 7000 4000 5000 6000 7000 the inverter decreases, this type of inverter is highly efficient,
Motor speed [rpm] Motor speed [rpm]
Test 3 [SOC 27,5%] Test 4 [SOC 24%]
since at high speed the minimum efficiency is 94.4%. Fig.12(a)
12 12
PLOSS [KW] PLOSS [KW] In the torque it is observed that as the vehicle speed
PLOSS-TRANS [KW] PLOSS-TRANS [KW]
Power [KW]

Power [KW]

10 10
increases, the efficiency increases to a limit of 86.8 % and
8 8 then tends to decrease. Fig.12(b)
6 6 In the mechanical transmission it is observed that if the
4
4000 5000 6000 7000
4
4000 5000 6000 7000
speed increases, the efficiency of the transmission increases,
Motor speed [rpm] Motor speed [rpm] up to a value of 93% and decreases.Fig.12(c).
Fig. 10. Result of the total power loss and power loss curves in the mechanical Obtaining efficiency based on calculated losses, it is ob-
transmission served that the iron losses are low, for this reason the efficiency
dependent on this factor is high, while the efficiency based on

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