Introduction to Engineering and

Problem Solving
Engineering Approximations 1

What is measurement?
What is manipulation of engineering data?
Will there be an error in engineering measurement?
How can I quantify this error?
How many digits should I retain in my numerical results?
How do I obtain a reasonable estimate when only its approximation is desired??

 CHAPTER 4 : ENGINEERING APPROXIMATIONS

4.0 Introduction
4.1 Accuracy and Precision
4.2 Types of Errors and Error Analysis
4.3 Significant Digits
4.4 Engineering Estimations
Tips and Motivation 40
Worksheets 41
Exercises 4.0 47

4.0 INTRODUCTION

An important process in determining solutions of the engineering problems is

arithmetic operations. Since engineers deal quite extensively with the manipulation of
numbers, it is important that we must have certain degree of assurance about the
numbers employed in our computation so that they can be used with confidence and
the results obtained are valid for next phases of work.

High degree of accuracy and precision are usually sought in engineering solutions.
However, there are times when only an approximate solution is needed. In their own
area of competency, engineers may be asked to estimate certain quantities which could
be used in a tentative decision. An electrical engineer, for example, may be asked to
estimate the size of the local power plant or substation required for the supply of
electricity in the new town and its vicinity. A mechanical engineer may be asked to
estimate the number of horse power of a motor for a new machine or to estimate the
size of the air-conditioning units for a new building.

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4.1 SIGNIFICANT DIGITS

In the study of engineering, we are often confronted by numbers with many decimal
places. However, these numbers are not all significant. Only a few digit needs to be
retained. In general, when manipulating numerical data of varying significance, the
data with the least significance will govern the significance of the final number.

A significant digit, or figure, is any digit that represents the measurable part of the
quantity being measured and that it can be used with confidence. The last significant
digit is the last digit in which we place some trust and it is related to either instrument
precision or to human precision. This digit is termed as a “doubtful” digit.

In many engineering problems a few digits are sufficient for number representations. In
arithmetic operations (especially multiplication and division), more digits are
introduced in the results. Some of these extra digits are insignificant, and produce very
small relative errors. Consequently, we may drop some of these digits.

We may then define a significant digit as the number of digits retained in writing a
number, except those zeros that do not have any nonzero digit on their left or those that
are used only for a location of the decimal point.

Example 4.1: Determine the significant figures or digits in each of the following
numbers: 2.347, 1.6520, 3.07 x 10 – 4, 189.780, 0.001 2, 0.001 200, and 12800.

Solution:

Number s.ds
2.347 4
1.652 0 5
3.07 x 10 – 4 3
189.780 6
0.001 2 2
0.001 200 4
12800 3, 4, 5, or 6 (vague or ambiguous)

Comment: s.ds – significant digits.

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Classwork:
Number s.ds
1.250
1000.00
199 720.07
0.012 0
7.120 x 10 – 1
3600

Note that the exact number is said to have an infinite number of significant digits. Let‟s
consider the following numbers and specify the corresponding significant digits.

1 h = 3600 s :
1 day = 24 h :
1200 :
9845 :

To avoid confusion in the number of significant digits, one may employ scientific
notation to represent the numbers.

Scientific notation:

a x 10n

where 1 < |a| < 10 : any positive or negative real number.

n : any positive or negative integer.

For example, 12000 may be written as 1.20 x 104 to signify 3 s.ds or 1.200 x 104 to
signify 4 s.ds and 0.00095 may be written as 9.5 x 10-4 to signify 2 s.ds.

4.1.1 Rounding of Numbers

The following rules are applied when a digit is to be omitted when retaining certain
number of significant digits.

If the digit is less than 5, it is completely deleted.

If the digit is equal to 5 or greater, it will be omitted but one unit
shall be added to the digit immediately on the left of it.

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Examples:

Original Desired Final

number Significant Rounded
digit number
5 10.475
10.4746 4 10.47
3 10.5
2 1.0x10

Warning: successive rounding of numbers may lead to a wrong answer. Thus, it

should be avoided.

4.1.2 Rounding for Retaining Significant Digits in Arithmetic Operations

When performing arithmetic operations on numbers, it is necessary that the number of

significant digits in the result does not exceed the accuracy of the data itself. The
following rules are observed where applicable.

(1) Multiplication and division. The products and quotients of numbers should contain
the same number of significant digits as the number with the least significant
digits.

Example 4.2: Perform the following arithmetic operations and report the final
answers accordingly.
(a) 3.1571 x 2.80
(b) 7430/1.6
(c) (26.21 x 64.567)/8.45
(d) 5.61 hours in seconds.

Solution:

Operation Calculator‟s result Final answer

3.1571 x 2.80 8.83988 8.84
7430/1.6 4643.75 4.6 x 103
26.21 64.567
200.272316 2.00 x 102
8.45
3600 s
5.61 h * 20160 2.02 x 104
1h

Comment: * Rule does not apply to conversion factors and exact numbers.

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(2) Addition and subtraction. The results of any addition and subtraction of numbers
should have significant digits as far to the right as is seen in the least precise
number.

Example 4.3: Perform the following arithmetic operations and report the final
answers accordingly.
(a) 3.1571 + 2.80
(b) 1657.439 – 186.2
(c) 0.098 – 1.98320
(d) 1890 + 24.65
(e) 1890.1 + 24.65
Solution:

Operation Calculator‟s result Final answer

3.1571 + 2.80 5.9571 5.96
1657.439 – 186.2 1471.239 1471.2
0.098 – 1.98320 – 1.8852 – 1.885
1890 + 24.65 1914.65 1914.65
1890.1 + 24.65 1914.75 1914.8

(3) Combined operations. If products and quotients are to be added or subtracted, one
should perform the multiplications or divisions first, and establishes the proper
number of significant digits in the sub answers, and then performs the additions or
subtractions according to the appropriate rule. However, when using a calculator,
it is not practical to perform intermediate rounding. It is suggested to perform the
entire calculations and then report a reasonable number of significant digits. The
reasonable number of significant digits in calculations should be determined from
the relative error required in the final answer.

4.1.3 Relationship between relative errors and significant digits

There is a range of relative errors that one should expect when writing a number with
certain significant digits. For example, the number 10.0 has three significant digits.
The maximum possible error in this number is 0.05. Therefore the relative error is

0.05
r = x100 % = 0.5 %
10.0

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Now, let‟s consider the number 99.9 which also contains three significant digits and
the maximum possible error of 0.05. The relative error is then

0.05
r = x 100 % = 0.05 %
99.9

We observe that in the case of the number with three significant digits, the relative
error is in the range of
5 x 10– 2 < r < 5 x 10– 1 %

Next let‟s consider the number 10.00 which has four significant digits. The maximum
possible error in this number is 0.005. Therefore the relative error is

0.005
r = x100 % = 0.05 %
10.0

Now, let‟s consider the number 99.99 which also contains four significant digits and
the maximum possible error of 0.005. The relative error is then

0.005
r = x 100 % = 0.005 %
99.9

We observe that in the case of the number with four significant digits, the relative
error is in the range of
5 x 10– 3 < r < 5 x 10– 2 %

During arithmetic operations, the relative errors may or may not stay in the same order
even if one follows the rules as stated early. Sometimes one has to use one‟s own
judgment. In engineering, the answer from mathematical calculations can not be more
accurate than the data and it is very seldom known that the data has accuracy greater
than 0.2 %. Therefore, for combined arithmetic operations this general rule may be
applied.

As a general rule, use 4 significant figures to record numbers

beginning with a “1” and 3 figures in all other cases.

Example 4.4: Perform the following arithmetic operations and report the final
answers using (i) the standard rules for each operation, and (ii) the general rule for
combined operation.
(a) [4.5 + 1.093(10-3)] / (0.105 x 9.81)
(b) (560 x 1.20 / 0.00852) – (7860 + 3.670 / 1.8)
(c) (14.57 + 6.91) x (0.45 – 0.091)

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Solution:

Comment: In combined arithmetic operation such as those in this example, it is

recommended that the general rule be applied!

4.2 ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Accuracy in engineering refers to how closely a measured value agrees with the true
values while precision refers to how closely the individual measured values agree with
one another. In other words, accuracy is the measure of closeness of the estimate to the
actual value (i.e. the extent to which the indicated reading represents the true value)
and precision is the degree of consistency of the estimates to be closed to each other
(i.e. the reproducibility of a reading). Figure 4.1 describes these concepts by
considering the center or the bull eye as the target or true value and the „x‟ as the
measured values.

Increasing accuracy

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Increasing precision
Figure 4.1 Concept of accuracy and precision

It is possible to have a value which is precise but not necessarily accurate. A

measurement made with any type of instrument is limited by its accuracy and

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precision. A manufacturer will not, in general, graduate an instrument to a greater

extent than is warranted by its accuracy. For example, a meter with divisions of 0.01
units would be meaningless if its accuracy were only  1 unit, since it would be no use
for such an exact reading when it is not very accurate. For this reason, the accuracy of
an instrument is to be  one-half of the smallest division of the scale.

Precision and accuracy are usually reported as a value plus or minus () a number. For
example,
5.21  0.04

which represents the numbers in the range of 5.17 (5.21 – 0.04) to 5.25 (5.21 + 0.04).
This range of values can also be expressed as a percentage of the given number such as
 p% of the full-scale reading. For example, if the full-scale reading were 200oC and
the instrument‟s accuracy is stated as  1.0% of the full-scale reading, then all readings
obtained could be expected to be within  2oC of the true value (i.e. 200oC x 0.01 =
2oC).

Example 4.5: A measurement was recorded as 125.6  1.4 percent. Determine the
range of values associated with this reading to the proper number of significant digits.

Solution:

Numerical error = 125.6 x 0.014

= 1.7583
= 1.76 (rounded to 2 decimal places)

Range: 125.6 – 1.76 = 123.84

= 123.8 (rounded to 4 significant digits)

and 125.6 + 1.76 = 126.36

= 126.4 (rounded to 4 significant digits)

The range of values is 123.8 to 126.4.

Comment: In combined arithmetic operation such as those in this example, it is

recommended that the general rule be applied!

4.3 TYPE OF ERRORS AND ERROR ANALYSIS

Accuracy of experimental Data. We are dealing with a physical world where we are
constantly involved with engineering measurement. Limitations on the accuracy of
data obtained from experiment is due to errors arising from various sources. In this

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respect, the accuracy and precision of an estimate may just be as important as the
measurement itself. This leads to the next discussion on error analysis in measurement.

4.3.1 Type of errors

Error in measurement can be defined as any deviation from its true value which may be
known or unknown at the time. Whenever a measurement of certain quantities does not
yield exactly the results, the error must occur. Errors are normally classified into two
types: systematic and random errors.

1. Systematic errors. Systematic errors (also known as consistent or cumulative or

determinate errors) are errors that are introduced systematically and consistently.
They exist no matter what steps are taken to avoid them. They are normally
associated with (1) the quality of equipment or the instruments used during the
measurement process and (2) the condition of the surroundings (i.e. external
factors). They usually yield consistent signs, either positive or negative.

Some examples of the systematic errors are

 an instrument that is out calibration by a known amount,

 a measuring tape that is either too long or short because of the air
temperature is different from the one when it was calibrated.

Let‟s consider, for example, a measurement of the long distance between two points
using a short measuring tape which must be applied several times.


  

Figure 4.2 Error in measuring long distance

Possible sources of errors: temperature of the surrounding, tension applied on the tape,
level of ground, and etc. To reduce this type of errors, we will have to apply
appropriate correction factors once we understand their sources.

Similar problems may be encountered in all types of measurements whether they are in
mechanical, electrical, chemical, civil, or any other engineering disciplines. To help

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improving the measurement process, we eliminate any source that we can and try to
correct the remaining.

2. Random errors or human errors. This type of errors is sometimes known as

accidental or indeterminate errors, blunders or mistakes. It is unforeseeable and
usually beyond the control of the data taker. It is associated with the instrument‟s
accuracy and precision. It arises from misreading of a scale such as parallax errors i.e.
errors by reading scale not at the right angle. It may be due to estimation of values in
smallest graduations on the instruments or due to inexperience in using equipment and
procedures.

It is quite impossible to predict its magnitude and sign. We can overcome this type of
errors by repeating the measurements and averaging out the results.

In general, we can minimize these two types of errors in measurements by

 increasing our awareness of the problem.

 enhancing skill with measurement procedures.
 having knowledge about the degree of precision of the instrument.
 having proficiency in the statistical analysis.

4.3.2 Error Quantifications

When the true value of the quantity is known, we may quantify the error in two
different but related ways.

Let x = a true (or exact) value

x* = an estimated (or approximate) value or simply an approximation

 True Error, Et
true value = approximation + error

or error = true value – approximation

Et  x  x *

Note that the true error does not reflect the degree of its influence.

For example, Et of 0.01m in measurement of the distance to the moon and,

Et of 0.01m in diameter of a piston in a cylinder

do not suggest the significant or scale of the error, though, both have same the value of
the absolute error. In view of this limitation, the second way of quantifying the error is
introduced.

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 (True) Relative error:

x  x*
Et, rel =
x

Note that the true error is normalized or scaled relative to the true value so that the
influence of the error can be significantly interpreted. Usually the relative error is
expressed in terms of percentage, that is

x  x*
(True) Percent relative error : t = x100 %
x

The discrepancy between the exact mathematical value and the computed value is called the
approximation error.

4.4 ENGINEERING ESTIMATIONS

Though engineers attempt for a high level of accuracy, there will be occasions when
only a reasonable estimate is suffice. When there are no references and very little time
is given, engineers will have to rely on their basic understanding of the problem
coupled with previous experiences. The estimate may have errors perhaps between 10
to 20 percent or even more for some instances. If, however, a greater accuracy is
required, one may later refine the initial estimate by using appropriate reference
materials, employing proper computational tools, and allocating more time.

The accuracy of estimates often depends on several factors such as

1. Availability of reference materials: data, charts, tables, graphs, etc

2. Duration of time: urgency of the matter

3. Experience: problems were solved once before

4. Judgment in making assumptions: realistic, reliable, and not over-simplifying

Sometimes engineers may also be called upon to make estimates that involve a choice
or selection among the various alternatives available. They must be able to provide
such estimates so that the next steps can be implemented. This really requires a good
judgment of the engineers.

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Example 4.6: Without any survey, estimate a daily water consumption of all residents
in a city where you live in. Make reasonable assumptions that may help you come up
with a reasonable answer.

Assumptions: 1. The city is Shah Alam, Malaysia.

2. There are 32 sections with 24 being residential and 8 industrial
areas.
3.

4.

Data & Diagrams: (if applicable)

Solution:

Comment: How can you obtain a better estimate?

Worksheet 4.1: Perform the following arithmetic operations and report the final
answers with the proper number of significant digits.

(a) 19.2 + 1.093(102)

(b) 12.0046 – 9.019
(c) 1258.37 x 100
(d) 3.7 / 1.682
(e) 19.2 + 1.093(102) / (7.105 – 9.8067)
(f) [(0.0251 x 1.201 + 0.00852)] – (7860 / 0.091 + 3.670 / 6.1)
(g) (104.57 – 6.9) x (0.45 / 0.091)

Solution:

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Worksheet 4.2: The electrical power generated by a resistor in watts is given by P =

VI where V is a voltage in volts and I is a current in amperes. Knowing that V = RI with
R being a resistance of 5.2  and V = 240 V, determine (a) the current flow through
the resistor and (b) the corresponding power generated. Report your final answers with
the proper number of significant digits.

Solution:

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Worksheet 4.3: Estimate the weight and cost of all window glass panels in your class
room. State your assumptions clearly.

Assumptions:

Solution:

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Exercises 4.0: Engineering Estimations

1. How many significant digits are there in the each quantity?

a) 1 007.0 b) 0.006 75 c) 1.006 75 d) 9.810

e) 2000 f) 8.50 x 10-2 g) 0.010 h) 0.10

2. How many significant figures are contained in each of the following numbers?

a) 60 min/h b) 679.0 c) 0.06 79 d) 6.79

e) 4.448 lbf/N f) 3.090 00 g) 1.8 K/oR h) 10997

3. Perform the following operations and report the answers with the correct number of
significant digits.

(a). (1.09)(2.30 7)

(b). $1030.0/365

(c). 6.485 in2/144 in2/ft2

(d). (-0.072 80 + 0.45 2 )

(e). (2.59 x 10-3) + (1.58 x 10-2)

(f). (-0.072 80 + 0.45 2 )/144

(g) 45.9/(0.317 9 - 0.318)

(h). (-0.072 80 + 0.45 2 )/144 x 725 6

(i). p = (1200 )(9.81)/(0.20)(0.45)

4. Newton‟s second law can be expressed as F = ma where F is force in N, m is mass in

kg, and a is acceleration in m/s2. Determine the acceleration of the 12.5-kg block when
subjected to the 200-N force.

5. Calculate the potential energy of an object with a mass of 0.460 kg and located at a
height of 3.5x102 m above the reference. Use g = 9.81 m/s2.

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6. A light helicopter consumes 11.80 liters of fuel for every 47.0 km of flight distance.
How much fuel is needed for a trip of 3521.7 km?

ax 2
7. For the function y = where a = 2, b = 0.025, and c = 1.4, obtain the value of y
bx  c
when x = 2.5.

8. The ideal gas equation can be expressed as pV = mRT where m is mass in kg, p is
pressure in Pa, V is volume in m3, T is temperature in K, and R is the gas constant in
J/(kgK). Knowing that p = 40.0x106 Pa, V = 0.03 m3, and T = 1350 K, calculate the
mass of air (R = 287.0 J/(kgK)) contained in a closed rigid tank.

9. Estimate the volume (capacity) in cubic meters and mass in kilograms of a water tower
on your campus.

10. Energy crisis is alarming and becoming a pressing issue lately. Waste of electricity is
very apparent. Estimate the cost of electricity for all rooms in one of the buildings on
your campus or as specified by your instructor. Propose ways to overcome this
problem of electrical energy waste. What percent of this electrical energy would be
considered as a waste?

11. Water shortage due to climate change is becoming one of the major concerns
nowadays. Estimate the cost of water consumption for all occupants in one of the
buildings on your campus or as specified by your instructor. Is there any element of
waste in water utilization? How many percent would you consider as contributing to
this cost?

12. For a building constructed with a brick facade, determine (i) the total number, mass,
and price of the bricks required, and (ii) the total amount of cement and sand used.

13. The price of petroleum has escalated over the past few years and that the energy crisis
has also been a major concern among the engineers. How much fuel is burned in liters
by the residence of your city in a day? What will be the total cost of this fuel?

14. The price of petroleum has escalated over the past few years and that the energy crisis
has also been a major concern among the engineers. How much fuel is burned in liters
by you during your last semester-break visit-home trip? What will be the total cost of
this fuel?

15. It is believed that with the advent of the new technology, people tend to walk less and
less. Is it true? If this is true, then it is not a good sign since it may affect our health.
Calculate the average walking distance by a normal person both male and female in a
typical working day. With that distance, do you consider it as sufficient in order to
maintain a good health?

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16. Many times buyers of a house are subjected to a relatively or unreasonably high price
by the housing company. To help the new buyers, you are to calculate the construction
cost (include only labor and material cost) of a typical 20 by 46 ft single or double
story house in your area. You may obtain several references such as the floor plan
from the local housing project available.

17. To meet the government‟s energy saving policy, the maintenance unit proposes to
replace all current windows with new insulated glasses. Calculate the surface are in
square meters of the glass for the building as specified by your instructor.

18. One of the main hall on your campus is to be renovated, propose the number of
audience that can comfortably fill in.

19. For an average engineering student in regular weekdays during the semester, estimate
the amount time to be allocated each day to complete all assignments effectively.

20. . It is the policy of the engineering curriculum that all engineering students have to
have all their own textbooks throughout the academic years. Determine the amount of
money that must be spent on the textbooks during the freshman and sophomore years
here.

21. To meet with current and future challenge in engineering, computer facilities on this
campus must be upgraded. Determine the number of new computers required and the
cost involved for a system with minimal specifications.

22. It is time that the electrical wiring system on your campus be replaced. As an electrical
engineering student, you are assigned the task to estimate the total amount (length) of
wire required and the cost involved (including labor cost) for of the building as
specified by your instructor.

23. The pyramids of ancient Egypt is one of the world wonders built during the reign of
Pharaohs. Estimate the number of bricks and the amount of concrete that would fill the
volume of one of the pyramids. What would the total cost of the bricks and concrete?

End of Chapter 4

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