1) Electromagnetic waves with frequencies that range
from approximately 500 MHz to 300 GHz or more.
Microwaves
2) The wavelengths for microwave frequencies, which is
than infrared energy. 1 cm and 60 cm slightly longer
3) The name given to microwave signals, because of
their inherently high frequencies, have short
wavelengths. “Microwave” waves
4) Each frequency is divided in half with the lower half
identified as the low band and the upper half as narrow
band. Full-Duplex (Two-way)
5)Communications system used to carry information for
relatively short distances such as between cities with the
same state. Short Haul
6) Microwave systems that is used to carry information
for relatively long distances, such as interstate and
backbone route applications. Long Haul
7) Microwave Radios It propagate signals through
Earth’s atmosphere between transmitters and receivers
often located on top of tower spaced about 15 miles to
30 miles apart. Advantages of Microwave Radio: 
Radio systems do not require a right-of way acquisition
between stations.  Each station requires the purchase
or lease ofonly a small area of land.  Because of their
high operating frequencies, microwave radio systems
can carry large quantities of information.  High
frequencies mean short wavelengths, which require
relatively small antennas.  Radio signals are more
easily propagated around physical obstacles such as
water and high mountains  Fewer repeaters are
necessary for amplification.  Distances between
switching centers are less.  Underground facilities are
minimized.  Minimum delays are introduced. 
Minimal crosstalk exists between voice channels. 
Increased reliability and less maintenance are important
factors.
Disadvantages of Microwave Radio:  It is more
difficult to analyze and design circuits at microwave
frequencies.  Measuring techniques are more difficult
to perfect and implement at microwave
frequencies.  It is difficult to implement conventional
circuit components at microwave frequencies. 
Transient time is more critical at microwave frequencies.
 It is often necessary to use specialized components for
microwave frequencies.  Microwave frequencies
propagate in a straight line, which limits their use to
lineof-sight applications.
8) Propagates signals outside the Earth’s atmosphere and
are capable of carrying signals much farther while
utilizing fewer transmitters and receivers. Satellite
Systems
9) It is used in microwave radio systems rather than
amplitude modulation because AM signals are more
sensitive to amplitude nonlinearities inherent in
wideband microwave amplifiers. Frequency
Modulation
10) Major factor when designing FM Radio systems. It
is caused by repeater amplitude nonlinearity in AM,
while in FM, it is caused by transmission gain and delay
distortion. Intermodulation Noise
11) The composite signal that modulates the FM carrier
and may comprise one or more of the following:
 Frequency-division multiplexed voiceband channels
 Time-division-multiplexed voice-band channels 
Broadcast-quality composite video or picture phone 
Wideband data Baseband
12) It provides an artificial boost in amplitude to the
higher baseband frequencies. Preemphasis Network
13) Frequency modulation index used in the FM
deviator. Typically, modulation indices are kept between
0.5 and 1. Low-Index
14) FM signal that is produces at the output of the
deviator with a low-index frequency modulation.
Narrowband FM
15) A receiver and a transmitter placed back to back or
in tandem with the system. Microwave Repeaters
16) It receives a signal, amplifies and reshapes it, and
then retransmit the signal to the next repeater or terminal
station down line from it. Types of Microwave
repeaters:  IF  Baseband  RF Repeater Station
17) The received RF carrier is down-converted to an IF
frequency, amplified, reshaped, up-converted to an RF
frequency, and then retransmitted. IF Repeater
18) Generally less than 9 MHz. Baseband Frequencies
19) The range id 60 MHz to 80MHz. IF frequencies
20) Another name for a Local oscillator, is
considerably lower in frequency than either the received
or the
transmitted radio frequencies. Shift Oscillator
21) Transmission used by microwave systems wherein a
direct signal path must exist between the transmit
receive antennas. Line-of Site Transmission
22) A temporary reduction in signal strength which last
in milliseconds for several hours or even days. Radio
Fade
23) It suggests that there is more than one transmission
path or method of transmission available a transmitter
and a receiver. Diversity
24)It is simply modulating two different RF carrier
frequencies with the same IF intelligence, then
transmitting both RF signals to a given destination.
Frequency Diversity
25) The output of a transmitter is fed to two or more
antennas that are physically separated by an appreciable
number of wavelengths. Space Diversity
26) A single RF carrier is propagated with two different
electromagnetic polarizations. It is generally used in
conjunction with space diversity. Polarization
Diversity
27) It is more than one receiver for a single radio-
frequency channel. With frequency diversity, it is
necessary to also use receiver diversity because each
transmitted frequency requires its own receiver Receiver
Diversity
28) Another form of Hybrid diversity and undoubtly
provides the most reliable transmission but most
expensive. It combines frequency, space, polarization
and receiver diversity into one system. Quad Diversity
29) A specialized form of diversity that consist of a
standard frequency diversity path where the two
transmitter/ receiver pairs at one end of the path are
separated from each other and connected to different
antennas that are vertically separated as in space
diversity. Hybrid Diversity
29)Alternate facilities temporarily made to avoid a
service interruption during periods of deep fades or
equipment failures. types of protection switching
arrangements:  hotstandby  diversity Protection
Switching Arrangement
30) Each working radio channel has a dedicated backup
or spare channel. Hot Standby Protection
31) A single backup channel is made available to as
many as 11 working channels. Diversity Protection
32) In hotstandby protection, it splits the signal power
and directs it to the working and the spare (standby)
microwave channels simultaneously. Head-End Bridge
33) It has two working channels, one spare channel, and
an auxiliary channel. Diversity Protection
34) A low-capacity low-power microwave radio that is
designed to be used for a maintenance channel
only.Auxilliary Channel
35) It is where the number of repeater stations between
protection switches depends. Reliability Objectives of
the Systems
36) Points in the system where baseband signals either
originate or terminate. four major sections:  baseband
 wireline entrance link (WLEL)  FM-IF  RF
sections Terminal Stations
37) Points in a system where baseband signals may be
reconfigured or where RF carriers are simply “repeated”
or amplified. Repeater Stations
38) Stands for WireLine Entrance Link, it serves as the
interface between the multiplex terminal equipment and
the FM_IF equipment. WLEL
39)A balanced modulator that, when used in conjunction
with a microwave generator, power amplifier, and band-
pass filter, up-converts the IF carrier to an RF carrier and
amplifies the RF to the desired output power. Transmod
40) It must be capable of amplifying very high
frequencies and passing very wide bandwidth signals for
microwave radios. devices used in microwaveamplifiers:
 Klystron Tubes  Traveling-wave tubes (TWTs) 
IMPATT (Impact avalanche and transit time) Power
Amplifiers
41) It provides the RF carrier input to the up-converter.
It is called as microwave generator rather than an
oscillator because it is difficult to construct a stable
circuit that will oscillate in the gigahertz range.
Microwave Generator
42) It operates in the range 5 MHz to 25 MHz, used to
provide a base frequency that is multiplied up to the
desired RF carrier frequency. Crystal-controlled
Oscillator
43) A unidirectional device often made from ferrite
material. It used in conjunction with a channelcombining
network to prevent the output of one transmitter from
interfering with the output of another transmitter.
Isolator
44) Stands for Automatic Gain Control, is a circuit in an
IF amplifier. AGC
45) It occurs only when three stations are placed in a
geographical straight line in the system. Multi-hop
Interference
46) It prevents the power that “leaks” out the back and
sides of a transmit antenna from interfering with the
signal entering the input of a nearby receive antenna.
High/Low-Frequency Scheme
47) The signal entering the input of a nearby receive
antenna. Ring around
48) It means that this channels are propagated with
vertical polarization. V Channels
49) The line-of-sight directly between the transmit and
receive antenna. Also called as the Direct Wave. Free-
Space Path
50) It consists of the electric and magnetic fields
associated with the currents induced in earth’s surface.
Surface Wave
51) The portion of the transmit signal that is reflected off
Earth’s surface and captured by the receive
antenna.Ground-Reflected Wave
52) The portion of the transmit signal that is returned
back to Earth’s surface by the ionized layers of earth’s
atmosphere. Sky Wave
53) The loss incurred by an electromagnetic wave as it
propagates in a straight line through a vacuum with no
absorption or reflection of energy from nearby objects.
Free-Space Path Loss
54) A phenomenon wherein electromagnetic energy is
spread out as it propagates away from the source
resulting in lower relative power densities. Spreading
Loss
55) The reduction in signal strength at the input to a
receiver. Fading
56) The difference between the nominal output power of
a transmitter and the minimum input power to a receiver
necessary to achieve satisfactory performance. System
Gain
57) Sometimes called as Link Margin, is essentially a
“fudge Factor” included in system gain equations that
considers the non ideal and less predictable
characteristics of radio wave propagation and terrain
sensitivity. Fade Margin
58) He described ways of calculating outage time due to
fading on a non diversity path as a function of terrain,
climate, path length, and fade margin, in April 1969.
W.T. Barnett
59) From Bell Laboratories, he derived formulas for
calculating the effective improvement achievable by
vertical space diversity as a function of the spacing
distance, path length, and frequency in June 1970.
Arvids Vignant
60)The ratio of the wideband “carrier” to the wideband
noise power. Carrier-to-Noise Ratio (C/N)
61)Also called Receiver Sensitivity, is the minimum
wide band carrier power at the input to a receiver that
will provide a usable baseband output. Receiver
Threshold
62) The carrier-to-noise ratio before the FM
demodulator. Pre-detection Signal toNoise Ratio
63) The carrier-to-noise ratio after the FM demodulator.
Postdetection Signal- to-Noise Ratio
64) A ratio of input signal-to-noise ratio to output signal
to noise ratio. Noise Factor (F)
65) The noise factor stated in dB and is a parameter
commonly used to indicate the quality of a receiver.
Noise Figure
1. A satellite is an object which has been placed
into orbit by human endeavor.
2. 1st fiction: Edward Everett Hale, The Brick
Moon. (Atlantic Monthly 1869)
3. The idea surfaces again in Jules Verne's The
Begum's Millions (1879).
4. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1903): Exploration of
Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices
- the first academic treatise: use of rocketry to launch
spacecraft
- calculate orbital speed required for a minimal orbit
around the Earth at 8 km/s
- use of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen
5. Herman Potočnik (1928) Das Problem der
Befahrung des Weltraums der Raketen-Motor
(The Problem of Space Travel — The Rocket
Motor)
- a plan for a breakthrough into space and a permanent
human presence there
- He conceived of a space station in detail and
calculated its geostationary orbit.
- peaceful and military observation of the ground
- discussed communication between them and the
ground using radio, (no telcom)
 6. Arthur C. Clarke (Wireless World art. 1945)
possible use of comm satellites for mass comm
- examined the logistics of satellite launch, possible
orbits and other aspects of the creation of a network
of world circling satellites, pointing to the benefits
of highspeed
- suggested three geostationary satellites can provide
coverage over entire planet
HISTORY OF ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES
October 4, 1957 – Sputnik 1 (1st artificial satellite)
- started the whole Soviet Sputnik program, with
Sergei Korolev as chief designer.
- identify the density of high atmospheric layers
- meteoroid detection, as a loss of internal pressure
due to meteoroid penetration
- ignited the so-called Space Race within the Cold
War
May, 1946 - Project RAND Preliminary Design of an
Experimental World-Circling Spaceship
- "A satellite vehicle with appropriate instrumentation
can be expected to be one of the most potent
scientific tools of the Twentieth Century
July 29, 1955 - White House  US launch by spring
1958 (Project Vanguard)
July 31 – SU launch by fall 1957
The largest artificial satellite currently orbiting the Earth
is the International Space Station.
TIMELINE OF ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES AND
SPACE PROBES
1957 - SU - Earth - S - Sputnik 1 (1st Earth sat)
1957 - SU - Earth – PS - Sputnik 2 (1 st Earth sat w/
Laika dog)
1958 - US - Earth - S - Explorer 1
1958 - US - Moon - F - Pioneer 1 orbiter
1958 - US - Moon - F - Pioneer 3 flyby
1959 - SU - Moon - S - Luna 1 flyby (solar wind)
1959 - US - Moon - PS - Pioneer 4 flyby
1959 - SU - Moon - S - Luna 2 impactor(1st moon
surface)
1959 - SU - Moon - S - Luna 3 flyby(1st image Moon)
1960 - US - Sun - Pioneer 5 solar monitor
1960 - SU - Mars - F - Mars 1960A probe
1960 - SU - Mars - F - Mars 1960B probe
1961 - SU - Venus - F - 1VA (proto-Venera) flyby
1961 - Su - Venus - F - Venera 1 flyby
1961 - US - Earth - S - OSCAR1 First Amateur Satellite
1962 - US - Venus - S - Mariner 2 (1ST Venus data)
1962 - US - Earth - S - Telstar 1
1962 - CND - Earth - S - Alouette 1
1962 - UK - Earth - S
1962 - US - Moon - F - Ranger 3 photomission
1962 - US - Moon - PF - Ranger 4 photomission
(impacted lunar surface)
1962 - US - Moon - PF- Ranger 5 photographic mission
(became flyby)
1962 - SU - Mars - F - Mars 1962A flyby
1962 - SU - Mars - F - Mars 1 flyby
1962 - SU - Mars - F - Mars 1962B lander
1963 - US - Earth - F - Syncom 1
1963 - US - Earth - S - Syncom 2 (1 st geosynchronous
orbit)
1963 - SU - Moon - PF - Luna 4 lander (became probe)
1964 - US - Earth - S - Syncom 3 (1 st geostationary
orbit)
1964 - SU - Venus - F - Zond 1 flyby
1964 - US- Moon - F - Ranger 6 photomission
1964 - US - Moon - S - Ranger 7 photomission
1964 - US - Mars - F - Mariner 3 flyby
1964 - US - Mars - S - Mariner 4 flyby (1 st s Mars
mission)
1964 - SU - Mars - F - Zond 2 flyby
1965 - US - Sun - S - Pioneer 6 solar probe
1965 - SU - Venus - F - Venera 2 flyby
1965 - SU - Venus - F - Venera 3 atm probe
1965 - US - Moon - S - Ranger 8 photomission
1965 - US - Moon - S - Ranger 9 photomission
1965 - CND - Earth - S - Alouette 2 (US rocket)
1965 - SU - Moon - F - Luna 5 lander
1965 - SU - Moon - F - Luna 6 lander
1965 - SU - Moon - S - Zond 3 flyby
1965 - SU - Moon - F - Luna 7 lander
1965 - FRN - Satellite - S - Astérix satellite
1965 - SU - Moon - F - Luna 8 lander
1965 - US - Mars - S - Mariner 4 (Mars pic)
1966 - US - Sun - S - Pioneer 7 solar probe
1966 - SU - Moon - S - Luna 9 lander (1st photos Moon
surface)
1966 - SU - Moon - S - Luna 10 (1 st spacecraft to Moon
orbit)
1966 - US - Moon - S - Surveyor 1 lander
1966 - US - Moon - S - Lunar Orbiter 1 orbiter
1966 - SU - Moon - S - Luna 11 orbiter
1966 - US - Moon - F - Surveyor 2
1966 - SU - Moon - S - Luna 12 orbiter
1966 - US - Moon - S - Lunar Orbiter 2 orbiter
1966 - SU - Moon - S - Luna 13 lander
1967 - AUS - Earth - S – WRESAT
1967 - US - Sun - S - Pioneer 8 solar probe
1967 - SU - Venus - S - Venera 4 (1 st below Venus
clouds)
1967 - US - Venus - S - Mariner 5 flyby
1967 - US - Moon - S - Lunar Orbiter 3 orbiter
1967 - US - Moon - S - Surveyor 2 lander
1967 - US - Moon - S - Lunar Orbiter 4 orbiter
1967 - US - Moon - F - Surveyor 3 lander
1967 - US - Moon - S - Explorer 35 orbiter
1967 - US - Moon - S - Lunar Orbiter 5 orbiter
1967 - US - Moon - S - Surveyor 5 lander
1967 - US - Moon - S - Surveyor 6 lander (took off
Moon's surface)
1967 - US - S - gamma-ray satellite discovers gamma-
ray emission from Milky Way
1968 - US - Sun - S - Pioneer 9 solar probe
1968 - US - Moon - S - Surveyor 7 lander
1968 - SU - Moon - S - Luna 14 orbiter
1968 - SU - Moon - S - Zond 5 flyby
1968 - SU - Moon - S - Zond 6 flyby
1969 - SU - Venus - S - Venera 5 atmospheric probe
1969 - SU - Venus - S - Venera 6 atmospheric probe
1969 - US - Moon - S - Apollo 10 manned orbiter
1969 - SU - Moon - F - Luna 15 lander
1969 - SU - Moon - S - Zond 7 flyby
1969 - US - Mars - S - Mariner 6 flyby
1969 - US - Mars - S - Mariner 7 flyby
1970 - JP - Earth - S - Osumi
1970 - SU - Venus - S - Venera 7 (1 st s landing on
another planet)
1970 - SU - Moon - S - Luna 16 lander (1 st automated
Moon sample)
1970 - SU - Moon - S - Zond 8 flyby
1970 - SU - Moon - S - Luna 17/Lunokhod 1
lander/rover (1st automated surface Moon)
1970 - US - S - Uhuru, 1st dedicated Xray satellite
1970 - CHN - S - Dong Fang Hong I
1971 - SU - Moon - F - Luna 18 lander
1971 - SU - Moon - S - Luna 19 orbiter
1971 - US- Mars - F - Mariner 8 flyby
1971 - SU - Mars - F - Cosmos 419 probe
1971 - SU - Mars - PF - Mars 2 orbiter and lander,
created the first human artifact on Mars
1971 – SU - Mars - PS - Mars 3 orbiter and lander, first
successful landing on Mars
1971 - US - Mars - S - Mariner 9 orbiter, first pictures of
Mars' moons (Phobos and Deimos) taken
1971 - UK - Earth - S - Prospero X-3 satellite, first and
only satellite launched by Britain using a British rocket
1972 - SU - Venus - S - Venera 8 lander
1972 - SU - Moon - S - Luna 20 lander
1972 - S - Launch of the Copernicus ultraviolet satellite
1972 – US - Sun - S - Explorer 49 solar probe
1973 - US - Venus/Mercury - S - Mariner 10 launched, it
passed by and photographed Mercury, also was the first
dual planet probe
1973 - SU - Moon - S - Luna 21/Lunokhod 2
lander/rover
1973 - SU - Mars - F - Mars 4 orbiter
1973 - SU - Mars - S - Mars 5 orbiter
1973 - SU- Mars - F - Mars 6 orbiter and lander
1973 - SU- Mars - F - Mars 7 orbiter and lander
1974 - GMNY - Sun - S - Helios 1 solar probe
1974 - SU - Moon - S - Luna 22 orbiter
1974 - SU - Moon - F - Luna 23 probe
1974 - S - Launch of the Ariel V X-ray satellite
1975 - SU - Venus - S - Venera 9 returns the first
pictures of the surface of Venus
1975 - SU - Venus - S - Venera 10 orbiter and lander
1975 – US - Mars - PS- Viking 1 orbiter and lander;
lands on Mars 1976
1975 - US - Mars - S - Viking 2 orbiter and lander; lands
on Mars 1976
1975 - IND - Earth - S - Aryabhata India, launched by
USSR India's first rocket SLV launched
1976 - GMNY - Sun - S - Helios 2 solar probe
1976 - SU - Moon - S - Luna 24 lander
1976 - Earth - S - Hermes Communications Technology
Satellite prototype for testing direct broadcast TV
1976 - S - The Vela and ANS X-ray satellites discover
X-ray bursts
1976 - S - The X-ray satellite shows that X-ray bursts
have blackbody spectra
1977 - S - Launch of the X-ray satellite
1978 - USA - Venus - S - Pioneer Venus 1 orbiter
1978 - USA - Venus - S - Pioneer Venus 2 atmospheric
probe
1978 - Soviet Union - Venus - PS - Venera 11 flyby and
lander
1978 - Soviet Union - Venus - S - Venera 12 flyby and
lander
1978 - S - Launch of the International Ultraviolet
Explorer satellite
1978 - S - Launch of the Einstein X-ray satellite
(HEAO-2) is the first X-ray photographs of astronomical
objects
1979 - S - Launch of the Hakucho X-ray satellite ()
1979 - S - Launch of the cosmic-ray and X-ray satellite
1979 - USA - Jupiter - S - Voyager 1 and Voyager 2
send back images of Jupiter and its system
1980 - USA - Sun - F- Solar Maximum Mission solar
probe succeeded after being repaired in Earth orbit
1981 - Soviet Union - Venus - S - Venera 13 launched, it
returned the first colour pictures of the surface of Venus
1981 - Soviet Union - Venus - S - Venera 14 flyby and
lander
1983 - Soviet Union - Venus - S - Venera 15 orbiter
1983 - Soviet Union - Venus - S - Venera 16 orbiter
1983 - S - EXOSAT X-ray satellite
1983 - S - Tenma X-ray satellite (ASTRO-B)
1983 - S - IRAS satellite
1984 - SU - Venus/Halley's Comet - S - Vega 1 flyby,
atmospheric probe and lander
1984 - SU - Venus/Halley's Comet - S - Vega 2 flyby,
atmospheric probe and lander
1986 - Europe - Halley's Comet - S - Giotto flyby
1987 - S - Launch of the Ginga X-ray satellite (ASTRO-
C)
1988 - SU - Mars - F - Phobos 1 orbiter and lander
1988 - SU - Mars – PF - Phobos 2 flyby and lander
1989 - Venus - S - Magellan orbiter launched which
mapped 99 percent of the surface of Venus (300 m
resolution)
1989 - US - Venus/Earth/Moon/Gaspra/Ida/Jupiter – F -
Galileo flyby, orbiter and atmospheric probe
1989 - US - Neptune - S - Voyager 2 sends back images
of Neptune and its system
1989 - S - Launch of the Granat gamma-ray and X-ray
satellite
1989 - EU - S - Launch of the Hipparcos satellite
1989 - S - Launch of the COBE satellite
1990 - US - Sun - S - Ulysses solar flyby
1990 - JPN - Moon – S - MUSES-A probe, this was the
first non-U.S. or USSR probe to reach the Moon
1990 - USA/EU - S - Launch of the Hubble Space
Telescope
1990 - GMNY - S - Launch of the ROSAT Xray satellite
is the first imaging X-ray sky survey
1991 - JPN - Sun - S - Yohkoh solar probe
1991 - US - S - Launch of the Compton Gamma-Ray
Observatory satellite
1992 - US - Mars - F - Mars Observer orbiter
1993 - JPN - S - Launch of the ASCA (ASTRO-D) X-
ray satellite
1994 - US - Moon - S - Clementine orbiter mapped the
surface of the Moon (resolution 125-150m) and allowed
the first accurate relief map of the Moon to be generated
1995 - US - Sun - S - SOHO solar probe
1996 - US - Mars - Mars Global Surveyor orbiter
1996 - US - Mars - S - Mars Pathfinder/Sojourner
lander/rover, the first automated surface exploration
another planet
1996 - Russia - Mars - F - Mars 96 orbiter and lander
1997 - USA/EU - S - Saturn and Titan Cassini-Huygens
- arrived in orbit on July 1, 2004, landed on Titan
January 14, 2005
1997 – PHL – Moon – S –Aguila 2 satellite
1998 - NK - Unknown - Claimed launch of
Kwangmyongsong by North Korea though no
independent source was able to verify its existence
1998 - US - Moon - S - Lunar Prospector orbiter
1998 - JPN - Mars - F - Nozomi (Planet B) orbiter, the
first Japanese spacecraft to reach another planet
1998 - USA - Mars - F - Mars Climate Orbiter
1999 - USA - Mars - F - Mars Polar Lander
1999 - USA - Mars - F - Deep Space 2 (DS2) penetrators
2001 - USA - Sun – PS - Genesis solar wind sample
return - crash-landed on return
2001 - USA - S - Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy
Probe (WMAP) performs cosmological observations.
2001 - USA - Mars - S - Mars Odyssey
2003 - Canada - Earth - S - MOST the smallest space
telescope in orbit
2003 - USA - Comet Encke - F - CONTOUR launched,
but lost during early trajectory insertion.
2003 - Europe - Moon - S - Smart 1 orbiter
2003 - Europe - Mars – PS - Mars Express orbiter
(successfully reached orbit) and failed lander, the Beagle
2
2003 - USA - Mars - S - Mars Exploration Rovers
successful launches, Spirit successfully landed,
Opportunity successfully landed
2004 - ESA - Comet 67P - Rosetta space probe launched
- yet to arrive
2004 - USA - Mercury - MESSENGER orbiter launched
- yet to arrive
2004 - USA - S - Launch of the Swift Gamma ray burst
observatory.
2005 - Iran - Earth - Sinah-1 - launched, first Iranianbuilt
satellite
2005 - USA - Comet Tempel 1 - Deep Impact successful
comet impact
2005 - USA - Mars - Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter - in
orbit
2005 - Europe - Venus - Venus Express - in orbit
2006 - USA - Pluto - New Horizons - launched - yet to
arrive
2006 - France/ESA - Earth - COROT - launched,
telescope to search for extrasolar planets
2007 - USA - Mars - S - Phoenix - launched and
successfully landed
2007 - Japan - Moon - SELENE orbiter and lander - in
lunar orbit since October 3, 2007
2007 - USA - Vesta/Ceres- Dawn - launched - yet to
arrive
2007 - China - Moon - Chang'e-I - in lunar orbit since
November 5, 2007
2008 - India - Moon - Chandrayaan (work in progress)
LIST OF COMMUNICATIONS SATELLITE
FIRSTS
1928: Herman Potocnik: space station in
geosynchronous orbit
1945: Arthur C. Clarke: station in geosynchronous
orbit to relay comm&tvbroadcast
1957: Sputnik 1- first satellite equipped by radio-
transmitters
1958: Project SCORE -America's first communications
satellite
August, 1960: Echo I - first passive reflector satellite
October, 1960: Courier 1B - first active repeater
satellite
July, 1962: Telstar - first satellite designed to transmit
television and high-speed data comm
1963: Syncom - first comm satellite in geosynchronous
orbit
March, 1965: OSCAR-III - first amateur radio
communications satellite
October, 1965: Molniya - first Soviet comm satellite,
highly elliptic orbit
April, 1965: Early Bird - INTELSAT's first satellite for
commercial service
November, 1967: Orbita - first national TV network
based on satellite television
1973: Anik 1 - first national satellite television system,
Canada
April, 1945: Westar 1 - USA's first geosynchronous
comm satellite
December 19, 1974: Symphonie - first geostationary
comm satellite to be three-axis stabilized
1976: Ekran - first serial Direct-To-Home TV
communication satellite
July 8, 1976: Palapa A1- first Indonesia
communications satellite
1983: TDRSS - first satellite designed to provide comm
relay services for other spacecraft
February 2, 1985: Arabsat-1A - first communications
satellite for the Arab League
August 10, 1994: Turksat 1B -first communications
satellite for Turkey
January 14, 2005: Cassini spacecraft relays to Earth
images from the Huygens probe as it lands on Saturn's
moon, Titan, the longest relay to date.
NICOMSAT1 1ST Nigeria Communication Satellite
NON-MILITARY SATELLITE SERVICES
Fixed Satellite Service handle hundreds of billions of
voice, data, and video transmission tasks across all
countries and continents between certain points on the
earth’s surface
Mobile Satellite Systems help connect remote regions,
vehicles, ships and aircraft to other parts of the world
and/or other mobile or stationary communications units,
in addition to serving as navigation systems
Scientific Research Satellite (commercial and
noncommercial) provide us with meteorological
information, land survey data (e.g., remote sensing), and
other different scientific research applications such as
earth science, marine science, and atmospheric research.
TYPES OF SATELLITES
Anti-satellite weapons /” Killer Satellites” are
satellites that are armed, designed to take out enemy
warheads, satellites, other space assets (energy weapons,
kinetic weapons, nuclear and/or conventional missiles
and/or a combination of these weapons)
Astronomical satellites observation of distant planets,
galaxies, and other outer space objects
Biosatellites designed to carry living organisms,
generally for scientific experimentation
Communications satellites stationed in space for the
purpose of telecommunications
Modern communications satellites typically use
geosynchronous orbits, Molniya orbits or Low Earth
orbits.
Miniaturized satellites unusually low weights and small
sizes
minisatellite (500–200 kg)|microsatellite (below 200 kg)|
nanosatellite (below 10 kg)
Navigational satellites use radio time signals
transmitted to enable mobile receivers on the ground to
determine their exact location
Reconnaissance satellites deployed for military or
intelligence applications.
Earth observation satellites intended for non-military
uses such as environmental monitoring, meteorology,
map making etc.
Space stations man-made structures that are designed
for human beings to live on in outer space. (lack of
major propulsion or landing facilities)
Tether satellites connected to another satellite by a thin
cable called a tether.
Weather satellites primarily used to monitor Earth's
weather and climate
CENTRIC CLASSIFICATIONS
Galactocentric orbit: An orbit about the center of a
galaxy.
Heliocentric orbit: An orbit around the Sun.
Geocentric orbit: An orbit around the planet Earth,
such as the Moon or artificial satellites.
Areocentric orbit: An orbit around the planet Mars,
such as moons or artificial satellites
Various earth orbits to scale;
Cyan: LEO
Yellow: MEO
Black DashLine – GSYNCHO
Green DashDotLine - (GPS) satellites
Red dotline - ISS
ALTITUDE CLASSIFICATIONS
Low Earth Orbit (LEO): altitude from 0–2000 km (0–
1240 miles)
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO): altitude from 2000-
35786(1240-22240 miles) / intermediate circular orbit
High Earth Orbit (HEO): altitude 35786 km (22240
miles).
INCLINATION CLASSIFICATIONS
Inclined orbit: inclination in reference to the equatorial
plane is not zero degrees.
Polar orbit: passes above or nearly above both poles of
the planet on each revolution.
inclination of (or very close to) 90 degrees.
Polar sun synchronous orbit: passes the equator at the
same local time on every pass. Useful for image taking
satellites
ECCENTRICITY CLASSIFICATIONS
Circular orbit: an eccentricity of 0 and whose path
traces a circle.
Hohmann transfer orbit: An orbital maneuver that
moves a spacecraft from one circular orbit to another
using two engine impulses.
Elliptic orbit: an eccentricity greater than 0 and less
than 1 whose orbit traces the path of an ellipse.
- Geosynchronous transfer orbit: the perigee is at
the (LEO) and the apogee at the altitude of a
geosynchronous orbit.
- Geostationary transfer orbit: the perigee is at
(LEO) and the apogee at the altitude of a
geostationary orbit.
- Molniya orbit: A highly elliptic orbit with
inclination of 63.4° and orbital period of half of a
sidereal day
- Tundra orbit: A highly elliptic orbit with
inclination of 63.4° and orbital period of one sidereal
day (roughly 24 hours).
Hyperbolic orbit: the eccentricity greater than 1. Such
an orbit also has a velocity in excess of the escape
velocity
Parabolic orbit: the eccentricity equal to 1. Such an
orbit also has a velocity equal to the escape velocity
If the speed of such an orbit is increased it will become a
hyperbolic orbit.
- Escape orbit (EO): object has escape velocity and
is moving away from the planet.
- Capture orbit: object has escape velocity and is
moving toward the planet.
SYNCHRONOUS CLASSIFICATIONS
Synchronous orbit: satellite has an orbital period equal
to the average rotational period (earth's is: 23 hours, 56
minutes, 4.091 seconds. an analemma (figure 8) in the
sky.
Semi-synchronous orbit (SSO): altitude of
approximately 20200 km (12544.2 miles) and an orbital
period equal to one-half of the average rotational period
of the body being orbited
Geosynchronous orbit (GEO): altitude of
approximately 35786 km (22240 miles). analemma
(figure 8) in the sky.
Geostationary orbit (GSO): A geosynchronous orbit
with an inclination of zero. fixed point in the sky.
- Clarke orbit: or geostationary orbit.
Supersynchronous orbit: A disposal / storage orbit
above GSO/GEO. Satellites will drift west. Disposal
orbit – junk orbit.
Subsynchronous orbit: A drift orbit close to but below
GSO/GEO. Satellites will drift east.
Graveyard orbit: few hundred kilometers above
geosynchronous that satellites are moved into at the end
of their operation.
Areosynchronous orbit:A synchronous orbit around the
planet Mars with an orbital period equal in length to
Mars' sidereal day, 24,6229 hours.
Areostationary orbit (ASO): the equatorial plane and
about 17000 km(10557 miles) above the surface. fixed
point in the sky.
Heliosynchronous orbit: satellite's orbital period
matches the Sun's period of rotation.
SPECIAL CLASSIFICATIONS
Sun-synchronous orbit: combines altitude and
inclination, the satellite passes over any given point of
the planets’ surface at the same local solar time, can
place a satellite in constant sunlight and is useful for
imaging, spy, and weather satellites.
Moon orbit The orbital characteristics of earth's moon.
PSEUDO-ORBIT CLASSIFICATIONS
Horseshoe orbit: An orbit that appears to a ground
observer to be orbiting a certain planet but is actually in
co-orbit with the planet.
Exo-orbit: A maneuver where a spacecraft approaches
the height of orbit but lacks the velocity to sustain it.
Suborbital spaceflight
Lunar transfer orbit (LTO)
Prograde orbit: An orbit with an inclination of less than
90°. same direction as the rotation of the primary
Retrograde orbit: An orbit with an inclination of more
than 90°. counter to the direction of rotation of the
planet.
Halo orbit and Lissajous orbit: Orbits "around"
Lagrangian points.
SATELLITE MODULES
Spacecraft bus or service module 1st
The Structural Subsystems provides the mechanical
base structure, shields the satellite from extreme
temperature changes and micro-meteorite damage, and
controls the satellite’s spin functions.
The Telemetry Subsystems monitors the on-board
equipment operations, transmits equipment operation
data to the earth control station, and receives the earth
control station’s commands to perform
equipmentoperation adjustments.
The Power Subsystems consists of solar panels and
backup batteries that generate power when the satellite
passes into the earth’s shadow.
The Thermal Control Subsystems helps protect
electronic equipment from extreme temperatures due to
intense sunlight or the lack of sun exposure on different
sides of the satellite’s body
The Attitude and Orbit Controlled Control
Subsystems consists of small rocket thrusters that keep
the satellite in the correct orbital position and keep
antennas positioning in the right directions.
Communication Payload 2nd
A transponders is capable of Receiving uplinked radio
signals from earth satellite transmission stations
(antennas). Amplifying received radio signals
A celestial body that orbits around a planet. Satellite
Man-made satellites that orbit earth, providing a
multitude of communication functions to a wide variety
of consumers, including military, governmental, private
and commercial subscriber. Communications Satellites
A satellite radio repeater which a satellite may have
many. Transponder
Consists of : input Bandlimiting device (BPF) ,input
low-noise amplifier (LNA), frequency translator, low
level amplifier output bandpass filter
It consists of one or more satellite space vehicles, a
ground-based station to control the operation of the
system, and a user network of earth stations that
provides the interface facilities for the transmission and
reception of terrestrial communications traffic through
the satellite system. Satellite System
It includes control mechanism that support the payload
operation. Bus
The actual user information conveyed through the
system.Payload
A type of satellite wherein it simply “bounces” signals
from one place to anotherPassive Reflector
A natural satellite of Earth, visible by reflection of
sunlight having a slightly elliptical orbit. Moon
Used by passive satellites for tracking and ranging
purposes. Radio Beacon Transmitters
Launched by Russia, the first active earth satellite in
1957. It transmitted telemetry for 21 days.Sputnik I
A type of satellite capable of receiving, amplifying,
reshaping, regenerating and retransmitting information.
Active Satellite
Satellite launched by U.S., it transmitted telemetry
information for nearly five months. Explorer I
Satellite launched by NASA in 1958, a 150-pound
conical-shaped satellite. It was the first artificial satellite
used for relaying terrestrial communications. Score
The first active satellite to simultaneously receive and
transmit radio signals. Telstar I
Launched in 1963, and was used for telephone
television, facsimile and data transmission and
accomplished the first successful transatlantic video
transmission. Telstar II
Launched in February 1963, was the first attempt to
place a geosynchronous satellite into orbit. Syncom I
It was the first commercial telecommunications satellite.
It launched from Cape Kennedy in 1965 and used two
transponders. Also called as Early Birds.It stands for
International Telecommunications Sate- llite. Intelsat I
Domestic satellite launched by former Soviet Union in
1966. It means “lighting”.Molya
A German astronomer who discovered the laws
thatgoverns satellite motion. Johannes Kepler
It may be simply stated as:
The planets move in ellipses with the sun at one focus
The line joining the sun and the planet sweeps out equal
intervals of time.
The square of the time of revolution of a planet divided
by the cube of its mean distance from the sun gives a
number that is the same for all planets. Kepler’s Law
The point in an orbit closest to earth Perigee
The point in an orbit farthest from the earth. Apogee
It states that the square of the periodic time of orbit is
proportional to the cube of the mean distance between
the primary and the satellite. Harmonic Law
High-altitude earth-orbit satellites operating primarily in
the 2-GHz to 18 GHz frequency spectrum with orbits
Satellite 22,300 miles above earth’s surface.
Geosynchronous Satellite
Advantages of Geosynchronous Satellite:
It remain almost stationary in respect to a given earth
station.
Available to earth within their shadows 100% of the
time.
No need to switch from one geosynchronous satellite
to another as they orbit overhead
The effects of Doppler shift are negligible
Disadvantages of geosynchronous Satellite:
It requires sophisticated and heavy propulsion device
onboard to keep them in a fixed orbit
Much longer propagation delays
Requires higher transmit power and more sensitive
receivers because of the longer distances and greater
path loss.
High precision spacemanship is required.
The angle between the earth’s equatorial plane and the
orbital plane of a satellite measured counter clockwise at
the point in the orbit where it crosses the equatorial
plane traveling from south to north called the ascending
node. Angle of Inclination
The point where the polar or inclines orbit
crosses the equatorial plane travelling from north to
south Descending Node
The line joining the ascending and descending node
Line of Nodes
It is when the satellite rotates in an orbit directl above
the equator, usually in a circular path.Equatorial Orbit
It is when the satellite rotates in path that takes over the
North and the South poles in an orbit that is close to
earth and passes over and very close to both the North
and South Poles. Polar Orbit
The noise power normalized to a 1 Hz bandwidth, or the
noise power present in a 1Hz bandwidth Noise Density
It identifies the system parameters and is used to
determine the projected carrier-to-noise ratio and energy
Bit-to-noise density ratio at both the satellite and earth
station receivers for a given modulation scheme.Link
Budget
Also called as Multiple Destination, It implies that more
than one user has access to one or more radio channels
within a satellite communications channel. Multiple
Accessing Arrangement:  Frequency-division multiple
accessing (FDMA)  Time-division multiple accessing
(TDMA)  Code-division multiple accessing (CDMA)
Multiple Accessing
A given number of the available voice-band channels
from each earth station are assigned a dedicated
destination. Preassignment(dedicated)
Voice channels are assigned on an as-needed basis.
Demand Assignment
The method of assigning adjacent channels different
electromagnetic polarizations and is possible by using
orthogonal polarization and spacing adjacent channels
20 MHz apart. Frequency Reuse
Eskimo word meaning “little brother”.Anik
6) Domestic Satellites operated by Telsat Canada.
Anik-E communications Satellite
A method of multiple accessing where a given RF
bandwidth is divided into smaller frequency bands.
FDMA
Multiple channel per carrier formats assigned and
remain fixed for a long Period of time. Fixed-
Assignment, Multiple Access (FAMA)
Assigning carrier frequency on temporary basis using a
statistical assignment process. Demand-Assignment
Multiple Access
An acronym for Single-channel-per-carrier PCM
multiple Access Demand-assignment Equipment.
SPADE
Stands for Single-Carrier-Per-Channel. SCPC
A time division-multiplexed transmission that is
frequency division multiplexed. Common Signaling
Channel (CSC)
The predominant Multiple-access method of
timedivision multiplexing digitally modulated carriers
between participating earth stations within a satellite
network through a common satellite transponder.
TDMA
An RF-to-RF repeater that simply receives the earth
station transmissions, amplifies them, and then
retransmit them in a downlink beam that is received by
all other participating station. Transponder
It is where transmissions from all earth stations are
synchronized. Reference Burst
It is where all receiving stations recover a frequency and
phase coherent carrier for PSK demodulation Carrier
Recovery Sequence (CRS)
An acronym for Conference of European Postal and
Telecommunications Administrations, is commonly used
TDMA frame format for digital satellite system CEPT
Sometimes referred to as Spread-Spectrum
Multipleentire allocated bandwidth Access, the
transmissions can spread throughout the Code-Division
Multiple Access (CDMA)
A unique binary word that each earth station’s
transmissions are encoded. Chip Code
It compare two signals and recover the original
data.Correlator
It assigns an individual terrestrial channel (TC) to a
particular satellite channel (SC) for the duration of the
call. Digital non interpolated Interface
It assigns a terrestrial channel to a satellite channel only
when speech energy is present on the TC. Digital
Speech Interpolated Interface
A form of analog channel compression that has been
used for sub oceanic cables for many years. Time-
Assignment Speech Interpolation (TASI)
The art or science of plotting, ascertaining or directing
the course of movements, in other words, knowing
where you are and being able to find your way around.
Navigation
It is the most ancient and rudimentary method of
navigation and simply continuing to travel about until
you reach your destination, assuming of course that you
have one.
Wandering
Earliest effective means of navigation wherein direction
and distance are determined from precisely timed
sightings of celestial bodies, including the stars and
moon. Celestial Navigation
Method of navigation by means of fixing a position and
direction with respect to familiar, significant landmarks
such as railroad tracks, water towers, barns, mountains
and bodies of water. Piloting
A navigation technique that determines position by
extrapolating a series of measured velocity increments.
Dead Reckoning
The term derive d from the word “deduced” and not
necessarily from the fate of the people who used the
technique. Dead
He used dead reckoning successfully in 1927 during his
historic 33-hour transatlantic journey. Charles
Lindbergh
She attempted to make the first around-the-world in
1937 using the dead reckoning technique. Amelia
Earhart
Navigation technique wherein the position is determined
by measuring the travel time of an electro magnetic
wave as it moves from a transmitter to a receiver. Radio
Navigation
A radio Navigation system for terrestrial surface
broadcast. Decca
Radio Navigation system that provide global coverage
and terrestrial surface broadcast. Omega
Also a terrestrial surface broadcast. LORAN
Low-orbit satellite broadcast, provides global coverage.
Navy Transit GPS
Medium-orbit satellite broadcast also provides global
coverage. Navstar GPS
Means of radio navigation in which receivers acquire
Coded signals from two pairs of high-powered, land
based transmitters whose locations are precisely known.
LORAN
An acronym for Navigation System with Time and
Ranging. Navstar
An abbreviation for Global Positioning System. Two
levels of service or accuracy:  Standard Positioning
Service  Precise Positioning Service GPS
A satellite-based open navigation system which simply
means that it is available to anyone equipped with a GPS
receiver.
Consists of three segments:  a space segment  a
ground control segment  user segment Navstar GPS
It is when was the Navstar declared as fully operational
by the U.S. Air Force Space Command. April 27, 1995
It was completed in 1994 and is maintained by the
United States Air Force. Navstar Satellite System
A positioning and timing service that is available to all
GPS users on a continuous, worldwide basis with no
direct change. Standard Positioning Service
Sometimes called Space Segment, consists of
24operational satellites revolving around Earth in six
orbital planes approximately 60° apart with four
satellites in each plane. Satellite Segment
It produces highly accurate timing signals for satellites.
Cesium Atomic Clock
A unique integer number that is used to encrypt the
signal from that satellite.
Pseudorandom Noise (PRN) Code Number
A term associated with a table showing the position of a
heavenly body on a number dates in a regular sequence,
in essence, an astronomical almanac. Ephemeris
Error in the receiver’s clock which affects the accuracy typically being 300 thus K typically being
of the time-difference measurement. Clock Bias Error
4/3
The Navstar control segment. It consists of :  Fixed-
location ground based monitor stations  Master
No is mean sea level refractivity
Control Station  uplink transmitter Operational
Control System
s is elevation of link above sea level

It makes standard GPS more accurate. It works by

k = 5/3, k = 1/2, k = 2/3:
canceling out most of the natural and man-made errors
that creep into normal GPS measurements. Differential
low ground humidity. advection fog over
GPS cold water. above normal low level ground
temperature
k = 2.75, k = infinity, k = -1/2, k = -1:
high ground humidity. steam or fog over
warm water. rapid drop to below normal
ground temperature
k = 1.25, k = 4/3, k = 1.6:
dry. mountainous typical inland. humid and
coastal
k = 1: uniform homogenous

The gain of an antenna is given by the

formula:
4 x π x ηx A
G ain=10 log 10
( λ2 )
η = Aperture Efficiency (between 0.5 and
0.6)
A = Aperture Area Λ = Wavelength
G ain=17.8+20 log 10 ( DxF )

Effective earth radius can be FRESNEL ZONES

The conic regions where the field strength is
constant
d1 x d2
N, is Surface Refractivity Rmeters =17.3 x
√ F xD

THE BEAM WIDTH

 229.65 6. When the clearance above the obstruction is
ϕ 3 dB=
Fxd equal to the radii of even Fresnel zone at the
point of reflection the RSL decreased.
DISTANCES NEAR FIELD & FAR 7. It is when the same signal is received by the
FIELD microwave radio coming from different modes
or paths. Multipath Fading
8. When the signal itself undergoes changes as it
passes through blocks in the system, the signal
experiences distortion.
9. The smallest free space wavelength that is just
unable to propagate in the waveguide under
given conditions. Cut-off
10. If selectivity is poor, the receiver may
demodulate both signals which results in
π x d2 2 x d2 baseband distortion.
D NF = D = 11. Most common practical solutions to adjacent
8 x λ FF λ
frequency interference are careful planning on
DNF is distance to end of Near Field from the high band assignments, coding the
baseband before transmission, selection of a
front of antenna in feet
farther channel plan.
DFF is distance to start of Far Field from the 12. The radius in the circular zone is in the first
fresnel zone when the reflected path is
front of antenna in feet lambda/2 longer than the direct path.
13. To place the attenuator on the transmitter is to
Radio Horizon Distance:
risk the RF assembly overheating internally.
d miles =√ 2( H t ft )∨d km= √ 17 (H t meters ) at k=4 /3 14. The grazing angle is the angle of the tangent to
the earth’s curvature at the point of
RAYLEIGH RELIABIILITY TABLE reflection.
15. Signal delays can be caused by phase
FADE MARGIN(dB)
distortions on the carrier wave
RELIABILITY(%) 16. Microwave link advantages are minimal
90.00 8 atmospheric disturbance, some privacy, and
99.00 18 no transmission line maintenance
99.90 28 17. For systems with a low temperature to
interference ratio, signal fading occurs more
99.99 38
frequently and for longer periods
99.999 48 18. An excessive clearance three times that
99.9999 58 necessary for the first Fresnel Zone clearance,
1. If the MTBF of a communication circuit is increases severity of fading.
20,000 hours and its MTTR is 5 hours, what is 19. If 60% of the first Fresnel zone clears the
its unavailability? 0.00025 obstruction, there will be no net change in
2. A Fade Margin of 28 dB has a reliability of attenuation.
99.9% 20. If an obstacle is placed in front of the wave so
3. This reduces any interference to and from any that all the wavefront below the LOS is blocked,
other antennas mounted close by. Shroud a 6dB energy loss occurs.
4. If installing antennas on flat walls or the face of 21. Microwaves are used in radar, cooking,
a rectangular based tower, horizontal pan angles biochemical.
are smallest 22. Reflection is an important principle in the
5. The main lobe itself does not have consistent shaping of radio waves into beams and also in
field strength providing tropospheric scatter
communications
23. In vertically polarized waves, a considerable 41. Rigid rectangular waveguide is the most
variation in the phase angle will be found to commonly used because it gives a favorable
exist the different angles of incidence and transmission channel
reflection coefficients 42. To compute for the antenna heights, certain
24. The phase relationship of the two waves due to clearance criteria have to be met like arbitrary
reflection will produce the effect of distinct fixed height
lobes and nulls 43. Should the current antenna elevation prove to be
25. The most commonly used for microwave links is obstructed or possibly a point where reflection
paraboloidal dish. may occur change antenna height
26. When a radio wave leaves one medium for 44. Slopes with a positive grade may shield
another at an angle of 90 degrees, a change of reflected rays if the reflection point is lower
velocity takes place. 45. Schottky diode makes a good low-noise
27. The absolute refractive index of a substance is detector at higher microwave frequencies.
its index with respect to a vacuum and is 46. The arbitrary fixed height is the highest point
practically the same value as the index with along the path
respect to air. 47. If the RF module is installed behind the dish,
28. At frequencies below approximately 100MHz, losses due to waveguide is reduced
waves may reach much farther beyond the 48. Dispersive fade margin is the average depth of
horizon than refraction. multipath fade
29. A microwave link uses only space wave 49. The following factors also affect the dispersive
propagation. fade margin Ground Type, Climate
30. When air is constantly moving, multipath is not Conditions, Obstruction Clearance
so likely to occur 50. Earth observation satellites are satellites
31. Inverse beam bending is caused by changes in intended for the following except marine
refractive index of the air science.
32. A type of diversity reception where the output of
a transmitter is fed to two or more antennas that
are physically separated by an appreciable
number of wavelengths. Space Diversity
33. A separation of 5% is considered ideal in
frequency diversity, but is usually difficult to
obtain because of frequency allocations
34. Polarization diversity has been found to be
useful only on frequencies employing sky wave.
35. The greater the degree of diversity, the better the
systems reliability assuming the fade margin is
the same.
36. Most receivers employ a broad band pass filter
in series with the input signals to remove
unwanted signals from the IF and RF
amplifier stages.
37. A one-hop, full duplex, microwave system is in
a space diversity arrangement. Determine “how
many receivers in all are used”? 2
38. A narrow band receiver is less susceptible to
noise
39. As height goes up, the core of self-supporting
tower increases exponentially
40. In general, transmission line losses increase as
the distance between antenna and equipment
increases