DIGITAL RELAYING

Dr.M.Manjula
Professor
Email-manjulagooga@gmail.com

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING,

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
OSMANIA UNIVERSITY, HYDERABAD
 Digital relay
• Analogue input subsystem,
• Digital input subsystem,
• Digital output subsystem,
• A microprocessor along with RAM,EPROM,
• Main memory
• Power supply
 Advantages of Digital Relay
• High level of functionality integration.
• Additional monitoring functions.
• Functional flexibility.
• Capable of working under a wide range of
temperatures.
• They can implement more complex function
and are generally more accurate
• Self-checking and self-adaptability.
 Advantages of Digital Relay
• Able to communicate with other digital
equipment
• Less sensitive to temperature, aging
• Economical
• More Accurate.
• Plane for distance relaying is possible
• Signal storage is possible
Advantages of numerical relays over static
relays
• Several setting groups
• Wider range of parameter adjustment
• Communications built in (serial, Ethernet,
teleprotection, etc.)
• Internal Fault diagnosis
• Power system measurements available
• Distance to fault locator
Advantages of numerical relays over static relays

• Disturbance recorder
• Auxiliary protection functions (broken conductor,
negative sequence, etc.)
• Circuit Breaker monitoring (state, condition)
• User-definable logic
• Backup protection functions in-built
• Consistency of operation times – reduced grading
margin
 Limitations of Digital Relay

• Short lifetime -New technologies.

• Devices become obsolete rapidly.
• Susceptibility to power system transients.
• More complexity - they require specially
trained staff for Operation.
• Proper maintenance of the settings and
monitoring data.
Digital Relay
Digital Relay
 Relay Operating System Software

The software provided is commonly

organized into a series of tasks operating
in real time.
• Real Time Operating System (RTOS) - ensures that
the tasks are executed in the correct priority.
• System services software – BIOS (ordinary PC)
controls the low-level I/O (drivers, boot-up
sequence)
 Relay Operating System Software

• HMI interface software – This is the high level

software for communicating with a user on the
front panel controls or through a data link to
another computer to store data such as settings
or event records.
• Application software – This is the software that
defines the protection function of the relay
• Auxiliary functions – Software to implement
other features in the relay, often structured as a
series of modules to reflect the options offered
by the manufacturer.
 Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)
• Firstly the quantities of interest are
determined from the information in the data
samples
• The DFT software algorithm is applied.
• The magnitude and phase information for the
selected quantity.
• This calculation is repeated for all of the
quantities of interest.
 The quantities are compared with the relay
characteristic,
• Value above setting – start timers, etc.
• Timer expired – action alarm/trip
• Value returned below setting – reset timers, etc.
• Value below setting – do nothing
• Value still above setting – increment timer, etc.
Since the overall cycle time for the software is
known, timers are generally implemented as
counters.
 Detection Methods
• Root Mean Square method(RMS)
• Fourier Transform (FT)
• Short Time Fourier Transform (STFT)
• Wavelet Transform (WT)
• Stockwell Transform (ST)
• Kalman Filtering (KF) and
• Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD)
 Root Mean Square (RMS) Method
• RMS method gives a good approximation of the
fundamental frequency amplitude profile of a
waveform.
• Most of the power quality monitors obtain magnitude
by RMS method.
• The RMS voltage magnitude is calculated over a
window of one cycle or one half cycle.
• The RMS magnitude of a sampled time domain signal is
given by

 v 
1
Vrms 
2
i
N i 1
Example
• The voltage swell of 1.5 pu occurring from
0.16 to 0.26 sec is as shown in Figure
2.5
1/2 Cycle RMS
2 One Cycle RMS

1.5

1
Voltage (pu)

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

-2.5
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
T ime(seconds)

Waveform of voltage swell, RMS using one cycle window (solid line) and one
half cycle window (dashed line)
• Example
• A harmonic signal of 1 pu fundamental and
0.2 pu 3rd harmonic is as shown in Figure 2
2
Voltage (pu)

-2
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
(a)

1.5
Vrms (pu)

1
0.5
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
(b)

1.5
Vrms (pu)

1
0.5
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Time (seconds)
(c)

Figure 2: (a) Waveform of voltage harmonics (b) RMS using one cycle window (c)
RMS using one half cycle window
The RMS method is simple and easy to implement. Another
advantage of this method is that it requires less memory.

The limitations of the method are

• Its dependency of window length.

• It does not give phase angle information of the signal.

• No information is given regarding the frequency spectrum.

• Hence, RMS method only provides magnitude of a signal and

does not distinguish between fundamental frequency,
harmonics or noise.
 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
• Example

• A signal of 1 pu fundamental frequency having

an oscillatory transient 1.5 pu occurring for
7msec is as shown in Figure 3.
1.5

1
Voltage (pu)

0.5

-0.5
-1
0.15 0.155 0.16 0.165 0.17 0.175 0.18 0.185 0.19 0.195 0.2
Time (seconds)
(a)
Voltage magnitude (pu)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Frequency (Hz)
(b)
Figure 3(a): Waveform of transient signal (b) Frequency spectrum
• Example
• The signal of 1 pu, 50Hz present from 0.18 to
0.32 sec and another signal of 0.5 pu, 150Hz
present from 0.5 to 0.68 sec is as shown in
Figure 4. 1

0.5
Voltage (pu)

-0.5

-1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Time (seconds)
(a)
Voltage magnitude (pu)

0.5

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Frequency (Hz)
(b)

Figure 4: (a) Waveform of a non stationary signal (b) Frequency spectrum

• FFT gives an estimation of the fundamental
amplitude and its related harmonics with a
reasonable approximation.
The limitations of the method are
• Window dependency.
• It doesn’t perform well for detection of
sudden or fast changes in the waveform e.g.
transients (Ex. 1) or voltage sags.
• It does not give information when in time the
frequency components exist.
 Short Time Fourier Transform (STFT)
• The limitation of Fourier transform is overcome by
applying FFT to a small section of the signal at a time.
• The signal is divided into small enough segments,
where these segments (portions) of the signal are
assumed to be stationary.
• The width of the window must be equal to the
segment of the signal where its stationary is valid.
• It maps a signal into a two-dimensional function of
time and frequency.
• Short Time Fourier Transform of signal x(t) is given as

 
STFTX( ) (t , f )   x(t ) * .(t  t ' ) .e  j 2ft dt
t
• Example
• A high frequency signal is present from 200 to
400 sec and a low frequency signal is present
from 600 to 800 sec as shown in Figure

(a) Waveform of non stationary signal (b) Time - frequency spectrum of the signal
 Stockwell Transform (ST)
• The S-transform produces a time-frequency representation of
a time series signal by uniquely combining a frequency-
dependent resolution that simultaneously localizes the real
and imaginary spectra.
• Furthermore, the S-transform is derived from the CWT by
choosing a specific mother wavelet and multiplying a phase
correction factor.
• Thus, the S-transform is interpreted as a phase-corrected
CWT.
 Kalman Filtering
• Kalman filtering is a method of state-space
modeling and parameter estimation. Kalman
filtering has been used for a number of
applications in power systems for the
continuous real-time tracking of harmonics.
 Wavelet Transforms(WT)

• Time Scale analysis

• Wavelet functions
• Scaling functions
• Multi Resolution analysis (MRA)
– Approximation coefficient (Cn)
– Detail coefficient (Dn)
 Multi Resolution analysis (MRA)
• The wavelet transform uses wavelet functions and
scaling functions to perform simultaneously the
multi resolution analysis for decomposition and
reconstruction of the signal.
• The wavelet function generates the detail version of
the decomposed signal and the scaling function
generates the approximated version of the
decomposed signal.
• Thus, wavelet function constitutes the high pass
digital filter and the scaling function constitutes low
pass digital filter.
Considering c0 (n) be a discrete time signal, applying
MRA technique, the decomposed signals at scale 1 are
c1(n) and d1(n), where c1(n) is the smoothed version of
the original signal (or approximation), and d1(n) is the
detailed representation of the original signal c0(n).

c1 (n)   hk  2nc0 (k ) Low pass filter

k

d1 (n)   g k  2nc0 (k ) High pass filter

k
 Signal c0(n)

g(n) h(n)

2↓ 2↓
Approximation 1
c1(n)
detail 1
d1(n)
g(n) h(n)

2↓ 2↓
Approximation 2
c2(n)
detail 2
d2(n)
g(n) h(n)

2↓ 2↓

detail 3 Approximation 3
d3(n) c3(n)

Block diagram of Multi Resolution Analysis

Four level multi resolution decomposition of a transient signal
Frequency bands of DWT coefficients for different decomposition levels

Level Frequency bands of Frequency bands of

No. Detail coefficients (Hz) Approximation coefficients (Hz)
1 Fs/4 - Fs/2 0 - Fs/4
2 Fs/8 - Fs/4 0 - Fs/8
3 Fs/16 - Fs/8 0 - Fs/16
4 Fs/32 - Fs/16 0 - Fs/32
5 Fs/64 - Fs/32 0 - Fs/64

Fs is sampling frequency
 Example: Voltage swell
The voltage swell of 1.5 pu occurring from 0.14 to 0.3 sec is as shown in Figure

1.5

0.5
Voltage (pu)

-0.5

-1

-1.5

0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4

Time (seconds)

Waveform of voltage swell

 0.01

d1
0
-0.01
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
0.05

d2
0
-0.05
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
0.1

d3
0
-0.1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
0.1
d4

0
-0.1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
0.1
d5

0
-0.1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
0.5
d6

0
-0.5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
2
d7

0
-2
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
0.5
d8

0
-0.5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
0.1
d9

0
-0.1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
0.1
d10

0
-0.1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Time (seconds)

Detail coefficients obtained by WT for 10 level decomposition

 The Disadvantages of WT

• It does not give phase information of the signal.

• It’s degraded performance under noisy

conditions.

• Selection of mother wavelet and

• Level of decomposition is based on power quality

disturbances.
Voltage Sag : WT method

1.5

0.5
Voltage (pu)

-0.5

-1

-1.5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Time (seconds)

Waveform of voltage sag

 -3
x 10
5

d1
0
-5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
0.05

d2
0
-0.05
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
0.1

d3 0
-0.1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
0.1
d4

0
-0.1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
0.1
d5

0
-0.1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
0.5
d6

0
-0.5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
2
d7

0
-2
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
0.5
d8

0
-0.5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
0.1
d9

0
-0.1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
0.1
d10

0
-0.1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Time (seconds)

Detail coefficients obtained by WT

 Transient : WT method

1.5

0.5
Voltage (pu)

-0.5

-1

-1.5
0.15 0.155 0.16 0.165 0.17 0.175 0.18 0.185 0.19 0.195 0.2
T ime (seconds)

Waveform of transient signal

 0.5

d1
0
-0.5
0.15 0.155 0.16 0.165 0.17 0.175 0.18 0.185 0.19 0.195 0.2
0.5

d2
0
-0.5
0.15 0.155 0.16 0.165 0.17 0.175 0.18 0.185 0.19 0.195 0.2
0.5

d3
0
-0.5
0.15 0.155 0.16 0.165 0.17 0.175 0.18 0.185 0.19 0.195 0.2
0.5
d4

0
-0.5
0.15 0.155 0.16 0.165 0.17 0.175 0.18 0.185 0.19 0.195 0.2
1
d5

0
-1
0.15 0.155 0.16 0.165 0.17 0.175 0.18 0.185 0.19 0.195 0.2
1
d6

0
-1
0.15 0.155 0.16 0.165 0.17 0.175 0.18 0.185 0.19 0.195 0.2
0.1
d7

0
-0.1
0.15 0.155 0.16 0.165 0.17 0.175 0.18 0.185 0.19 0.195 0.2
0.1
d8

0
-0.1
0.15 0.155 0.16 0.165 0.17 0.175 0.18 0.185 0.19 0.195 0.2
0.1
d9

0
-0.1
0.15 0.155 0.16 0.165 0.17 0.175 0.18 0.185 0.19 0.195 0.2
0.05
d10

0
-0.05
0.15 0.155 0.16 0.165 0.17 0.175 0.18 0.185 0.19 0.195 0.2
Time (seconds)

Detail coefficients obtained by WT

THANK YOU