Overview

A mass of water moving down a height difference contains energy which can be harvested
using some waterwheel or turbine. The moving water drives the waterwheel and this rotation
either drives machinery directly (e.g. mill, pump, hammer, thresher, ...) or is coupled with a
generator which produces electric power.

Principle of Hydro Power

Hydro power is probably the first form of automated power production which is not human /
animal driven. Moving a grind stone for milling first, developed into the driving of an
electrical generator. Next to steam it was for long the main power source for electricity.Its
continual availability does not require any power storage (unlike wind / solar power). It is
mainly mechanical hardware. This makes it relative easy to understand and
repair-/maintainable. In smaller units its environmental impact becomes neglect-able
(see: environmental impact assessment and pros and cons of micro hydropower).

Head & Flow

In order to create electricity from hydropower, two parameters are critical:

 Flow; or the minimum amount of water that is constantly available throughout the
entire year
 Head; the difference in height
These specific conditions limit generalising and standartisation of "how to install hydropower
plants". Choosing the right location and planning requires some specific knowledge. With
knowledge of water flow and height difference the potential power can be estimated.

Measuring Head & Flow

The first step to judge a sites hydropower potential is to measure/estimate head and flow.

 Head (the vertical distance between the intake and turbine)

 Flow (how much water comes down the stream)
Head is very often exaggerated as is the flow rate, which varies over the year!

Wrong data occurs frequently. Confirmation of existing data is highly recommended!

Head and flow are the two most important facts of a hydro site. This will determine
everything about the hydro system - volume of civil constructions, pipeline size, turbine type
and power output. Inaccurate measurements result in low efficiency, high cost and scarcity of
power.

 For sophisticated methods how to inquire a sites feasibility, please check

the Manuals section.
 "Layman's book: How to develop a Small Hydro Site" may be a good start.

Methods of Head and Flow Measurement without Sophisticated Tools

 Estimation of height can be done easiest if there is a steep slope (waterfall) by rope.

Principle of a step by step head measurement:

Head measurement.jpg

By measuring total height step by step, it's crucial to do the bearing strictly horizontally.
Ensure that by using a level or a water filled hose. Widely available are hoses and pressure
gauges which allow the easiest method of height measurement. As longer the hose as less
steps have to be taken to measure the total head.
 Height measure by Head by pressure Height measure by
level.jpg gauge.jpg hose.jpg

 Estimation of flow is very difficult without measurement.

A quick and easy way to measure is the floating method:

1. First, measure the waters speed at an steady flowing part of the river. Therefore drop
some item and stop the time it needs for a certain distance to float.
2. Second, do a sketch of the rivers cross section by measuring its depth every 20-50 cm
so you come up with a grid showing the rivers profile from side to side. With this
data its cross sections area can be calculated easily.
3. Finally the flow volume results from (water) speed x (section) area.

Flow measurement.jpg

Example:
A ball drifts 10 m in 12 s => speed = 10m/12s = 0.12 m/s.
Cross section => A1= 25 cm * 40 cm (0.25 m * 0.4 m) = 0.1 m2 ; A1+A2+ ... = A = 0.5 m2
Flow volume = 0.12 m/s * 0.5 m2 = 0.06 m3/s => 60 l/s

 To estimate a sites potential cost its necessary to know additionally:

</ul>

</ul>

</ul>

</ul>

</ul>

 Pipeline (penstock) length

 Electrical transmission line length (from turbine to consumer). As smaller the sites
power output as higher the power lines cost share
 Number of potential customers
</ul>

►Go to Top

Units and Power Estimations

Power: watts [W] or Kilowatts [kW] 1 kW = 1000W

Flow: 1 m³/s = 1000 l/s
Gross heat: height difference the water "falls down"
Net head: a little smaller than gross head. Gross head deducted by energy loss due to friction
in penstock

Potential power ('electric)' is calculated as follows:

Power [W] = Net head [m] x Flow [ l/s] x 9.81 [m/s²] (est. gravity constant) x 0.5
(turbine/generator efficiency)
Potential power is estimated as follows:
Power output [W] = height [m] * flow [l/s] * 5

More accurate estimations take into consideration:

 exact net head (intake to powerhouse)
 exact flow (constant during the year?)
 combined efficiency of turbine and generator (depends on quality, est. 60% = 0.6)

Example:
A 6 m high waterfall has 300 liter/sec => potential power est. : 6 m * 300 l/s * 5 = 9000 W =
9 kW

►Go to Top

Classification of Hydro Power

By Size

Hydropower installations can be classified by size of power output, although the power
output is only an approximate diversion between different classes. There is no international
consensus for setting the size threshold between small and large hydropower.

For the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) and the European

Small Hydropower Association (ESHA) and the International Association for Small Hydro
(IASH) a capacity of up to 10 MW total is becoming the generally accepted norm for small
hydropower plants (SHP). In China, it can refer to capacities of up to 25 MW, in India up to
15 MW and in Sweden small means up to 1.5 MW, in Canada 'small' can refer to upper limit
capacities of between 20 and 25 MW, and in the United States 'small' can mean 30 MW.

The German Federal Ministry for Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety
mentioned that a SHP is <1 MW, everything above is a large hydro electric plant and usually
comes along with a large dam. The International Commission on Large Dams
(ICOLD) defines a large dam as a dam with a height of 15 m or more from the foundation. If
dams are between 5-15 m high and have a reservoir volume of more than 3 million m3, they
are also classified as large dams. Using this definition, there are over 45 000 large dams
around the world.

Small hydro can be further subdivided into mini, micro and pico:

 Mini < 1 MW grid connected special know how required

(MH)
 Micro < 100 kW partially grid con. professional know how required
 Pico (PH) < 10 kW island grids small series units produced locally; professional equipm

 Family < ~1 kW single often locally handmade solutions; professional equipme

households/clusters
(FH)

There is no binding definition how mini hydro power output is to be classified. Rules for
communication avoiding misunderstandings: Generally the terms can be used "downwards
compatible". Pico- is also Mini- but not visa versa. Specific terms (Pico, Family) should be
used only if they are required to indicate specifics. The spectrum needs higher diversification
as smaller it becomes as there are certain differences in technique, usage, applicability and
the grade of of ability to replicate them.

Comments:

 all installations require "special" knowhow

 there are "over the counter" pico turbines available for "self installation"
 Micro hydro is perhaps the most mature of the modern small-scale energy supply
technologies used in developing countries. There are thought to be tens of thousands of
plant in the “micro” range operating successfully in China[1], Nepal, Sri Lanka, Pakistan,
Vietnam and Peru.
 Historically the term hydropower developed from naming very small units towards
nowadays huge dams. Then there where new terms created to separate different clusters.
All of them are hydropower. What is considered "mini or "micro" may be defined once
and forever ... or not. If there are different opinions on this topic you're welcome to open
a discussion group on this.

Comments on the Debate “small” versus “large” Hydro Power:

Classification according to size has led to concepts such as ‘small hydro’ and ‘large hydro’,
based on installed capacity measured in MW as the defining criterion. Defining hydropower
by size is somewhat arbitrary, as there are no clear relationships between installed capacity
and general properties of hydro power or its impacts. Hydro power comes in manifold project
types (see Classification By Facility Type) and is a highly site-specific technology, where
each project is a tailor-made outcome for a particular location within a given river basin to
meet specific needs for energy and water management services.
Large hydropower developments involve large dams and huge water storage reservoirs.
They are typically grid connected supplying large grids. Preference for large hydro is on the
decline due to the high investment costs, long payback periods and huge environmental
impacts (losses of arable land, forced migration, diseases and damage to biodiversity).
Many social and environmental impacts are related to the impoundment and existence of a
reservoir, and therefore are greater for 'large hydro' plants with reservoir.

Small hydropower stations are typically run-of-the-river. They combine the advantages of

hydropower with those of decentralised power generation, without the disadvantages of large
scale installations. Advantages include: low distribution costs, no/low environmental costs as
with large hydro, low maintenance and local implementation and management. Power
generated with small hydro station can be used for agro-processing, local lighting, water
pumps and small businesses[1].

The constructions and integration into local environments of Small Hydro Power
(SHP) schemes typically takes less time and effort compared to large hydropower plants. For
this reason, the deployment of SHPs is increasing in many parts of the world, especially in
remote areas where other energy sources are not viable or are not economically attractive.

However, larger facilities will tend to have lower costs on a USD/kW basis due to economies
of scale, even if that tendency will only hold on average. Moreover, one large-scale
hydropower project of 2,000 MW located in a remote area of one river basin might have
fewer negative impacts than the cumulative impacts of four hundred 5 MW hydropower
projects in many river basins (see also Negative Environmental Impacts

General concepts like ‘small’ or ‘large hydro’ are not technically or scientifically rigorous indicators o
economics or characteristics. Hydropower projects cover a continuum in scale, and it may be more use
evaluate a hydropower project on its sustainability or economic performance, thus setting out more re
indicators[2].

►Go to Top

By Facility Type
Hydropower plants can be classified in three categories according to operation and type of
flow:[3]

1. Run-of-river (RoR),
Small and micro hydropower utilizes water that runs of a river and avoids big
environmental impacts.
2. Storage (reservoir)
3. Pumped storage hydro power plants (HPPs) work as energy buffer and do not
produce net energy.
4. In-stream Hydropower Schemes use a rivers natural elevation drop without to dam
a river.

'Run-of-River Hydropower' Plant (RoR)[3]

 RoR plant produce energy from the available flow and

elevation drop of a river
 It is suitable for rivers that have at least a minimum flo
round.
 The water to powers th turbine is diverted and channel
penstock and then returned to the river
 RoR plants usually have no or only small storage, allow
adaptations to the demand profile.
 As bigger the storage capacity is as higher the environm
Run-of-River Hydropower Plant are
 Power generation is dictated by local river flow condit
depends on precipitation and runoff and may have substan
monthly or seasonal variations
Hydropower Plant with Reservoir[3]

 Hydropower projects with a reservoir (storage hydropower

behind a dam for times when river flow is low
 Therefore power generation is more stable and less variabl
RoR plants
 The generating stations are located at the dam toe or furthe
connected to the reservoir through tunnels or pipelines
 Type and design of reservoirs are decided by the landscape
Hydropower Plant with reservoir parts of the world are inundated river valleys where the reserv
artificial lake
 Reservoir hydropower plants can have major environmenta
impacts due to the flooding of land for the reservoir

Pump Storage Hydropower Plant[3]

 Pumped storage plants are not energy sources, instead they are sto
 Water is pumped from a lower reservoir into an upper reservoir, u
off-peak hours, while flow is reversed to generate electricity during t
load period or at other times of need
 Although the losses of the pumping process make such a plant a n
consumer, the plant provides large-scale energy storage system benef
 Pumped storage is the largest capacity form of grid energy storag
available worldwide

Pump Storage Project.JPG

In-stream Hydropower Scheme[3]

 Basically in-stream Hydropower functions like a RoR scheme,

is mostly built within the dam in the riverbed. Usually the river flow
diverted.
 To optimize existing  weirs, barrages, canals or falls, small turb
hydrokinetic turbines can be installed
 At rivers close to the sea the technologies may operate bi-direct
n-storgare hydropower scheme
non typical installation of an in-
stream HPP
 ► Text and Figures of this chapter are originally mainly taken from the Chapter 5 of
the IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation
(2011).

►Go to Top

Facts on Hydro Power

Existing Generation[4][3]

In 2010, in 161 countries hydropower is installed making up a worldwide installed hydro

electric capacity of 926 GW which provide one-fifth of the world's electricity supply. Out of
these 161 countries five countries make up more than the half of the world's hydropower
production: China (~200 GW), Canada (74.4 GW), Brasil (84 GW), the USA (78.2 GW) and
Russia (49.7 GW).

Often hydropower is the main or even only source for electricity production in developing
countries.
Any other conventional energy source requires steady fuel. Such, like coal, gas or oil has to
be purchased.

Country[4] Installed Hydropower Capacity in MW  % of total electricity generation

Burundi 50.5 100
Bhutan 1488 100
Congo, Dem. Rep. 2442 100
Lesotho 76 100
Namibia 249 100
Paraguay 68000 100
Mozambique 2179 100
Zambia 1812 >99
Norway 29636 99
Albania 1450 98
Lao PDR 2000 98
Tajikistan 5200 96
Ethiopia 784 >95
Malawi 290 95
Cameroon 720 94
Nepal 660 92
Kyrgyz Republic 2910 91
Congo, Rep. 119 >90
Georgia 2850 86
Brazil 84000 84
Swaziland 42 82
Central afric. Rep. 24.6 80

 For Existing Sites see also GPS coordinates - Hydropower sites

►Go to Top

Hydropower Potential

Hydropower potential means: an amount of water (flow) which flows down a certain height.

To utilise such, the produced electricity is to be transportet by powerline to potential users.

Hydropower offers a significant potential of renewable energy production. In 2009 electricity

production from hydropower was about 16% of the global electricity production. The
undeveloped capacity ranges from 30% in Europe up to 88% in Africa.

If reading such numbers please keep in mind:

 There is a structural difference between small and big hydropower;

the first is mainly decentralised - the later is usually utilized by big structures, which have
usually massive environmental impacts
 Hydropower potential is bound to specific sites, which may be far from potential
energy usage

Small hydropower potential is given in hilly or mountainous regions, where rivers do not fall
dry during the year.
Where gravity fed irrigation is practiced small and micro power plants find suiting
conditions.

Mountainous regions often have bad infrastructure and are least to be connected to a electric
grid. If there is water available it may be a suitable source for decentralised hydro power
electrification. Such setups may even get support from governmental or major electricity
supplier. The costs to connect remote areas are high, whereby the revenue, due to little
amount of electricity utilised, is low.

►Go to Top
Micro Hydro Power Schemes

Components of a Micro Hydro System (MHS) - Overview

Grid connection for MHP's

Hydropower usually operates 24 h / day. Most mhp's are connected by a grid to their
consumers. If a connection towards the national or main grid is available, electricity can be
fed in there. Often micro or pico hydropower units are installed in remote areas. There they
feed an isolated grid. In such grid the MHP is usually the only power source. The power
produced has to be leveled equal with the power consumed (see controller).

Battery storage is no must like at solar or wind power projects. This is a big advantage as it
reduces costs and maintenance significantly. Charging stations can nevertheless extend a
mhp's effectiveness by utilising power in times of low demand (late night). Like this, even
consumers which are too far from the station to be connected by transmission cable can be
served via rechargeable batteries.

►Go to Top

Storage Basin or Dams

Small hydropower plants usually use (part-) river flow as driving force. Storage basins or
even dams can buffer water. So demand peaks or (short) periods of water shortage can be
bridged. As such infrastructures is costly and sophisticated, it's only used if there is a clear
financial revenue; e.g. electricity supply for remote industries. Standard elements for mhp

Construction a MHP consists of:

divertion constructions in the river, Guiding water per canal and pipe, the electrical-
mechanical equipment to turn water power into electricity plus transmission lines and house
connections.

Nevertheless if it is community based, main challenge will be the social setup. The people of
the community who will build / use the MHP have to be introduced, trained, learned and
encouraged to organise, operate and manage their power station. A sustainable working mhp
scheme requires users who are enabled to understand "their" system.
Forbay trashrack pennstock.jpg Powerhouse 2.jpg

Canal-participation-2.jpg
Introduction-hydro.jpg

 For an overview or possible impacts on a mhp's success, check out the mhp-tree-

diagram
►Go to Top

Suitable Conditions for Micro Hydro Power

Again, "head and flow" matter. The best geographical areas for exploiting small-scale hydro
power are those where there are steep rivers flowing all year round. The Andes, the
Himalayas, islands with moist marine climates, such as the Caribbean Islands, the Philippines
and Indonesia are widely suitable. Laos, Vietnam and wide parts of China use Micro Hydro
Power in large numbers.
A locations, head, flow and number of consumers allow to calculate the available power
share per consumer
Minimal Head may be 1-2 m. For considerable power then much water (> 1 m3) is required
Minimal Flow may be 20 l/s. Power is according to head output (see power estimation).
Mini Hydropower operates constantly and requires little maintenance. It is ideal for powering
remote regions. Although grid connection is very feasible due to its very low operational
costs.

►Go to Top

Brief Site Assessment

 location Data
 head, flow
 length of powerline
 length of penstock
 land use
=> a two page condensed site assessment

Flow measures in feasibility studies:

Flow data should be gathered over a period of at least one year where possible, so as to
ascertain the fluctuation in river flow over the various seasons.
At least measures must be taken during dry season to assure that there is always enough
water to power the turbine. Too little water results in power cut. If such is not clear to
consumers from begin with it can seriously endanger the projects success.

►Go to Top

Economics of Micro Hydro Systems

Productive Use

Electricity is a key factor for productive businesses. Experience shows, this isn't an
automatism very commonly. Additional income is generated only if the revenue is made from
outside the community. Typically added value is created by subsequent processing of
commodities. Exemplary: coffee roasting, fruit drying, freezing fish,

► find more information here: Micro Hydro Power (MHP) Plants - Use of MHP

►Go to Top

Cost

The major cost of a MHP scheme is for its site preparation and equipment. It's nearly 100 %
upfront investment and very low running cost (operation and maintenance).

Cash usually is a scarce resource in rural areas of development countries. Part of a feasibility
study has to be: how high tariffs have to be set to cover the costs. Its a must to, at least, break
even operation & maintenance expenses. This money has to come from the users for
electricity or el. services. A mhp can operate many decades if tariffs cover repair costs. In the
long run a mhp's management is the crucial factor for its success.

► Find more information here: Micro Hydro Power (MHP) Plants - Costs

►Go to Top
Tariff Setting

Tariff setting is a crucial element. In case the mhp management is community based, tariffs
have to be set in acceptance with the community. Ensure sufficient high tariffs! Community
discussion may be lengthy, be patient. Never leave the impression that mhp-electricity may
be "for free".

Examples: Compare the cost for oil wig lighting with a single bulb. Compare "luxury"
expenses with the comfort of el. lighting (cigarettes, drinking, ...). Explain the management
function like how to run a business. Minimally the revenue has to cover the expenses. Check
download section for an excel-tool which shows cost coverage.

► Links: Tariffs, Metering and Billing

►Go to Top

Revenues

Within a community based scheme extra revenue can be used for:

 social tariffs (elder, poor, school, ...)

 street lighting
 powering a drinking water pump
 community services (washing, freezing, ironing)

Availability of cash gives also other possibilities to gain additional revenues. E.g. to build
storage capacities which can house a communities harvest; by gross deals during off season
prices are high.
Financial benefits to the communities served are usually reduced expenses for oil, batteries
and petrol to power lamps, radios and machines. Check potentials for productive use during
feasibility study. Existing and planned machinery (type and power?)

►Go to Top

Efforts

Main non financial efforts at microhydro installations are: the right choice of sites, their
specific planning and supervision of quality standards; all this is esp. laborious in remote
areas. If a scheme is community based, such plays a key role.
►Go to Top

Some Hints

 use run-of-the-river schemes where possible - storing water by dams is usually big(!)
effort and expensive
 use existing infrastructure, e.g. irrigation canals, mills, old mhp-sites (rehabilitation).
 integrate local workshops (=> productive use);
 use locally manufactured equipment where possible - it reduces costs and creates local
capacity (replicable know how)
 use of local materials for the civil works
 use of community labor not only reduces required money, it's absolute necessary to
establish local commitment towards the installations
 use of HDPE (plastic) penstock reduces costs, has reduced lifetime and requires
protection of sunlight
 electronic load controller - ensure stable voltage and frequency which does no harm to
appliances. It allows additional automatized features like battery charging or freezing. As
more sophisticated the appliances become as more required a load controller will be.
 high plant factor (efficiency) requires some planning for a well balanced load pattern
of usually: machinery and consumptive use
 a mhp plant close to village avoids expensive distribution lines or even transformers.
 using pumps as turbines (PAT) - for pico hydro, it's reducing equipment costs, but
also efficiency
 using motors as generators -it's widely available, reducing equipment costs, but also
efficiency