Core logging procedure

The following steps are suggested during the core logging process:

1. Clean the core of drilling fluids or mud.

2. Mark major structures, proposed point load testing locations, and depths (every 1-2
metres) on undisturbed core in splits.
3. Photograph the core in the splits (if using triple tube method) with a scale placed in the
picture and a whiteboard indicating what depth the core has been obtained from.
4. Complete the Discontinuity and core description logs.
5. Transfer the core from the splits to a labelled core box.
6. Once a core box is full, take a single photograph of the core box with a scale.

The steps are detailed in the following sections.

Core photographs and preparation

One of the most important things to do at the drill rig is photograph the undisturbed core in the
splits. These photos may be used later to confirm televiewer images and will be an invaluable
resource on the rock mass and for review of the design work.

Proper core photos require that the core be cleaned prior to photographing. When core is covered
in drilling mud, structural information can be obscured making it difficult to determine
lithologies. Take the time to properly clean the core. The core should be wet if possible as some
structural features do not show up on dry core so make sure to wet it down with a spray bottle or
paint brush. The following are also required in all core photographs:

 A scale - make sure the measuring tape you use is in focus and readable in the
photos
 A white board with the project name, project number, hole ID, date, interval
number(s), and depth from and to written out
 The depths with 1 meter increments marked on the core using a paint pen or
grease pencil
 Labels of major structures, including type and depth. Examples of colours and
symbols are outlined in Table 1.
 Table 1: Examples of core symbols
Item Colour Symbol

Whole meter depth White

Major structures Red

PLT samples Yellow

Mechanical breaks Blue

Notes:

1. Major structures should be identified using their corresponding logging code. In the
example above the symbol is for a Fault; if the structure was a Shear the “F” would be
substituted for an “S”.
2. The numbers in the Whole meter depth and Major structures symbols indicate the depth
in meters.

Intervals

The properties used in the core description are recorded by intervals for each run of core. An
interval represents a change in lithology, alteration, and/or rock mass quality. The benefit of
logging on an interval basis is that it allows for distinctly different units within one run of core to
be assigned their own properties. This prevents the need for averaging different units over the
length of a run, which can lead to overestimating / underestimating material properties.
Photograph 1 below provides an example of a change in rock mass quality. Intervals should be at
least 30 cm in length and will be at most the length of the core run. Intervals are also numbered
sequentially. For example if you have 100 runs you should have between 100 and 500 intervals,
assuming a maximum run length of 1.5 m (5 feet). The start depth (i.e. depth from) and the end
depth (i.e. depth to) for each interval should be recorded as measured from the top of the hole.
This is strictly a function of where the drill bit started and ended during the run, and may be less
than the length of the maximum run if blocking of the core barrel occurs, the bit requires
replacement, etc.
Figure 1: Example of rock core broken into intervals

Depths of zones of substantial core loss may have to be estimated. For example, if a 1.5 m run of
core is completed and only 1.0 m of core is returned with 0.4 m of crushed rock at the start (first
interval) and 0.6 m of competent rock following (second interval), it is likely that the core loss
occurred in the crushed zone. Consequently, the end depth of the first interval and the start depth
of the second interval should be adjusted to account for the 0.5 m loss of core in the crushed
zone. If a downhole survey (e.g. with a televiewer) has been completed, the zone of core loss
may be more accurately defined by the images from the survey, requiring modification of the
logs during the matching process with the televiewer and core logging data.

Core description

The Core description portion of the log covers the lithology, interval determination data, and the
rock mass classification. Below is a description of each logging parameter. Both the top and the
bottom of the interval are to be recorded.

Colour and rock description

Colour and rock descriptions should be logged as part of the core logging procedure to indentify
the lithologies and alteration sequences encountered. Logging should be based on easy to
identify attributes that will in most cases allow rock type to be determined quickly and
easily. Such attributes include:

 Pattern
 Colour
 Grain size
 Texture
 Fabric
 Lithology
 Alteration
Logging these parameters separately and on an interval basis will allow for recognition of subtle
variations that would normally be smoothed over in the summary log, and will ensure that the
descriptions produced for final reporting are clear, concise, and repeatable. Codes describing the
above should be decided upon in advance, and kept as simple as possible for ease of data entry
and for consistency. An example of possible codes for a geotechnical core logging scheme is
included in Table 2 below.

Table 2: Examples of rock core desciption codes

Color
Modifier Code Pattern Code Primary/secondary color Code
Light L Banded BA Pinkish PK
Dark D Streaked SK Reddish RD
Blotched BL Yellowish YW
Mottled MT Brownish BR
Speckled SP Olive OL
Stained ST Greenish GR
None NO Blueish BL
Greyish GY
Grain size
Particle
Code Term Examples
Size
Very
VC > 60 mm Porphyries-w measureable grains
course
Congromerate,Breccia,Gneiss-w/measureable
C Coarse 2 -60 mm
grains
Sandstone, Gabbro, Granite, Schist - having
M Medium 0.06- 2 mm
clearly visible grains
0.002 -
F Fine
0.06 mm Tuff, Siltstone, Claystone, Mudstone, Basalt
VF Very fine <0.002 mm
Texture
Code Texture Description
AP Aphanitic Grains cannot be seen with naked eye
EQ Equigranular All grains are the same size
BM Bimodal Two sizes of crystal exist in rock
Alignment of grains in a volcanic rock parallel to flow
TR Trachytic
direction
AC Acicular Crystals are needle shaped
DM Diamitic Gap graded, matrix supported clasts (sedimentary)

Fabric
Code Fabric Description
GN Gneissic Alternating layers of different colour or texture
BX Brecciated Angular fragments that have been healed
Deposited in layers, can be in sedimentary or
BD Bedded
volcaniclastic rocks
IB Interbedded Beds alternating with others of a different character
MA Massive No crystal or grain fabric (homogeneous)
Intrusive texture where large phenocrysts are present
PR Porphyritic
in a much finer grained groundmass
TU Tuff Lithified pyroclasic sediments
Lithified pyroclastic sediments with large clast
LT Lapilli tuff
inclusions
VC Volcaniclastic Clastic rock containing volcanic material
FO Foliated Mineral are aligned due to shearing or metamorphism

Lithology
Code Lithology Description
Intrusive rock with a low quartz content and equal
MZ Monzonite amount of plagioclase and alkali feldspar (k-spar),
mafic minerals may or may not be present
Intrusive rock, approx. equivalent content of
GR Granitic intrusion quartz, plagioclase and alkali feldspar, mafic
minerals may or may not be present
Dyke containing mostly mafic minerals. Typically
MD Mafic dyke
have bleached contacts at KSM
DT Diorite Intrusive rock, mainly plagioclase feldspar
FP Feldspar Lath shaped feldspar crystals make up a significant
 porphyry percentage of the rock mass (>=20%)
Foliated metamorphic rock, mica typical on
SC Schist foliation separation planes, foliation usually
undulating, sometimes poorly defined
Cemented angular fragments. Cause of brecciation
VB Volcanic breccia is volcanic, either by injection of melt or the
breccia is composed of pyroclastic debris
General term for all consolidated
TU Tuff pyroclastic/volcaniclastic material, flow lines /
bedding may be visible
LT Lapilli tuff Large clasts (2-64 mm) are visible in the tuff beds
VC Volcanic Fine grained, flow lines may be visible, mafic
SH Shale Fine grained sedimentary rock, laminated, fissile
Clastic sedimentary rock, grains are sand sized and
SS Sandstone
may be cemented with clay / silt sized particles
Very fine grained sedimentary rock, indurated,
AR Argillite
lacks the fissility of shale
UD Undistinguishable This term should be used as little as possible

Alteration codes
Site specific
description
Alteration Literature Diagnostic
Code from Mineral assemblage
type description features
exploration
logs
ARG Argillic -introduces a clay minerals -feldspar grains
 wide variety of have been
clay minerals, replaced with
includes clay
kaolinite, -slippery feel on
smectite, and discons
illite
-can also have
kaolinite + quartz
+ hematite +
limonite
assemblage
-darkened
groundmass chlorite, muscovite,
CHL Chloritic
when quartz, albite
pervasive
-greater than -addition of any -veins / matrix
3% k veins carbonate react with acid
minerals, calcite, dolomite,
CAR Carbonate
typically calcite, malachite
ankerite,
dolomite
-indurated and -thermal hornblende,
strengthened alteration, seems plagioclase, chlorite,
"baked" resulting biotite
HFS Hornfels in stronger and
more indurated
rock mass than
parent
Hematite/Iron oxide minerals -
HEM
Oxide red/brown/orange
-pyrite -typically formed sericite, -feldspars
concentrations from decomp of quartz, pyrite decomposed to
2% and greater feldspars, sericite sericite and
-sericite and and quartz quartz
quartz altered replace large
feldspars feldspar grains,
-sericite and feldspar in
PHY Phyllic
typically pale the groundmass
green -can be
-greenish pale associated with
grey high pyrite
groundmass concentrations
-softens rock,
easily scratchable
 -greasy feel
-occurs in acidic
conditions
-matrix has -high biotite, k-feldspar, -potassium
been replaced temperature magnetite, +/- feldspar present
by fine grained alteration, results epidote specularite in groundmass or
hydrothermal from potassium as veining
POT Potassic
k-feldspar enrichment -dark grey /
-typically dark -can occur during purplish grey
grey - purplish crystallization of
grey magma
-dark green to -turns rocks chlorite, epidote, -green rock
green green, usually pyrite, actinolite +/- matrix
-magnetic alteration carbonate
minerals replace
Fe-Mg bearing
minerals (biotite,
PRO Propylitic amphibolite,
pyroxene) but
can also replace
feldspar
-low temperature,
distal to other
alteration types
-silica -addition of quartz -strong to v
flooded/lots of secondary silica strong
veins (quartz)-most -sometimes
-hardened common silica stockwork of
flooding: quartz veins
replacement of
the rock with
microcrystalline
SIL Siliceous
quartz
-another style is
stockwork:
formation of
closely spaced
fractures in a
network filled in
with quartz
Notes:
1. More than one alteration type may be present in a zone. This should be indicated in the core
log.

Total core recovery length

The total length of core recovered by the drillers from an interval is measured. In addition to
providing a first indication of zones of poor rock mass quality or drilling problems, total
recovery can be used to check the run block depths provided by the drillers. Also, it is not
uncommon for the recovery length to be greater than the drilled length; this often happens when
the core breaks above the bottom of the hole on the previous run, or as a result of errors in the
measurement of the length drilled. Where multiple intervals and core loss (or gain) occur
between two run blocks, a judgement must be made for which interval(s) will be recorded as
having the difference. Appropriate strategies include:

 distribute core loss (or gain) over all intervals between the core blocks
 record the interval nearest the first core block as having the difference
 select the interval that contains the most fractured rock as having the difference

A mix of strategies may be appropriate; however, a single strategy is generally recommended for
consistency and ease of comparison of data. For programs where corehole televiewer programs
are conducted, the downhole images may assist in identifying the major zones of core loss.

Rock quality designation (RQD) length

The rock quality designation (RQD) is a modified core recovery measurement (Deere and Deere,
1989). For each interval, the total length of all core pieces longer than 10 cm (4 in) as measured
along the core centerline, should be determined and recorded as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Measuring RDQ length from rock core (after Deere and Deere, 1989)

When measuring the RQD, the following should be taken into consideration:

 The total length of core must include all lost core sections
 When summing up the lengths, the breaks created by the driller during removal
from the core barrel (often referred to as “mechanical” breaks) must be ignored
 Before measuring the RQD, apply slight pressure with your hands along the
length of the core to check that all the discontinuities have opened. This will help
ensure that “tight” joints are properly accounted for
 A “soundness check” should be carried out for weathering / alteration and
hardness (R) grades; if W/A >4 or R≤1, then that length of core does not get
counted in the RQD length
 The RQD length is measured along the axis of the core
 If RQD can be measured in the split tubes (if triple tube drilling has been carried
out) before the core is put into the box this will result in a more accurate estimate
of RQD

Number of discontinuities
The number of geological discontinuities (fractures, joints, shears, bedding, etc.) within each
interval is counted and recorded. Breaks in the core from the process of drilling or boxing the
drill core (mechanical breaks) are not included in this count.

Mechanical breaks are identified by sharp core edges at the break and will often have clean
breakage surfaces with no infilling and no discolouration. If the cause of the break in the core is
in doubt, treat the break as a natural feature and include it in the discontinuity count. The core
shown in Figure 3 has this kind of clear breakage.

Figure 3: Example of when the number of discontinuities can be counted directly from the
core

Where discontinuities with thick infillings, faults, or zones of soil-like material are encountered
count 1 discontinuity per 1 cm of infilling, fault zone, or soil zone thickness along the core centre
line.

Figure 4 shows a sample where discontinuities must be estimated.

Figure 4: Example of when the discontinuity number must be estimated

For intervals that have closely spaced discontinuities too numerous to count (possible in bedded,
laminated, or foliated rocks), resulting in “discs” of core, the number of discontinuities can be
estimated. This is done by measuring the average size of the core pieces and dividing the interval
length by the average piece size. For example, a 30 cm zone of broken rock where the average
particle size is 3 cm in diameter would count as 10 discontinuities. “Default” numbers for highly
fractured rock should not be used

Number of sets

The number of discontinuity sets present in the rock mass is used to determine the joint set
number (Jn), a parameter used in Barton’s Q rock mass classification system. The most accurate
way to determine the number of joint sets is to process core orientation data and determine the
number of sets from stereographic projection of the discontinuity data. In the absence of core
orientation data it may take several drill core runs to see all of the sets present, particularly if
there are widely spaced sets present. This parameter can be extrapolated forwards and backwards
in the drill core from zones where the set numbers are obvious; however, make sure that if there
are changes occurring in the structural fabric they aren’t missed by averaging the sets over long
sections of hole. Use whole numbers only, so if you have 2 sets and no other distinct features,
use 2, if there are other features use 3. This is a slightly conservative approach that is acceptable
because it is difficult to determine at the core scale whether widely spaced discontinuities form
sets. It is important not to include mechanical breaks in this number.

Strength grade

The strength grade (Table 4), sometimes referred to as hardness grade, is a field estimate of the
strength of the intact material. It is important to use your hands, knife and rock hammer when
estimating the strength of a sample. When using the hammer remember that only a firm blow
need be applied. Also, make sure that the induced break does not occur along a discontinuity,
otherwise the strength test is invalid.

A single value should be used for the strength grade. If the grade within the interval ranges from
one hardness grade to another (e.g. is between 3 and 4), use half values (e.g. 3.5). If the hardness
is extremely variable, consider splitting the run into two or more intervals to accurately capture
the variability.

Table 4: Field strength grades (ISRM 1978)

UCS
Grade Field identification Description
(MPa)
Specimen can only be chipped with flat end of geological Extremely
R6 > 250
hammer strong
Specimen requires many blows of flat end of geological
R5 Very strong 100-250
hammer to fracture
Specimen requires more than one blow of flat end of
R4 Strong 50-100
geological hammer to fracture
Cannot be scraped or peeled with pocket knife; can be
Medium
R3 fractured with single firm blow of flat end of the geologic 25-50
strong
hammer
Can be peeled by a pocket knife with difficulty; shallow
R2 indentation made by firm blow with point of geological Weak 5-25
hammer
Crumbles under firm blow with point of geological hammer;
R1 Very weak 1-5
can be peeled by a pocket knife
 Extremely
R0 Indented by thumbnail < 0.2 – 1
weak
S6 Indented with difficulty by thumbnail Hard >0.2
S5 Readily indented by thumbnail Very stiff 0.1 – 0.2
Readily indented by thumb but penetrated only with great 0.050 -
S4 Stiff
effort 0.1
0.025 -
S3 With moderate effort, penetrates several centimeters by thumb Firm
0.05
0.012 -
S2 Easily penetrated several centimeters by thumb Soft
0.025
S1 Easily penetrated several centimeters by fist Very soft < 0.012

Weathering/alteration grade

The weathering/alteration grade is a measure of how the core properties (i.e. strength,
mineralogy, etc.) have been changed from their original form. Although these two
characteristics are often paired together, it is important to make a distinction between weathering
and alteration. Weathering is the result of exposure to and infiltration by surface agents (i.e.
surface water, ice, air, freeze-thaw cycles, organic activity, etc.) and is limited by proximity to
the ground surface. Weathering is a relatively recent geologic process affecting the rock
mass. Alteration is a result of the geological formation of the rock mass itself, resulting in
physical or chemical changes. The effects of alteration generally pre-date weathering effects;
however, it may be very difficult to distinguish the two. In addition, alteration, in the context of
geotechnical logging, is generally used to downgrade the strength of the rock mass (e.g.
sericitization, chloritization, argillization, etc.). However, there are alteration types that can
increase the strength of the rock mass (e.g. silicification, phyllic, etc.). More sophisticated
systems to define alteration type and intensity are often employed by geologists when
characterizing the ore deposit, and should be evaluated to determine their relationship to the
geomechanical properties of the rock mass.

Table 5 provides suggested weathering/ alteration grades and their associated descriptions. As
for hardness values, a single weathering/alteration value should be used. If the
weathering/alteration is extremely variable, consider splitting the run into two or more intervals
to accurately capture the variability.

Table 5: Weathering/alteration grades

Grade Description Field identification

A1/W1 Fresh and Parent rock showing no discoloration, loss of strength or any other
 Unweathered weathering effects.

Strength may be increased by some alteration types.

Slightly Rock may be slightly discoloured, particularly adjacent to
A2/W2 Weathered or discontinuities, which may be open and will have slightly discoloured
Altered surfaces; the intact rock is may be weaker than the fresh rock.
Moderately Rock is discoloured; discontinuities may be open and have
A3/W3 Weathered or discoloured surfaces with alteration starting to penetrate inwards;
Altered intact rock is noticeably weaker than W1/A1 rock of the same unit.
Rock is discoloured; discontinuities may be open and have
Highly discoloured surfaces, and the original fabric of the rock near the
A4/W4 Weathered or discontinuities may be altered; alteration penetrates deeply inwards.
Altered The ratio of original rock to weathered rock should be estimated
where possible.
Completely Rock is discoloured and decomposed/ friable or changed completely
A5/W5 Weathered or to a soil, but original fabric is visible. The properties of the soil
Altered depend in part on the nature of the parent rock.
A5/W6 Residual Soil Original rock fabric is completely destroyed.

Discontinuity description

Engineering in rock provides different challenges than those faced when using soil or concrete as
engineering materials because rock is a discontinuous material: the rock mass is made of blocks
defined by joints, bedding, faults, etc. (discontinuities). The geological and engineering
properties of the discontinuities are important for excavation design. While the detail of
observations commonly required for a single discontinuity will be familiar to exploration
geologist, the volume of data to be collected over a drilling program can be overwhelming. The
level of effort required in discontinuity data collection must be determined with consideration of
the detail required for the level of design of the study, and the practical limitations of the site
conditions and the field program schedule.

For detailed engineering studies is it not uncommon for every individual discontinuity to be
logged and described to a level of detail that includes all of the observations outlined in the
sections below. However, for a geotechnical data collection program running concurrently with
exploration and relying on the site geology staff at, say a preliminary assessment level, provision
of this amount of detail may not be practical. During the early rock engineering investigation
phases of projects or properties, the data collected should focus on:

 Estimating the “average” or “typical” properties of the materials at the site

 Determining what / where the materials are that may be at the ends of the
spectrum of expected engineering behaviour, i.e. where are the very weak rocks
and very strong rocks or the highly plastic soils and very stiff soils? Those
 materials that differ significantly from the “general” or “average” site conditions
need to be quickly identified so that they can be explored, because the weaker
materials are most likely the ones that will have the greatest impact on the
stability of an excavation.
 Identifying and describing the major discontinuity features: faults, weak seams or
beds, and/or contacts between geological units.

At least one example of the “typical” discontinuities for the interval should be logged. Where
oriented core is conducted, it will be useful to log one or two representative discontinuities of
each type in each interval. The following sections describe the observations that should be made
for logged discontinuities.

Discontinuity depth

The discontinuity location should recorded as the total downhole distance along the core from
the collar or other zero reference point used for the program (drill deck, top of stick-up, ground
surface) to the intersection of the structure with the core axis to the nearest centimetre. The
locations of discontinuities should not be recorded with reference to the geotechnical interval
from or to. Instead, the depth to the discontinuity along the core centre line is recommended.
Where multiple discontinuities occur at the same depth, it is useful to add another digit to the
depth measurement to differentiate between the features. For example, two discontinuities at
352.21 m could be recorded as 352.211 and 352.212. Since many databases and 3D geological
modelling software tools interpret over lapping depths as errors, this can be avoided with a small
modification to the data collection approach recommended.

Discontinuity orientation
Methods for determining orientation

The orientation of discontinuities encountered in a drillhole can be determined a variety of ways.

The general concept is to mark the core with reference to a known direction or location
(generally the top or bottom of the core or magnetic north), depending on the method used to
survey the core hole, then measure the relative orientation of the discontinuities to the reference
line. The most common core orientation methods currently in use include the following methods:

1. Spear
2. Cralieus
3. Ezy-Mark
4. Clay-Imprint
5. Ball-Mark
6. ACT
7. Scribe
8. Acoustic or optical televiewer
Downhole surveys of the drillhole, where optical or acoustic images are taken of the
discontinuities in the walls of the core hole (method 8) have more recently become popular as
technology has become more advanced and the costs for these methods have decreased. The
main advantage of this type of discontinuity orientation method is that because it does not
require recovery of the core to get a measurement, it is less labour intensive. The main
disadvantage of the televiewer system is that it still requires characterization of the discontinuity
so that the orientations calculated can be assigned to the appropriate structure type, thus
requiring some post-processing of the images and development of relational databases to match
the data from the core logging to the downhole survey data.

Alpha and beta angles

For drilling programs where more traditional methods of core orientation are undertaken, the
orientation of individual discontinuities and geological structures can be calculated by measuring
the alpha (α ) and beta (β) angles of the discontinuity and the orientation of the drillhole at the
location of the discontinuity, as determined by a downhole survey data for the core hole.

The alpha angle (α ) is the angle of intersection of between the discontinuity surface and the core
axis (Figure 5). This can be measured with a goniometer, carpenter’s protractor, or even a
Douglas-style protractor. The alpha angle is always a positive angle between 0o to 90o.

The beta angle (β) is measured around the circumference of the core, clock-wise from the
reference line provided from the core orientation method (Ball-Mark, Ezy-Mark, ACT, clay-
imprint, various scribe systems, etc.) to the tip of the discontinuity farthest down-hole (Figure 1).
The beta (β) angle is measured using a linear protractor which has been sized for the diameter of
the core.
Figure 1: Oriented core measurements