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Geotechnical logging techniques

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Contents
1 Core logging procedure
1.1 Core photographs and preparation
1.2 Intervals
1.3 Core description
1.3.1 Colour and rock description
1.3.2 Total core recovery length
1.3.3 Rock quality designation (RQD) length
1.3.4 Number of discontinuities
1.3.5 Number of sets
1.3.6 Strength grade
1.3.7 Weathering/alteration grade
1.4 Discontinuity description
2 Discontinuity orientation
2.1 Methods for determining orientation
3 See also

Core logging procedure

The following steps are suggested during the core logging process:

1. Clean the core of drilling fluids or mud.

2. Mark major structures, proposed point load testing locations, and depths (every 1-2 metres) on undisturbed
core in splits.
3. Photograph the core in the splits (if using triple tube method) with a scale placed in the picture and a
whiteboard indicating what depth the core has been obtained from.
4. Complete the Discontinuity and core description logs.
5. Transfer the core from the splits to a labelled core box.
6. Once a core box is full, take a single photograph of the core box with a scale.

The steps are detailed in the following sections.

Core photographs and preparation

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One of the most important things to do at the drill rig is photograph the undisturbed core in the splits. These photos
may be used later to confirm televiewer images and will be an invaluable resource on the rock mass and for review
of the design work.

Proper core photos require that the core be cleaned prior to photographing. When core is covered in drilling mud,
structural information can be obscured making it difficult to determine lithologies. Take the time to properly clean
the core. The core should be wet if possible as some structural features do not show up on dry core so make sure to
wet it down with a spray bottle or paint brush. The following are also required in all core photographs:

A scale - make sure the measuring tape you use is in focus and readable in the photos
A white board with the project name, project number, hole ID, date, interval number(s), and
depth from and to written out
The depths with 1 meter increments marked on the core using a paint pen or grease pencil
Labels of major structures, including type and depth. Examples of colours and symbols are
outlined in Table 1.

Table 1: Examples of core symbols

Item Colour Symbol

Whole meter depth White

Major structures Red

PLT samples Yellow

Mechanical breaks Blue

Notes:

1. Major structures should be identified using their corresponding logging code. In the example above the
symbol is for a Fault; if the structure was a Shear the “F” would be substituted for an “S”.
2. The numbers in the Whole meter depth and Major structures symbols indicate the depth in meters.

Intervals

The properties used in the core description are recorded by intervals for each run of core. An interval represents a
change in lithology, alteration, and/or rock mass quality. The benefit of logging on an interval basis is that it allows
for distinctly different units within one run of core to be assigned their own properties. This prevents the need for
averaging different units over the length of a run, which can lead to overestimating / underestimating material
properties. Photograph 1 below provides an example of a change in rock mass quality. Intervals should be at least
30 cm in length and will be at most the length of the core run. Intervals are also numbered sequentially. For
example if you have 100 runs you should have between 100 and 500 intervals, assuming a maximum run length of
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1.5 m (5 feet). The start depth (i.e. depth from) and the end depth (i.e. depth to) for each interval should be
recorded as measured from the top of the hole. This is strictly a function of where the drill bit started and ended
during the run, and may be less than the length of the maximum run if blocking of the core barrel occurs, the bit
requires replacement, etc.

Figure 1: Example of rock core broken into intervals

Depths of zones of substantial core loss may have to be estimated. For example, if a 1.5 m run of core is completed
and only 1.0 m of core is returned with 0.4 m of crushed rock at the start (first interval) and 0.6 m of competent
rock following (second interval), it is likely that the core loss occurred in the crushed zone. Consequently, the end
depth of the first interval and the start depth of the second interval should be adjusted to account for the 0.5 m loss
of core in the crushed zone. If a downhole survey (e.g. with a televiewer) has been completed, the zone of core loss
may be more accurately defined by the images from the survey, requiring modification of the logs during the
matching process with the televiewer and core logging data.

Core description

The Core description portion of the log covers the lithology, interval determination data, and the rock mass
classification. Below is a description of each logging parameter. Both the top and the bottom of the interval are to
be recorded.

Colour and rock description

Colour and rock descriptions should be logged as part of the core logging procedure to indentify the lithologies and
alteration sequences encountered. Logging should be based on easy to identify attributes that will in most cases
allow rock type to be determined quickly and easily. Such attributes include:

Pattern
Colour
Grain size
Texture
Fabric
Lithology
Alteration

Logging these parameters separately and on an interval basis will allow for recognition of subtle variations that
would normally be smoothed over in the summary log, and will ensure that the descriptions produced for final
reporting are clear, concise, and repeatable. Codes describing the above should be decided upon in advance, and
kept as simple as possible for ease of data entry and for consistency. An example of possible codes for a
geotechnical core logging scheme is included in Table 2 below.
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Table 2: Examples of rock core desciption codes

Color
Modifier Code Pattern Code Primary/secondary color Code
Light L Banded BA Pinkish PK
Dark D Streaked SK Reddish RD
Blotched BL Yellowish YW
Mottled MT Brownish BR
Speckled SP Olive OL
Stained ST Greenish GR
None NO Blueish BL
Greyish GY
Grain size
Particle
Code Term Examples
Size
Very
VC > 60 mm Porphyries-w measureable grains
course
Congromerate,Breccia,Gneiss-w/measureable
C Coarse 2 -60 mm
grains
Sandstone, Gabbro, Granite, Schist - having
M Medium 0.06- 2 mm
clearly visible grains
0.002 - Notes:
F Fine
0.06 mm 1. More than one alteration type may
Tuff, Siltstone, Claystone, Mudstone, Basalt
Very be present in a zone. This should be
VF <0.002 mm
fine indicated in the core log.
Texture
Total core recovery length
Code Texture Description
AP Aphanitic Grains cannot be seen with naked eye The total length of core recovered by
EQ Equigranular All grains are the same size the drillers from an interval is
BM Bimodal Two sizes of crystal exist in rock measured. In addition to providing a
first indication of zones of poor rock
Alignment of grains in a volcanic rock parallel to flow
TR Trachytic mass quality or drilling problems,
direction
total recovery can be used to check
AC Acicular Crystals are needle shaped the run block depths provided by the
DM Diamitic Gap graded, matrix supported clasts (sedimentary) drillers. Also, it is not uncommon for
Fabric
the recovery length to be greater than
the drilled length; this often happens
Code Fabric Description when the core breaks above the
GN Gneissic Alternating layers of different colour or texture bottom of the hole on the previous
BX Brecciated Angular fragments that have been healed run, or as a result of errors in the
Deposited in layers, can be in sedimentary or measurement of the length drilled.
BD Bedded Where multiple intervals and core
volcaniclastic rocks
loss (or gain) occur between two run
IB Interbedded Beds alternating with others of a different character blocks, a judgement must be made
MA Massive No crystal or grain fabric (homogeneous)
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Intrusive texture where large phenocrysts are present for which interval(s) will be recorded
PR Porphyritic
in a much finer grained groundmass as having the difference. Appropriate
TU Tuff Lithified pyroclasic sediments strategies include:
Lithified pyroclastic sediments with large clastdistribute core loss (or gain)
LT Lapilli tuff
inclusions over all intervals between the
VC Volcaniclastic Clastic rock containing volcanic material core blocks
FO Foliated Mineral are aligned due to shearing or metamorphism record the interval nearest the
first core block as having the
Lithology difference
Code Lithology Description select the interval that contains
the most fractured rock as
Intrusive rock with a low quartz content and equal having the difference
MZ Monzonite amount of plagioclase and alkali feldspar (k-spar),
mafic minerals may or may not be present A mix of strategies may be
Intrusive rock, approx. equivalent content of appropriate; however, a single
GR Granitic intrusion quartz, plagioclase and alkali feldspar, mafic strategy is generally recommended
minerals may or may not be present for consistency and ease of
Dyke containing mostly mafic minerals. Typically comparison of data. For programs
MD Mafic dyke where corehole televiewer programs
have bleached contacts at KSM
DT Diorite Intrusive rock, mainly plagioclase feldspar are conducted, the downhole images
may assist in identifying the major
Feldspar Lath shaped feldspar crystals make up a zones of core loss.
FP
porphyry significant percentage of the rock mass (>=20%)
Foliated metamorphic rock, mica typical on Rock quality designation (RQD)
SC Schist foliation separation planes, foliation usually length
undulating, sometimes poorly defined
Cemented angular fragments. Cause of brecciation The rock quality designation (RQD)
VB Volcanic breccia is volcanic, either by injection of melt or the is a modified core recovery
breccia is composed of pyroclastic debris measurement (Deere and Deere,
General term for all consolidated 1989). For each interval, the total
TU Tuff pyroclastic/volcaniclastic material, flow lines / length of all core pieces longer than
bedding may be visible 10 cm (4 in) as measured along the
LT Lapilli tuff Large clasts (2-64 mm) are visible in the tuff beds core centerline, should be
VC Volcanic Fine grained, flow lines may be visible, mafic determined and recorded as shown
in Figure 2.
SH Shale Fine grained sedimentary rock, laminated, fissile
Clastic sedimentary rock, grains are sand sized
SS Sandstone and may be cemented with clay / silt sized
particles
Very fine grained sedimentary rock, indurated,
AR Argillite
lacks the fissility of shale
UD Undistinguishable This term should be used as little as possible
Alteration codes
Site specific
Alteration Mineral Diagnostic
Code description from Literature description
type assemblage features
exploration logs
ARG Argillic -introduces a wide variety of clay clay minerals -feldspar grains
minerals, includes kaolinite, smectite, have been
and illite replaced with
clay
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-can also have kaolinite + quartz + -slippery feel on

hematite + limonite assemblage discons
-darkened chlorite,
CHL Chloritic groundmass when muscovite,
pervasive quartz, albite
-greater than 3% calcite, -veins / matrix
-addition of any carbonate minerals,
CAR Carbonate k veins dolomite, react with acid
typically calcite, ankerite, dolomite
malachite
-indurated and hornblende,
-thermal alteration, seems "baked"
strengthened plagioclase,
HFS Hornfels resulting in stronger and more
chlorite,
indurated rock mass than parent
biotite
Hematite/Iron oxide -
HEM
Oxide minerals red/brown/orange
-pyrite -typically formed from decomp of sericite, -feldspars
concentrations feldspars, sericite and quartz replace quartz, pyrite decomposed to
2% and greater large feldspar grains, and feldspar in sericite and
-sericite and the groundmass quartz
quartz altered -can be associated with high pyrite
PHY Phyllic
feldspars concentrations
-sericite typically -softens rock, easily scratchable
pale green -greasy feel
-greenish pale -occurs in acidic conditions
grey groundmass
-matrix has been -high temperature alteration, results biotite, k- -potassium
replaced by fine from potassium enrichment feldspar, feldspar present
grained -can occur during crystallization of magnetite, +/- in groundmass or
hydrothermal k- magma epidote as veining
POT Potassic
feldspar specularite -dark grey /
-typically dark purplish grey
grey - purplish
grey
-dark green to -turns rocks green, usually alteration chlorite, -green rock
green minerals replace Fe-Mg bearing epidote, matrix
-magnetic minerals (biotite, amphibolite, pyrite,
PRO Propylitic pyroxene) but can also replace actinolite +/-
feldspar carbonate
-low temperature, distal to other
alteration types
-silica -addition of secondary silica (quartz)- quartz -strong to v
flooded/lots of most common silica flooding: strong
veins replacement of the rock with -sometimes
SIL Siliceous -hardened microcrystalline quartz stockwork of
-another style is stockwork: formation quartz veins
of closely spaced fractures in a
network filled in with quartz

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Figure 2: Measuring RDQ length from rock core (after Deere and Deere, 1989)

When measuring the RQD, the following should be taken into consideration:

The total length of core must include all lost core sections
When summing up the lengths, the breaks created by the driller during removal from the core
barrel (often referred to as “mechanical” breaks) must be ignored
Before measuring the RQD, apply slight pressure with your hands along the length of the core to
check that all the discontinuities have opened. This will help ensure that “tight” joints are
properly accounted for
A “soundness check” should be carried out for weathering / alteration and hardness (R) grades;
if W/A >4 or R≤1, then that length of core does not get counted in the RQD length
The RQD length is measured along the axis of the core
If RQD can be measured in the split tubes (if triple tube drilling has been carried out) before the
core is put into the box this will result in a more accurate estimate of RQD

Number of discontinuities

The number of geological discontinuities (fractures, joints, shears, bedding, etc.) within each interval is counted
and recorded. Breaks in the core from the process of drilling or boxing the drill core (mechanical breaks) are not
included in this count.

Mechanical breaks are identified by sharp core edges at the break and will often have clean breakage surfaces with
no infilling and no discolouration. If the cause of the break in the core is in doubt, treat the break as a natural
feature and include it in the discontinuity count. The core shown in Figure 3 has this kind of clear breakage.

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Figure 3: Example of when the number of discontinuities can be counted directly from the core

Where discontinuities with thick infillings, faults, or zones of soil-like material are encountered count 1
discontinuity per 1 cm of infilling, fault zone, or soil zone thickness along the core centre line.

Figure 4 shows a sample where discontinuities must be estimated.

Figure 4: Example of when the discontinuity number must be estimated

For intervals that have closely spaced discontinuities too numerous to count (possible in bedded, laminated, or
foliated rocks), resulting in “discs” of core, the number of discontinuities can be estimated. This is done by
measuring the average size of the core pieces and dividing the interval length by the average piece size. For
example, a 30 cm zone of broken rock where the average particle size is 3 cm in diameter would count as 10
discontinuities. “Default” numbers for highly fractured rock should not be used

Number of sets

The number of discontinuity sets present in the rock mass is used to determine the joint set number (Jn), a
parameter used in Barton’s Q rock mass classification system. The most accurate way to determine the number of
joint sets is to process core orientation data and determine the number of sets from stereographic projection of the
discontinuity data. In the absence of core orientation data it may take several drill core runs to see all of the sets
present, particularly if there are widely spaced sets present. This parameter can be extrapolated forwards and
backwards in the drill core from zones where the set numbers are obvious; however, make sure that if there are
changes occurring in the structural fabric they aren’t missed by averaging the sets over long sections of hole. Use
whole numbers only, so if you have 2 sets and no other distinct features, use 2, if there are other features use 3.
This is a slightly conservative approach that is acceptable because it is difficult to determine at the core scale
whether widely spaced discontinuities form sets. It is important not to include mechanical breaks in this number.

Strength grade

The strength grade (Table 4), sometimes referred to as hardness grade, is a field estimate of the strength of the
intact material. It is important to use your hands, knife and rock hammer when estimating the strength of a sample.
When using the hammer remember that only a firm blow need be applied. Also, make sure that the induced break
does not occur along a discontinuity, otherwise the strength test is invalid.

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A single value should be used for the strength grade. If the grade within the interval ranges from one hardness
grade to another (e.g. is between 3 and 4), use half values (e.g. 3.5). If the hardness is extremely variable, consider
splitting the run into two or more intervals to accurately capture the variability.

Table 4: Field strength grades (ISRM 1978)

UCS
Grade Field identification Description
(MPa)
Extremely
R6 Specimen can only be chipped with flat end of geological hammer > 250
strong
R5 Specimen requires many blows of flat end of geological hammer to fracture Very strong 100-250
Specimen requires more than one blow of flat end of geological hammer to
R4 Strong 50-100
fracture
Cannot be scraped or peeled with pocket knife; can be fractured with single firm Medium
R3 25-50
blow of flat end of the geologic hammer strong
Can be peeled by a pocket knife with difficulty; shallow indentation made by firm
R2 Weak 5-25
blow with point of geological hammer
Crumbles under firm blow with point of geological hammer; can be peeled by a
R1 Very weak 1-5
pocket knife
Extremely < 0.2 –
R0 Indented by thumbnail
weak 1
S6 Indented with difficulty by thumbnail Hard >0.2
0.1 –
S5 Readily indented by thumbnail Very stiff
0.2
0.050 -
S4 Readily indented by thumb but penetrated only with great effort Stiff
0.1
0.025 -
S3 With moderate effort, penetrates several centimeters by thumb Firm
0.05
0.012 -
S2 Easily penetrated several centimeters by thumb Soft
0.025
S1 Easily penetrated several centimeters by fist Very soft < 0.012
Weathering/alteration grade

The weathering/alteration grade is a measure of how the core properties (i.e. strength, mineralogy, etc.) have been
changed from their original form. Although these two characteristics are often paired together, it is important to
make a distinction between weathering and alteration. Weathering is the result of exposure to and infiltration by
surface agents (i.e. surface water, ice, air, freeze-thaw cycles, organic activity, etc.) and is limited by proximity to
the ground surface. Weathering is a relatively recent geologic process affecting the rock mass. Alteration is a result
of the geological formation of the rock mass itself, resulting in physical or chemical changes. The effects of
alteration generally pre-date weathering effects; however, it may be very difficult to distinguish the two. In
addition, alteration, in the context of geotechnical logging, is generally used to downgrade the strength of the rock
mass (e.g. sericitization, chloritization, argillization, etc.). However, there are alteration types that can increase the
strength of the rock mass (e.g. silicification, phyllic, etc.). More sophisticated systems to define alteration type and
intensity are often employed by geologists when characterizing the ore deposit, and should be evaluated to
determine their relationship to the geomechanical properties of the rock mass.
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Table 5 provides suggested weathering/ alteration grades and their associated descriptions. As for hardness values,
a single weathering/alteration value should be used. If the weathering/alteration is extremely variable, consider
splitting the run into two or more intervals to accurately capture the variability.

Table 5: Weathering/alteration grades

Grade Description Field identification

Parent rock showing no discoloration, loss of strength or any other weathering effects.
Fresh and
A1/W1
Unweathered Strength may be increased by some alteration types.

Slightly Rock may be slightly discoloured, particularly adjacent to discontinuities, which may be
A2/W2 Weathered or open and will have slightly discoloured surfaces; the intact rock is may be weaker than the
Altered fresh rock.
Moderately Rock is discoloured; discontinuities may be open and have discoloured surfaces with
A3/W3 Weathered or alteration starting to penetrate inwards; intact rock is noticeably weaker than W1/A1 rock
Altered of the same unit.
Rock is discoloured; discontinuities may be open and have discoloured surfaces, and the
Highly
original fabric of the rock near the discontinuities may be altered; alteration penetrates
A4/W4 Weathered or
deeply inwards. The ratio of original rock to weathered rock should be estimated where
Altered
possible.
Completely
Rock is discoloured and decomposed/ friable or changed completely to a soil, but original
A5/W5 Weathered or
fabric is visible. The properties of the soil depend in part on the nature of the parent rock.
Altered
A5/W6 Residual Soil Original rock fabric is completely destroyed.
Discontinuity description

Engineering in rock provides different challenges than those faced when using soil or concrete as engineering
materials because rock is a discontinuous material: the rock mass is made of blocks defined by joints, bedding,
faults, etc. (discontinuities). The geological and engineering properties of the discontinuities are important for
excavation design. While the detail of observations commonly required for a single discontinuity will be familiar to
exploration geologist, the volume of data to be collected over a drilling program can be overwhelming. The level
of effort required in discontinuity data collection must be determined with consideration of the detail required for
the level of design of the study, and the practical limitations of the site conditions and the field program schedule.

For detailed engineering studies is it not uncommon for every individual discontinuity to be logged and described
to a level of detail that includes all of the observations outlined in the sections below. However, for a geotechnical
data collection program running concurrently with exploration and relying on the site geology staff at, say a
preliminary assessment level, provision of this amount of detail may not be practical. During the early rock
engineering investigation phases of projects or properties, the data collected should focus on:

Estimating the “average” or “typical” properties of the materials at the site

Determining what / where the materials are that may be at the ends of the spectrum of expected
engineering behaviour, i.e. where are the very weak rocks and very strong rocks or the highly
plastic soils and very stiff soils? Those materials that differ significantly from the “general” or
“average” site conditions need to be quickly identified so that they can be explored, because the
weaker materials are most likely the ones that will have the greatest impact on the stability of an
excavation.

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Identifying and describing the major discontinuity features: faults, weak seams or beds, and/or
contacts between geological units.

At least one example of the “typical” discontinuities for the interval should be logged. Where oriented core is
conducted, it will be useful to log one or two representative discontinuities of each type in each interval. The
following sections describe the observations that should be made for logged discontinuities.

Discontinuity depth

The discontinuity location should recorded as the total downhole distance along the core from the collar or other
zero reference point used for the program (drill deck, top of stick-up, ground surface) to the intersection of the
structure with the core axis to the nearest centimetre. The locations of discontinuities should not be recorded with
reference to the geotechnical interval from or to. Instead, the depth to the discontinuity along the core centre line is
recommended. Where multiple discontinuities occur at the same depth, it is useful to add another digit to the depth
measurement to differentiate between the features. For example, two discontinuities at 352.21 m could be recorded
as 352.211 and 352.212. Since many databases and 3D geological modelling software tools interpret over lapping
depths as errors, this can be avoided with a small modification to the data collection approach recommended.

Discontinuity orientation
Methods for determining orientation

The orientation of discontinuities encountered in a drillhole can be determined a variety of ways. The general
concept is to mark the core with reference to a known direction or location (generally the top or bottom of the core
or magnetic north), depending on the method used to survey the core hole, then measure the relative orientation of
the discontinuities to the reference line. The most common core orientation methods currently in use include the
following methods:

1. Spear
2. Cralieus
3. Ezy-Mark
4. Clay-Imprint
5. Ball-Mark
6. ACT
7. Scribe
8. Acoustic or optical televiewer

Downhole surveys of the drillhole, where optical or acoustic images are taken of the discontinuities in the walls of
the core hole (method 8) have more recently become popular as technology has become more advanced and the
costs for these methods have decreased. The main advantage of this type of discontinuity orientation method is that
because it does not require recovery of the core to get a measurement, it is less labour intensive. The main
disadvantage of the televiewer system is that it still requires characterization of the discontinuity so that the
orientations calculated can be assigned to the appropriate structure type, thus requiring some post-processing of the
images and development of relational databases to match the data from the core logging to the downhole survey
data.

Alpha and beta angles

For drilling programs where more traditional methods of core orientation are undertaken, the orientation of
individual discontinuities and geological structures can be calculated by measuring the alpha (α ) and beta (β)
angles of the discontinuity and the orientation of the drillhole at the location of the discontinuity, as determined by
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a downhole survey data for the core hole.

The alpha angle (α ) is the angle of intersection of between the discontinuity surface and the core axis (Figure 5).
This can be measured with a goniometer, carpenter’s protractor, or even a Douglas-style protractor. The alpha angle
is always a positive angle between 0o to 90o.

The beta angle (β) is measured around the circumference of the core, clock-wise from the reference line provided
from the core orientation method (Ball-Mark, Ezy-Mark, ACT, clay-imprint, various scribe systems, etc.) to the tip
of the discontinuity farthest down-hole (Figure 1). The beta (β) angle is measured using a linear protractor which
has been sized for the diameter of the core.

Figure 5: Oriented core measurements

See also
Discontinuity characterization
Geotechnical drilling
Geotechnical site investigation

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