SAINT MARY’S ANGELS COLLEGE OF PAMPANGA

Olongapo-Gapan Road, Sta. Ana, 2022, Pampanga

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL
IN GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS
(CE GEO 222)

A.Y. 2020-2021

REFERENCES:

1. F. G. H. Blyth, "A Geology for Engineers 7th Edition", Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 1984.
2. N. Chenna Kesavulu, "Textbook of Engineering Geology 2nd Edition", Macmillan Publishers India Ltd.,
2009.
3. Bell F.G. "Engineering Geology Second Edition", Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 2007.
Unit 5: Geological and Geophysical Investigation in Civil Engineering
OBJECTIVE

• Identify the different geological and geophysical investigation applied to civil engineering.
• Utilize background in engineering and earth science to provide solutions to engineering problems
within the context of the natural world.

PURPOSE AND PRINCIPLES

The first purpose of site investigation is to acquire the data needed to create a three-dimensional
geotechnical model of the ground that will be encountered and affected by the construction of the
project. This model must represent:

a. the sizes and shapes of the different bodies of materials in the ground,
b. the geotechnical properties of those materials that are relevant to the project,
c. the distribution, orientation and engineering characteristics of the structural discontinuities in the
mass, and
d. the location and behaviour of groundwater.

The second purpose of site investigation is to use this information for predicting the reaction of the
ground to the construction of the project. Access to the ground must be obtained to gain information on
the factors required to establish the model. This is mostly done by opening some form of excavation, by
describing the materials and features encountered, and by taking samples to be tested in the laboratory.

DRILLING AND SAMPLING

For drilling boreholes there are a number of commonly used methods, although each has many variations
of equipment and technique. The most important methods are the following:

• rotary core drilling

• rotary “open hole” drilling
• percussion boring with cable tools
• power augering, of various types
• percussion “down hole hammer”
• hand augering
• probing

As per ASTM D 2113, core drilling procedures are used when formations are encountered that are too
hard to be sampled by soil sampling methods. A penetration of 25 mm (1 in) or less by a 51 mm (2 in)
diameter split-barrel sampler following 50 blows using standard penetration energy or other criteria
established by the geologist or engineer should indicate that soil sampling methods are not applicable
and rock drilling or coring is required. In many instances, geophysical methods, such as seismic refraction,
can be used to assist in evaluating the top of rock elevations in an expedient and economical manner.
The refraction data can also provide information between confirmatory boring locations.

TYPES OF CORE DRILLING

A detailed discussion of diamond core drilling is presented in AASHTO T 225 and ASTM D 2113. Types of
core barrels may be single-tube, double-tube, or triple-tube, as shown in Figures below.
Table below presents various types of core barrels available on the market. The standard is a double-tube
core barrel, which offers better recovery by isolating the rock core from the drilling fluid stream and
consists of an inner and outer core barrel
Although NX is the size most frequently used for engineering explorations, larger and smaller sizes are in
use. Generally, a larger core size will produce greater recovery and less mechanical breakage. Because of
their effect on core recovery, the size and type of coring equipment used should be carefully recorded in
the appropriate places on the boring log.

The length of each core run should be limited to 3 m maximum. Core run lengths should be reduced to
1.5 m (5 ft), or less, just below the rock surface and in highly fractured or weathered rock zones. Shorter
core runs often reduce the degree of damage to the core and improve core recovery in poor quality rock.

CORING BITS

The coring bit is the bottommost component of the core barrel assembly. It is the grinding action of this
component that cuts the core from the rock mass. Three basic categories of bits are in use: diamond,
carbide insert, and sawtooth.

Diamond coring bits which may be of surface set or impregnated-diamond type are the most versatile
since they can produce high-quality cores in rock materials ranging from soft to extremely hard.
Compared to other types, diamond bits in general permit more rapid coring and as noted by Hvorslev
(1949), exert lower torsional stresses on the core. Lower torsional stresses permit the retrieval of longer
cores and cores of small diameter.

Carbide bits use tungsten carbide in lieu of diamonds and are of several types. Bits of this type are used
to core soft to medium-hard rock. They are less expensive than diamond bits. However, the rate of
drilling is slower than with diamond bits.

Sawtooth bits consist of teeth cut into the bottom of the bit. The teeth are faced and tipped with a hard
metal alloy such as tungsten carbide to provide water resistance and thereby to increase the life of the
bit. Although these bits are less expensive than diamond bits, they do not provide as high a rate of coring
and do not have a salvage value. The saw tooth bit is used primarily to core overburden and very soft
rock.

OBSERVATION DURING CORE DRILLING

➢ Drilling Rate/Time

The drilling rate should be monitored and recorded on the boring log in the units of minutes per 0.3
m (1 ft). Only time spent advancing the boring should be used to determine the drilling rate.

➢ Core Photographs
 Cores in the split core barrel should be photographed immediately upon removal from the borehole.
A label should be included in the photograph to identify the borehole, the depth interval and the
number of the core runs. It may be desirable to get a "close-up" of interesting features in the core.
Wetting the surface of the recovered core using a spray bottle and/or sponge prior to photographing
will often enhance the color contrasts of the core.

A tape measure or ruler should be placed across the top or bottom edge of the box to provide a scale
in the photograph. The tape or ruler should be at least 1 meter (3 ft) long, and it should have
relatively large, high contrast markings to be visible in the photograph.

➢ Rock Classification

The rock type and its inherent discontinuities, joints, seams, and other facets should be documented.

➢ Recovery

The core recovery is the length of rock core recovered from a core run, and the recovery ratio is the
ratio of the length of core recovered to the total length of the core drilled on a given run, expressed
as either a fraction or a percentage. Core length should be measured along the core centerline. When
the recovery is less than the length of the core run, the non-recovered section should be assumed to
be at the end of the run unless there is reason to suspect otherwise (e.g., weathered zone, drop of
rods, plugging during drilling, loss of fluid, and rolled or recut pieces of core). Non-recovery should be
marked as NCR (no core recovery) on the boring log, and entries should not be made for bedding,
fracturing, or weathering in that interval.

➢ Rock Quality Designation (RQD)

The RQD is a modified core recovery percentage in which the lengths of all pieces of sound core over
100 mm (4 in) long are summed and divided by the length of the core run. The correct procedure for
measuring RQD is illustrated in Figure below.

The RQD is an index of rock quality in that problematic rock that is highly weathered, soft, fractured,
sheared, and jointed typically yields lower RQD values. Thus, RQD is simply a measurement of the
percentage of "good" rock recovered from an interval of a borehole.

Length Measurements of Core Pieces

The same piece of core could be measured three ways: along the centerline, from tip to tip, or along
the fully circular barrel section.

The recommended procedure is to measure the core length along the centerline. This method is
advocated by the International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM), Commission on Standardization of
Laboratory and Field Tests (1978, 1981). The centerline measurement is preferred because: (1) it
results in a standardized RQD not dependent on the core diameter, and (2) it avoids unduly
penalizing of the rock quality for cases where the fractures parallel the borehole and are cut by a
second set.

Core breaks caused by the drilling process should be fitted together and counted as one piece.
Drilling breaks are usually evidenced by rough fresh surfaces. For schistose and laminated rocks, it is
often difficult to discern the difference between natural breaks and drilling breaks. When in doubt
about a break, it should be considered as natural in order to be conservative in the calculation of RQD
for most uses.
 Assessment of Soundness

Pieces of core which are not "hard and sound" should not be counted for the RQD even though they
possess the requisite 100 mm (3.94 in) length. The purpose of the soundness requirement is to
downgrade the rock quality where the rock has been altered and weakened either by agents of
surface weathering or by hydrothermal activity

➢ Drilling Fluid Recovery

The loss of drilling fluid during the advancement of a boring can be indicative of the presence of open
joints, fracture zones or voids in the rock mass being drilled. Therefore, the volumes of fluid losses
and the intervals over which they occur should be recorded. For example, "no fluid loss" means that
no fluid was lost except through spillage and filling the hole. "Partial fluid loss" means that a return
was achieved, but the amount of return was significantly less than the amount being pumped in.
"Complete water loss" means that no fluid returned to the surface during the pumping operation.

➢ Core Handling and Labeling

Rock cores from geotechnical explorations should be stored in structurally sound core boxes made of
wood or corrugated waxed cardboard. Wooden boxes should be provided with hinged lids, with the
hinges on the upper side of the box and a latch to secure the lid in a closed position.

Cores should be handled carefully during transfer from barrel to box to preserve mating across
fractures and fracture-filling materials. Breaks in core that occur during or after the core is
transferred to the core box should be refitted and marked with three short parallel lines across the
fracture trace to indicate a mechanical break.

Core Box for Storage of Recovered Rock and Labeling

➢ Care and Preservation of Rock Samples

A detailed discussion of sample preservation and transportation is presented in ASTM D 5079. Four
levels of sample protection are identified:

• Routine care
• Special care
• Soil-like care
• Critical care

Most geotechnical explorations will use routine care in placing rock core in core boxes. ASTM D 5079
suggests enclosing the core in a loose-fitting polyethylene sleeve prior to placing the core in the core
box. Special care is considered appropriate if the moisture state of the rock core (especially shale,
claystone and siltstone) and the corresponding properties of the core may be affected by exposure.
This same procedure can also apply if it is important to maintain fluids other than water in the
sample. Critical care is needed to protect samples against shock and vibration or variations in
temperature, or both. For soil-like care, samples should be treated as indicated in ASTM D 4220.

ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

A. ROCK MASS RATING (RMR)

The Rock Mass Rating (RMR) rock classification system uses five basic parameters for classification and
properties evaluation. A sixth parameter helps further assess issues of stability to specific problems.
Originally intended for tunneling & mining applications, it has been extended for the design of cut slopes
and foundations. The six parameters used to determine the RMR value are:

• Uniaxial compressive strength (qu or σu)*.

• Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
• Spacing of discontinuities
• Condition of discontinuities
• Groundwater conditions
• Orientation of discontinuities

The basic components of the RMR system is contained in Figure below. The rating is obtained by
summing the values assigned for the first five components. Later, an overall rating can be made by a final
adjustment by consideration of the sixth component depending upon the intended project type (tunnel,
slope, or foundation), however, this is less utilized in most routine applications. Thus, the RMR is
determined as:
(Eq. 5.1)
5

𝑅𝑀𝑅 = ∑ 𝑅𝑖
𝑖=1

The RMR rating assigns a value of between 0 (very poor) to 100 (most excellent) for the rock mass. The
RMR system has been modified over the years with additional details and variants given elsewhere.
Depending upon the dip and dip direction (or strike) of the natural discontinuities with respect to the
proposed layout and orientation of the construction, then an additional factor may be added to adjust
the RMR, ranging from favorable (R6 = 0) to very unfavorable (-12 for tunnels, -25 for foundations, and -
60 for slopes).
B. NGI - Q RATING

The Q Rating was developed for assessing rock masses for tunneling applications by the Norwegian
Geotechnical Institute (Barton, et al. 1974) and relies on six parameters for evaluation:

• Rock Quality Designation (𝑅𝑄𝐷)

• 𝐽𝑛 is the number of discontinuity sets in the rock mass (joint sets).
• 𝐽𝑟 represents the roughness of the interface within the discontinuities, fractures, and joints.
• 𝐽𝑎 describes the condition, alterations, and infilling material with the joints and cracks.
• 𝐽𝑤 provides an assessment on the in-place water conditions.
• 𝑆𝑅𝐹 is a stress reduction factor related to the initial stress state and compactness.

The individual parameters are assigned values per the criteria given in Figure below and then a complete
Q rating is obtained as follows:
(Eq. 5.2)
𝑅𝑄𝐷 𝐽𝑟 𝐽𝑤
𝑄=( )( )( )
𝐽𝑛 𝐽𝑎 𝑆𝑅𝐹
Both the RMR and the Q-ratings can be used to evaluate the stand-up time of unsupported mine &
tunnel walls which is valuable during construction. The RMR and Q are also used to determine the type
and degree of tunnel support system required for long-term stability, including the use of shotcrete,
mesh, lining, and rock bolt spacing. Details on these facets are given elsewhere (e.g., Hoek, et al., 1995).
PROBLEM 1

A mudstone outcrop contains three fracture sets. Set ‘1’ comprises bedding planes; these are highly
weathered, slightly rough and planar and continuous. The other two sets are jointing; both are slightly
weathered and slightly rough and planar. The strength of the intact rock is estimated to be 55 MPa with
an RQD of 60% and a mean fracture spacing of 0.4 m. The fractures are observed to be damp and having
a large inflow in unfilled joints with no alteration.

Determine RMR and Q Rating.

Solution:

Rock Mass Rating (RMR)

Based on UCS of 55 MPa, 𝑅1 = 6

Based on RQD of 60%, 𝑅2 = 12
Based on Joint Spacing of 0.4 m, 𝑅3 = 10
Based on Discontinuity:

Set 1 – highly weathered, slightly rough = 20

and continuous = 10
Ave = 15

Set 2 – slightly weathered and slightly rough = 25

Ave of 3 Sets = (15 + 25 + 25)/3 = 22 (This is 𝑅4 )

Based on GW Conditions of Damp, 𝑅5 = 10

Total 𝑅𝑀𝑅 = 6 + 12 + 10 + 22 + 10 = 60

Therefore, Rock Mass Rating = Fair Rock

Q Rating

Rock Quality Designation (𝑅𝑄𝐷) = 60%

𝐽𝑛 = 9 (3 sets)
𝐽𝑟 = 1.5 (Rough and Planar)
𝐽𝑎 = 1 (No Alteration)
𝐽𝑤 = 0.5 (large inflow in unfilled joints)
𝑆𝑅𝐹 = 1 (Rock with unfilled joints)
𝑅𝑄𝐷 𝐽𝑟 𝐽𝑤
𝑄=( )( )( )
𝐽𝑛 𝐽𝑎 𝑆𝑅𝐹
60 1.5 0.5
𝑄=( )( )( ) = 5
9 1.0 1.0
Therefore; Q Rating is Fair

GEOLOGICAL STRENGTH INDEX (GSI)

Whereas the RMR and Q systems were developed originally for mining and tunnelling applications, the
Geological Strength Index (GSI) provides a measure of the rock mass quality for directly assessing the
strength and stiffness of intact and fractured rocks. A quick assessment of the GSI made be made by use
of the graphical chart given in Figure below, thus facilitating the procedure for field use.
More specifically, the GSI can be calculated from the components of the Q system, as follows:
(Eq. 5.3)
𝑅𝑄𝐷 𝐽𝑟
𝐺𝑆𝐼 = 9 log [( ) ( )] + 44
𝐽𝑛 𝐽𝑎
In relation to the common Geomechanics Classification System, the GSI is restricted to RMR values in
excess of 25, thus:

For RMR > 25:

(Eq. 5.4)
4

𝐺𝑆𝐼 = ∑ 𝑅𝑖 + 10
𝑖=1

GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

There are several kinds of geophysical tests that can be used for stratigraphic profiling and delineation of
subsurface geometries. These include the measurement of mechanical waves (seismic refraction surveys,
crosshole, downhole, and spectral analysis of surface wave tests), as well as electromagnetic techniques
(resistivity, EM, magnetometer, and radar). Mechanical waves are additionally useful for the
determination of elastic properties of subsurface media, primarily the small-strain shear modulus.
Electromagnetic methods can help locate anomalous regions such as underground cavities, buried
objects, and utility lines. The geophysical tests do not alter the soil conditions and therefore classify as
nondestructive, and several are performed at the surface level (termed non-invasive).
SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD

Seismic refraction is generally used for determining the depth to very hard layers, such as bedrock. The
seismic refraction method is performed according to ASTM D 5777 procedures and involves a mapping of
𝑉𝑝 arrivals using a linear array of geophones across the site, as illustrated in Figures below for a two-layer
stratification.

In the SR method, the upper layer velocity must be less than the velocity of the lower layer. An impact on
a metal plate serves as a source rich in P-wave energy. Initially, the P waves travel solely through the soil
to arrive at geophones located away from the source. At some critical distance from the source, the P-
wave can actually travel through soil-underlying rock-soil to arrive at the geophone and make a mark on
the oscilloscope. This critical distance (𝑥𝑐 ) is used in the calculation of depth to rock. The SR data can also
be useful to determine the degree of rippability of different rock materials using heavy construction
equipment.

In. Figure below, point A is the source of seismic impulse. The points 𝐷1 through 𝐷8 represent the
locations of the geophones or detectors which are installed in a straight line. The spacings of the
geophones are dependent on the amount of detail required and the depth of the strata being
investigated. In general, the spacing must be such that the distance from 𝐷1 to 𝐷8 is three to four times
the depth to be investigated.

As in the figure, if the source-geophone spacing is more than the distance 𝑑1 which is the distance from
the source to point B, the direct wave reaches the geophone in advance of the refracted wave and the
time-distance relationship is represented by a straight-line AB through the origin represented by A. If on
the other hand, the source geophone distance is greater than 𝑑1 , the refracted waves arrive in advance
of the direct waves and the time-distance relationship is represented by another straight-line BC which
will have a slope different from that of AB. The slopes of the lines AB and BC are represented by 1/𝑉1 and
1/𝑉2 respectively, where 𝑉1 an d 𝑉2 are the velocities of the upper and lower strata respectively.
Similarly, the slope of the third line CD is represented by 1/𝑉3 in the third strata.

general types of soil or rocks can be determined from a knowledge of these velocities. The depth 𝐻1 of
the top strata (provided the thickness of the stratum is constant) can be estimated from the formula
(Eq. 5.5)
𝑑1 𝑉2 − 𝑉1
𝐻1 = √
2 𝑉2 + 𝑉1
The thickness of the second layer (𝐻2 ) is obtained from
(Eq. 5.6)
𝑑2 𝑉3 − 𝑉2
𝐻2 = 0.85𝐻1 + √
2 𝑉3 + 𝑉2

The procedure is continued if there are more than three layers.

If the thickness of any stratum is not constant, average thickness is taken.
The following equations may be used for determining the depths 𝐻1 and 𝐻2 in three-layer strata:
(Eq. 5.7)
𝑡1 𝑉1
𝐻1 =
2 cos 𝛼
(Eq. 5.8)
𝑡2 𝑉2
𝐻2 =
2 cos 𝛽
where

𝑡1 = 𝐴𝐵1 ; the point 𝐵1 is obtained on the vertical passing through A by extending the straight-line CB,
𝑡2 = 𝐴𝐶1 − 𝐴𝐵1 ; 𝐴𝐶1 is the intercept on the vertical through A obtained by extending the straight-line
DC.
𝛼 = sin−1 (𝑉1 /𝑉2 )
𝛽 = sin−1 (𝑉2 /𝑉3 )
𝛼 and 𝛽 are the angles of refraction of the first and second stratum interfaces respectively. The formulae
used to estimate the depths from seismic refraction survey data are based on the following assumptions:

1. Each stratum is homogeneous and isotropic.

2. The boundaries between strata are either horizontal or inclined planes.
3. Each stratum is of sufficient thickness to reflect a change in velocity on a time-distance plot.
4. The velocity of wave propagation for each succeeding stratum increases with depth.

Table above gives typical seismic velocities in various materials. Detailed investigation procedures for
refraction studies are presented by Jakosky (1950).

PROBLEM 2

A seismic survey was carried out for a large project to determine the nature of the substrata. The results
of the survey are given in Fig. below is in the form of a graph. Determine the depths of the strata.

Two methods may be used

1. Use (Eq. 5.5) and (Eq. 5.6)

2. Use (Eq. 5.7) and (Eq. 5.8)
Solution:

First we have to determine the velocities in each stratum by just getting the ratio of H:V of line AB, BC
and CD respectively.
𝑑1 2.188
𝑉1 = = = 171.6 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴𝐵 12.75 × 10−3
𝑑2 22.5
𝑉2 = = = 750 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴𝐶2 − 𝐴𝐵1 (38.75 − 8.75) × 10−3
𝑑2 22.5
𝑉3 = = = 2250 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴𝐶2 − 𝐴𝐶1 (38.75 − 28.75) × 10−3
Method 1:

𝑑1 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 2.188 750 − 171.6

𝐻1 = √ = √ = 0.867 𝑚
2 𝑉2 + 𝑉1 2 750 + 171.6

𝑑2 𝑉3 − 𝑉2 22.5 2250 − 750

𝐻2 = 0.85𝐻1 + √ = 0.85(0.867) + √ = 8.69 𝑚
2 𝑉3 + 𝑉2 2 2250 + 750

Method 2:

𝑡1 𝑉1 𝐴𝐵1 𝑉1 8.75 × 10−3 (171.6)

𝐻1 = = = = 0.771 𝑚
2 cos 𝛼 2 cos [sin−1 (𝑉1 )] 2 cos [sin−1 (171.6)]
𝑉2 750
𝑡2 𝑉2 𝐴𝐶1 𝑉2 28.75 × 10−3 (750)
𝐻2 = = = = 11.435 𝑚
2 cos 𝛽 2 cos [sin−1 (𝑉2 )] 2 cos [sin−1 ( 750 )]
𝑉3 2250
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY SURVEY (ER) OR SURFACE RESISTIVITY METHOD

Resistivity is a fundamental electrical property of geomaterials and can be used to evaluate soil types and
variations of pore fluid and changes in subsurface media (Santamarina et al., 2001). The resistivity (𝐷𝑅 ) is
measured in ohm-meters and is the reciprocal of electrical conductivity (𝑘𝐸 = 1/𝐷𝑅 ). Conductivity is
reported in siemens per meter (S/m), where S = amps/volts. Using pairs or arrays of electrodes
embedded into the surface of the ground, a surface resistivity survey can be conducted to measure the
difference in electrical potential of an applied current across a site. The spacing of the electrodes governs
the depth of penetration by the resistivity method and the interpretation is affected by the type of array
used (Wenner, dipole-dipole, Schlumberger). The entire site is gridded and subjected to parallel arrays of
SR-surveys if a complete imaging map is desired. Mapping allows for relative variations of soil types to be
discerned, as well as unusual features.