CARAGA STATE UNIVERSITY

College of Engineering and Geosciences

Department of Mining Engineering

EM 100
Principles of Mining

Gerome L. Amper, EM
Instructor
 INTRODUCTION
Mining begins with prospecting and
exploration stages with long periods of
investments and high risks of failure.

Prospecting & Exploration discovers

evidence of mineral occurrence and
outline its size and character. Its
Program should be designed to find
and acquire a maximum number of
acceptable mineral deposits at a
minimum cost and within a minimum
period of time.

Defining a mineral deposits is a collective

efforts of geologists, geophysicist,
geochemists, metallurgists, mining
engineers, chemists, lawyers and even
politicians.
To find and acquire new deposits:
• the explorer must have access
to land;
• it must undergo rigorous
government approval and
monitoring process;
• it must be capable of
discovering deeply concealed
(hidden) deposits which have
eluded previous explorers;
• the deposits must be amenable
to economic extractive
operations now or in the future.

Each exploration entity shall define

its own objectives in terms of
acceptable minimum rate of
return on investments (ROI) for
any deposit found and retained,
and in terms of which
commodities, and markets are
to be involved.
 OBJECTIVES OF
EXPLORATION

1. To find an economic mineral

deposit that will increase the
value of the company’s stocks to
the stockholders on a continuing
basis; and

2. To find and acquire a maximum

number of mineral deposits at a
minimum cost and within a
minimum period of time.
Qualification of a
Mineral Explorer

• Geologist/Mining Engineer
• Any engineer or professional
with background in mineral
exploration
• Good health
• Risk-taker
• Adventurous
• Broad-minded
• Patient
• Knowledgeable on Use of
Exploration
Equipment/Apparatus
 • Scope of work of proposed
exploration project
• Permits & Clearances
Factors to • Amount of existing
Consider information
• General geology of the
Prior to prospect
Exploration • Type of sampling and data
Work required
• Availability of exploration
technology, equipment,
manpower, etc.
 • Capability of equipment
• Cost of exploration works
Factors to • Environment (terrain,
Consider access, vegetation, etc.)
Prior to • Social Acceptability
Exploration • Right-of-way to the site;
Work • Peace and Order
• Availability of
infrastructures and utilities.
 -Heavy Mineral Panning
FLOWSHEET OF A MINERAL
- Field/Library Researches - Airborne & Satellite Tech
EXPLORATION PROGRAM
- Reconnaissance Geo-mapping - Fluid Inclusion

- Rock Sampling & Lab Testing - Isotopes Studies

Searching PROSPECTING - X-ray Analyzer
- Plotting of Geologic Data on Maps
- Laser Techniques

MINERAL EXPLORATION -Field/Library Research - Geologic Logging

- Photogeologic Study - Boulder Tracking

Geologic - Outcrop Examination -Test Pit/Trenching

- Geologic Mapping - Aerial Examination
Defining
of Ore - Stream Sediment - Specialized Sampling

Deposit Geochemical - Water Sampling - Assaying

- Rock Sampling
- Aeromagnetic - Radiometric - Magnetic
Geophysical
- Electromagnetic - Gravity - Seismic
Confirming of
- Remote Sensing - Electrical - Radiometric
Ore Deposit - Percussion - Rotary Drilling
Drilling
Geologic Data - Rotary-Percussion - Diamond Core Drilling

Gathering & SAMPLING & DATA GATHERING

Interpretation
GEOLOGIC INTERPRETATION
Ore Reserve
Evaluation ORE RESERVE ESTIMATION
Final Output PRE-FEASIBILITY STUDY
 What is the difference
between mineral and
ore?
Bauxite

Clay
Ores – are rocks
and mineral that
can be recovered
at a profit.
• Refers only to metals
or metal-bearing
minerals, but in
common usage a few
of the non-metallic
minerals such as sulfur
& fluorite are included.
What is the difference
between RESERVE and
RESOURCE?

• The volume of
reserves is much
less than the
volume of
resources
 What is a
Mineral Deposit ?
• A mineral deposit is a place
where valuable mass of economic
mineral (or minerals) is formed in
varying size, shape and
orientation.

• The ore body or valuable mass

of economic minerals is normally
outlined by cut-off grade.

• Deposits are classified based

on the level of geological
knowledge and economic
feasibility, and is used as a guide
for industrial planning and
planning
MINERAL PROSPECTS

‘Mineral Prospect’ has the

least level of confidence and
refers to a deposit of geological
interest that may not be of
economic value.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND

MINERAL RESOURCE

• ‘Mineral Resource’ is a concentration or

occurrence of material of intrinsic
economic interest in or on the Earth’s
crust in such form, quality and quantity
that there are reasonable prospects for
eventual economic extraction.
• The location, quantity, grade, geological
characteristics and continuity of a
Mineral Resource are known, estimated
or interpreted from specific geological
evidence and knowledge.
• Mineral Resources are sub-divided, in
order of increasing geological
confidence, into Inferred, Indicated and
Measured categories.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND

MINERAL RESOURCE

• ‘Inferred Mineral Resource’ is that

part of a Mineral Resource for which
tonnage, grade and mineral content
can be estimated with a low level of
confidence.
• It is inferred from geological evidence
and assumed but not verified
geological and/or grade continuity.
• The addition of new drilling or
information changes the overall
interpretation or grade by 25% or
more.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND

MINERAL RESOURCE

• ‘Indicated Mineral Resource’ is that

part of a Mineral Resource for which
tonnage, densities, shape, physical
characteristics, grade and mineral
content can be estimated with a
reasonable level of confidence.
• The locations are too widely or
inappropriately spaced to confirm
geological and/or grade continuity
but are spaced closely enough for
continuity to be assumed.
• The addition of new drilling or
information should not change the
overall interpretation or grade by
more than 20% to 25%.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND

MINERAL RESOURCE

• ‘Measured Mineral Resource’ is

that part of a Mineral Resource for
which tonnage, densities, shape,
physical characteristics, grade
and mineral content can be
estimated with a high level of
confidence.
• The locations are spaced closely
enough to confirm geological and
grade continuity.
• The addition new drilling or
information should not change the
overall interpretation or grade by
more than 10% to 15%.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND

MINERAL RESOURCE

• Statements of tonnage (or volume)

and grade should be rounded so as
to reflect this uncertainty.
• In order to reinforce the qualitative
nature of a Mineral Resources
estimate, it is recommended that the
final result always be referred to
as an estimation not a calculation.
• Detailed description of the method
used and the assumptions made to
estimate tonnages and grades
(section, polygon, inverse distance,
geostatistical or other method).

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND

ORE RESERVES

• ‘Ore Reserve’ is the

economically mineable part of
a Measured and/or Indicated
Mineral Resource.
• Appropriate assessments and
studies have been carried out,
and include consideration of
and modification by realistically
assumed mining, metallurgical,
economic, marketing, legal,
environmental, social and
governmental factors.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND

ORE RESERVES

• ‘Probable Ore Reserve’ is the

economically mineable part of an
Indicated, and in some
circumstances, a Measured
Mineral Resource.
• Appropriate assessments and
studies have been carried out,
and include consideration of and
modification by realistically
assumed mining, metallurgical,
economic, marketing, legal,
environmental, social and
governmental factors.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND

ORE RESERVES

• ‘Proved Ore Reserve’ is the

economically mineable part of
a Measured Mineral Resource.

• Appropriate assessments and

studies have been carried out,
and include consideration of
and modification by realistically
assumed mining, metallurgical,
economic, marketing, legal,
environmental, social and
governmental factors.
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND
END OF PRESENTATION

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