BUILDING MATERIALS

❖ Stone: A natural materials of construction which is obtained from rock by suitable

method is called stone
❖ Classification of rocks

❖ Geological classification:
➢ Sedimentary rocks. The rocks formed by the consolidation of particles of
the pre-existing rocks under the effect of weathering agencies such as rain,
wind, water, glaciers etc. are called sedimentary rocks. E.g.; sandstone,
limestone, lignite etc.
➢ Igneous rocks. The rocks formed directly by solidification of molten
material either inside or on the surface of earth are called igneous rocks.
E.g.;. Granite, basalt, trap etc. The word ignite related to the igneous
suggests fire, these rocks are formed by cooling of the molten lava inside or
outside of the earth's surface.
➢ Metamorphic rocks. The rocks formed from the pre-existing rock within
the earth's crust under the influence of variations in temperature or
pressure or both are known as metamorphic rocks.
❖ Physical classification:
➢ Stratified rocks:. The rocks which show distinct size of layers and can be
easily splitted up into the layers are called stratified rocks. E.g.:. Sandstone,
limestone etc.
➢ Unstratified rocks:. These are the rocks which do not show distinct size of
layers so these rocks can not be splitted into layers. Eg;. Granite, basalt etc.
➢ Foliated rocks:. These rocks have a tendency to be split up in a definite
direction only these rocks can b splitted up into thin shapes. E.g. Slate
❖ Chemical classification:

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 ➢ Argillaceous rocks:. The rocks having Alumina (al203) or clay as their
major constituent are called argillaceous rocks.
➢ Calcareous rocks:. The rocks having Calcium carbonate (CaCo3) or clay as
their major constituent are called calcareous rocks.
➢ Siliceous rocks:. The rocks having silica (si02) or sand as their major
constituent are called siliceous rocks.
❖ Crushing strength of Rocks
ROCKS STONES CRUSHING STRENGTH

Igneous Basalt 150-185

Diorite 90-150
Granite 75-127
Trap 330-380

Sedimentary Laterite 1.8-3.1

Limestone 54
Sandstone 64
Shale 0.2-0.6

Metamorphic Gneiss 206-307

Slate 75-207

❖ Qualities of a good stone:

➢ Appearance:. A good building stone should be of uniform colour & free
from clay holes, stone which are to be used for face work should be decent in
appearance & should be capable of preserving their colour uniformly for a
long time.
➢ Durability:. A good building stone must be durable enough to resist the
effects of weathering agencies such as wind, rain and alternate conditions
of heat and cold. It should be fine grained, compact & crystalline.
➢ Hardness, toughness & resistance to abrasion:. The stone to be used in
stairs, pavements, railway blasts must be sufficiently hard, tough & able to
resist the wear & tear. The coefficient of hardness should not be less than 17
for a stone to be used in road works.
➢ Texture:. A good building stone should have a closed grained and compact
texture.
➢ Workability:- The building stone to be used for ornamental carvings and
architectural appearance, should be easily and economically dressed.
➢ Seasoning:- The stone to be used should be well seasoned before its use,
presence of moisture makes the stone soft and can decay when used.
➢ Porosity: A good building stone should not absorb more than 5% of water,
if it absorbs more than 10% it will be rejected.

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 ➢ Resistance to fire:- A good building stone should be able to resist high
temperature. Its mineral constituents should have equal coefficient of
expansion.
❖ Bricks
The artificial material of construction in the form of clay blocks of uniform size and
shape are known as bricks. The standard size of a brick is 19×9×9 mm.
❖ Characteristics of good bricks:
➢ Appearance: A good brick should have regular rectangular faces with
sharp and well defined edges with uniform red colour.
➢ Strength:- A good brick should be strong enough to take a special load of
the structure. It should have a minimum crushing strength of 105kg/cm². It
should not break when dropped from a height of 1.25 cm over another
brick.
➢ Hardness:- A good brick should be sufficiently hard, no mark should be left
on the surface of brick when scratched with a thumbnail.
➢ Soundness: A good brick should give metallic sound when stuck with
another brick.
➢ Durability:- A good brick should be able to resist the effects of weathering
agencies like rains, temperature variations, frost action etc.
➢ Porosity:- A good brick should be less porous so that it may not absorb
more than 20% of water by weight when immersed in cold water for 24
hours.
➢ Efflorescence:- A good brick should not contain such alkaline salts which
may cause efflorescence on its surface and decay the brick.
➢ Resistance to fire:- A good brick should have enough resistance to fire
ordinary bricks can resist temperature up to 1200°c.
❖ Classification of bricks.
➢ Sun-dried or Katcha bricks: These bricks which are dried only in the sun
after there molding are called sun-dried or Katcha Brick.. These bricks are
used only for temporary works.
➢ Burnt or Pukka bricks:
■ First class bricks: The bricks which are well burnt and are of
uniform size and shape These bricks are used for superior works of
permanent nature.
■ Second class bricks: The surface of is somewhat rough and shape is
also slightly irregular. They may have hair crack and their edge may
not be sharp and uniform. These bricks are commonly used at places
where brick work is to be provide with a cost of plastic.
■ Third class brick: These bricks are ground moulded and they are
burnt in clamps. These are not hard & they have rough surfaces with
irregular edges. There bricks are dull sound when struck eachother.
There are used for unimportant & temporary works and at placed
where rainfall is heavy.

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 ■ Forth class or over burnt bricks: These are over burnt bricks with
irregular shape and dark colour. These bricks are used as aggregate
for concrete in foundation, flours, roads etc. Because of the fact that
these bricks have a compact structure and hence they are sometimes
found to be stronger than even the first class bricks.
❖ Manufacturing of bricks
The following operations are involved in the process of manufacturing of bricks:-
❖ Selection of clay:- The clay to be used for the manufacturing of bricks is usually
tested, a few bricks are made and these are burnt, after burning if the bricks give
good colour remain hard and show no physical change then bricks on large scale
can be made directly from such clay. If the bricks so burnt are not of good quality
the constituents are checked and its quality is improved by mixing other
ingredients such as sand, ashes, etc.
❖ Preparation of clay:- The clay is prepared in the following steps:-
➢ Unsoiling
➢ Digging
➢ Weathering
➢ Blending
➢ Tempering

❖ Moulding of bricks:- The process of moulding bricks from the plugged earth with
help of a mould is known as molding of bricks.
Moulding of bricks is done with the help of moulds either of wooden or steel the
bricks can be made by the following two steps:-
❖ Hand moulding:- The process of making brick with the help of moulds by manual
labors is known as hand moulding. Hand moulding can be don in the following two
ways:-
➢ Ground moulding:- The process of moulding bricks on the ground by
manual labor is known as ground moulding.
First of all the ground over which bricks are to be moulded is cleaned and
plastered with cow dung & fine sand is sprinkled over it. The mould is
dipped into water & placed over the ground from the tempered clay small
portion (known as clot) is taken & is dashed into the mould in such a way
that it fills all the corners of the mould and after that the surplus/ extra clay
is removed.
➢ Table moulding:- Table moulding is the process of making bricks on the
table instead of ground. The process is same as in ground moulding, only
the process is standing in front of the table for the moulding of bricks.
➢ Machine moulding:- The process of moulding bricks with the help of
machine is known as machine moulding. The machine moulding is used only
when the bricks are to b manufactured on a large scale.
❖ Drying of bricks:- The bricks may be dried by one of the following methods:-

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 ➢ Natural drying:- The process of drying bricks in open air is known as
natural drying.
Drying should be slow otherwise cracks may develop on its surface.
Generally it take 3-10 days, in hot season the brick becomes dry in 3 days.
When the moulded brick becomes enough dry they are laid on the edges on
a raised and sanded ground to dry further for one or two days while they
become hard for stacking.
➢ Artificial drying:- The process of drying bricks in special dryers is known
as artificial drying. In case of large demand & quick delivery, bricks are
dried artificially this is done by drying bricks in chambers, temperature is
usually maintained at 120°c and the bricks get dried.
❖ Burning of bricks:- The bricks are burnt to make them hard strong and durable.
The bricks should be burnt properly;
At 650°c the organic matter present in the bricks gets oxidized & water up
crystallization evaporates. At 1100°c the allmunes & sand fuses together resulting
in the increase of strength and density of bricks, further heating may change their
shape. The bricks may be burnt in case of the following methods:
➢ Clamp burning.
➢ Kiln burning.
❖ Hollow bricks (Perforated bricks)
➢ These bricks have hollowness in them from top to bottom.
➢ These bricks are not commonly used in India.
➢ These are special bricks used for the construction of light weight partition
walls, walls for insulation against sound and dampness.
➢ These types of bricks are manufactured from special selected clay by means
of machine. In America, France, UK, Germany etc., these bricks are very
common. These bricks also require less fuel as compared to ordinary bricks.
As per I.S 2222:1962, the modular size of the perforated brick should be as
follows;
Length Breadth Height

19 cm 9 cm 9 cm

19 cm 19 cm 9 cm

29 cm 9 cm 9 cm

29 cm 14 cm 9 cm

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

5
❖ Brick Masonry: Brick masonry is a process of laying bricks and to bond them
properly with mortar to form a desired structure which can transmit the super
imposed laid safely to the foundation.
❖ Orientation of bricks
➢ Stretcher: A brick laid with its long
narrow side exposed.
➢ Header: A brick laid flat with its width
at the face of the wall.
➢ Solider: A brick laid vertically with the
long narrow side of the brick exposed.
➢ Sailor: A brick laid vertically with the
broad face of the brick exposed.
➢ Shiner: A brick laid horizontally with
the broad face of the brick exposed.
➢ Rowlock: A brick laid on the long narrow side with the short end of the
brick exposed.
❖ Principles of brick masonry:
➢ In brick masonry work the bricks used should be sound, hard, well burnt
with uniform size, shape and colour.
➢ The bricks should be free from all types of defects like holes, cracks, air
bubbles etc.
➢ The bricks should be immersed in fresh water at least for 2 hours before
using in masonry.
➢ Do not use broken bricks unless they are essential for making good bonds.
➢ The bonds should be laid on their proper bond. The frog of the bricks should
be kept upward.
➢ Brick bats should be avoided.
➢ The thickness of the joints should not exceed 13 mm.
➢ The walls should be always truly vertical and the verticality should be
checked continuously using w plumb bob.
❖ Brick courses & closures:
➢ Queen closure: A brick cut in half
down its length.
➢ King closure: A brick cut a corner &
joining middle points of width and
length of the brick.
➢ Three quarter bat: A brick cut to
three-quarters of its length, and laid
with its long, narrow side exposed.
➢ Half bat: A brick cut in half across its
width and laid in the wall structure.
➢ Quarter bat: A brick cut to a quarter
of its length

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 ❖ Bond:. Systematic arrangement of bricks or other building units composing a wall
or a structure in such a way to ensure its strength and stability.
❖ Types of bonds.
➢ Header bond:. This is a simple type of bond
consisting of headers in every course and all
the bricks are laid crosswise with 5 cm lap in
each course.

Header Brick Bond

➢ Stretcher bond:. This type of bond consists
of bricks laid lengthwise or as stretcher with
an overlap of 10 cm in each course.

Stretcher Brick Bond

➢ English bond:. This is the most common
bond popular & is cheaply used for walls of
varying thickness ranging from 20 cm &
above. It consists of equal balancing of
headers & stretchers are arranged in
alternate courses.
English Brick Bond
➢ Flemish bond:. This is another type of bond in
which bricks are arranged in such a manner
that each course consists of alternate headers
& stretchers. Flemish bonds are classified as:
■ Single Flemish Bond
■ Double Flemish Bond.
Flemish Brick Bond
➢ Single Flemish Bond: Single Flemish bond is a combination of English
bond and Flemish bond. In this type of construction, the front exposed
surface of wall consists of Flemish bond and the back surface of the wall
consists of English bond in each course. Minimum thickness required for
single Flemish bond is one and a half brick thickness. The main purpose of
using single Flemish bond is to provide greater aesthetic appearance on the
front surface with required strength in the brickwork with English bond.
➢ Double Flemish Bond: Double Flemish Bond has the same appearance
both in the front and back elevations, i.e. each course consists of alternate
header and stretcher. This type of bonding is comparatively weaker than
English bond.
■ Strength of Brick Masonry.
The strength of brick memory depends on the following factors:
1) Quality of bricks

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 2) Quality in proportion of mortar.
a. Quality of bricks Bricks are the major components of brick masonry and
there the strength will depend on the quality and class of bricks. In our
country the compressive strength of bricks varies from region to region
depending upon the nature of available soil. The normal compressive
strength varies from mnt. Fo/mm² in some of the big cities like Delhi
Kolkata Chennai, machine made bricks are produced which give
compressive strength waxing from
b. Quality in proportion of mortar type and quality of mortar is also
responsible for the strength of brick masonry as the height of the wall
increases the slenderness ratio increases and the strength decreases.
The strength of masonry also depends on the shape of bricks.
Slenderness ratio is defined as the ratio between the effective height of the wall divided
defective thickness of the wall.
❖ Stone masonry:
➢ Dressing of stone:. Stones when they are obtained from the quarry are
irregular in shape and size & as such they cannot be used in any type of
construction to make them useful in masonry the irregular portion of the
stones are knocked off so as to make them regular in shape & size. The art
of cutting the irregular portion of stones and converting them into some
regular shape and size is known as dressing of stones.
➢ Site dressing:. The actual dressing of the stone is done at the place where
the stone is to be used, complete dressing of the stone cannot be done at the
quarry as the stones are dressed according to the situation.
❖ Classification of Stone Masonry
➢ The two main classifications of Stone Masonry are:
■ Rubble masonry
■ Ashlar masonry
➢ Rubble masonry:. In rubble masonry
either undressed or roughly stones are
used. According to the degree of dressing
the rubble masonry can be divided into
the following groups.
1. Random rubble set dry:. It is the
most inferior type of dressing in
which either quarry dressed or undressed stones are used without
the help of any mortar. Bigger pieces of the stones are arranged at
the bottom in such a way that these should have minimum of wides
and have proper interlocking with each other. This type of masonry
is used for the construction of retaining & breast walls, boundary
walls etc.
■ Random rubble set in mortar:. This type of masonry is similar to
the previous one with the difference that in this masonry some

8
 quantity of mortar is used for retaining walls, breast walls,
boundary walls & for the construction of cheap buildings
■ Square rubble uncoursed:.
Square stones means stones
whose edges have been made
roughly straight square does not
mean that the stones are square
in section In the type of masonry
roughly dressed stones such as
hammer dressed Chisel drafted
margin the stones are laid at
random in such a way that the two stones should interlock each
other and thre should be minimum of wides.. This type Of masonry is
used for making residential and public buildings etc.
■ Square rubble coursed:. This is a superior type of rubble masonry
in which semi-dressed stones are used. The stones are arranged in
regular courses all the courses may or may not be of same thickness
and in one course there may be any number of stones but built to
courses. This type of masonry is recommended for residential and
public building, abutments and piers of a bridge.
➢ Ashlar masonry:

1. Surveying: Surveying is the science of measuring and mapping land, water, and
man-made features on the earth's surface. It involves the determination of the
relative positions of points, lines, angles, and heights on the earth's surface, which
can then be used to produce maps, charts, and other visual representations of the
area being surveyed.
Surveying can be classified into two main categories: Geodetic Surveying and Cadastral
Surveying.
a. Geodetic Surveying: It is the most accurate type of surveying, using
satellite-based technology to measure the earth's surface and determine the
size and shape of the earth.
b. Cadastral Surveying: It involves the mapping and measurement of land
for the purpose of determining ownership, property lines, and boundaries.

9
There are various types of equipment and instruments used in surveying, depending on the
type of survey and the accuracy required. Some of the most commonly used equipment and
instruments include:
➢ Total Station: A Total Station is an electronic instrument that combines a
theodolite and an electronic distance meter to measure angles and
distances. It is used for precise surveys of both horizontal and vertical
measurements.
➢ Theodolite: A theodolite is a precision instrument used for measuring
angles in both the vertical and horizontal plane. It is often used for
topographical surveys, construction surveys, and mapping.
➢ Electronic Distance Meter (EDM): An EDM is a device that uses
electromagnetic waves to determine the distance between two points. It is
used to measure distances quickly and accurately, making it an important
tool in surveying.
➢ GPS Receiver: A GPS receiver is used to determine the position of a point on
the Earth’s surface. It uses signals from satellites to determine the precise
location of a point.
➢ Leveling Instrument: A leveling instrument is used to determine the
elevation of a point relative to a known reference point. It is used to
measure the height of buildings, bridges, and other structures.
➢ Tape Measure: A tape measure is a simple yet essential tool for measuring
distances in surveying. It is used to measure distances between points on a
building site, or to measure the height of a structure.
➢ Prism Pole: A prism pole is a tall pole with a prism attached to the top. It is
used to reflect light from a Total Station to a target point, allowing the
Total Station to accurately measure the distance between the two points
❖ Chain survey :- Chain survey is a method of land surveying that involves
measuring distances and angles between points on a piece of land using a chain or
tape measure. It’s a basic and traditional method of surveying that is simple and
inexpensive to perform, making it suitable for small-scale survey projects. The
surveyor moves along the land and measures the distances between survey points
using a chain or tape. He then records the data, which is used to create a plan or
map of the land. The chain survey method is accurate for relatively small areas, but
it becomes less accurate as the area being surveyed increases in size. In modern
surveying, chain surveys are often replaced by more advanced methods, such as
total station surveys or GPS surveys, which offer increased accuracy and efficiency.
2. Instruments used in chain surveying include:
a. Tape measure or chain – used to measure the length of the survey line.
b. Theodolite – used to measure angles and determine the direction of the
survey line.
c. Pegs or stakes – used to mark the corners of the survey line.
d. Level – used to determine the elevation of points along the survey line.

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3. Plane table survey :- A Plane Table survey is a method of surveying in which a
drawing board is used to create a topographical map of the building site. It is a
manual method and does not require the use of any electronic instruments.
The following steps outline the process of surveying a building site with a Plane
Table:
a. Ploting the points on the Plane Table. This involves drawing lines from
the control point to the various points on the building site, forming a rough
sketch of the topography.
b. Checking and refining the plot: The surveyor checks the accuracy of the
plot by sighting the points again and making any necessary adjustments.
Once the plot is accurate, the surveyor can add more detail, such as
contours and elevations.
c. Transferring the data: The data collected on the Plane Table can be
transferred to a larger plan or map for further analysis and use in the
design and construction of the building.
4. Theodolite:A theodolite is a surveying instrument used to measure angles and
distances in order to determine the positions and elevations of points on the
surface of the earth. There are two main types of theodolite, they are:
a. Transit Theodolite: This type of theodolite is designed for traversing and
topographical surveying. It is equipped with a telescope that can be rotated
in a full circle, allowing the user to measure both horizontal and vertical
angles.
b. Electronic Theodolite: This type of theodolite is equipped with electronic
components, such as an electronic compensator and a data processing unit,
which allow the user to measure angles and distances more accurately and
efficiently.
5. Components of a theodolite include:
a. Telescope: The telescope is the main component of a theodolite and is used
to measure angles and distances. It is equipped with crosshairs to aid in
measuring angles and distances.
b. Circles: The circles, or graduated disks, are used to measure angles. The
horizontal circle is used to measure horizontal angles, and the vertical
circle is used to measure vertical angles.
c. Tripod: The tripod is used to support the theodolite and to keep it level and
stable during measurements.
d. Compensator: The compensator is used to adjust the theodolite for errors
caused by temperature changes or other environmental factors.
e. Data Processing Unit: The data processing unit is used to store and
process data from the theodolite, allowing the user to quickly and easily
record and analyze data.
❖ Theodolite Survey :- Theodolite Survey is a surveying technique that uses a
specialized instrument called a Theodolite. It is used to measure angles and
distances, and to determine the position and orientation of points on the ground.

11
❖ Theodolite surveying involves the following steps:
➢ Instrument Setup - The theodolite is set up on a tripod and leveled. The
vertical and horizontal axes are then adjusted to align with the reference
line.
➢ Sighting - The instrument is rotated on its vertical axis to sight the first
point and then rotated on its horizontal axis to sight the second point. The
angles and distances are recorded.
➢ Recording Data - The angles and distances measured by the theodolite are
recorded in a field book or data sheet.
➢ Computation - The recorded data is used to calculate the location of the
points on the ground. This can be done using trigonometry or using a
computer program.
➢ Checking and Adjustment - The calculated locations are checked against
known control points to ensure accuracy. If necessary, the instrument is
adjusted and the measurements are taken again.
❖ Types of Theodolite Survey:
❖ Uses:
❖ Methods of Plotting:
➢ Traversing - This method involves measuring angles and distances to
determine the position of points on the ground in a sequential manner. It is
used for mapping large areas and determining the location of features on
the ground.
➢ Triangulation - This method involves measuring angles between two
points and the distance between one of the points and a third point. This
information is used to determine the position of the third point relative to
the other two points.
➢ Trilateration - This method involves measuring the distances from a fixed
point to several other points. The position of the other points is determined
by the intersection of circles with radii equal to the measured distances.
➢ Levelling - This method involves measuring the height of a benchmark or a
point relative to the mean sea level. The height of other points is then
determined by measuring the vertical angles and distances between the
benchmark and the other points.
❖ Transit Vernier Theodolite: A type of Theodolite that can measure both
horizontal and vertical angles. It is equipped with a vernier scale, which provides
high precision in angle measurement.
❖ Terms of Transit Theodolite:
➢ Horizontal Circle: Used to measure horizontal angles.
➢ Vertical Circle: Used to measure vertical angles.
➢ Plum Bob: A weight that hangs vertically from the Theodolite to determine
verticality.
❖ Fundamental Theodolite: A type of Theodolite that can measure only horizontal
angles.

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 ❖ Adjustment of Theodolite: The process of fine-tuning the Theodolite to ensure
accurate measurements. It includes checks for collimation, horizontal axis, and
vertical axis.
❖ Errors:: Theodolite surveying is a highly precise technique, but like any
measurement process, it is subject to errors that can impact the accuracy of the
results. Some of the common sources of error in theodolite surveying include:
➢ Human Error: Mistakes made by the surveyor during the measurement
process, such as misreading scales or making incorrect calculations, can
introduce errors into the results.
➢ Instrument Error: Theodolites are mechanical instruments that can be
subject to wear and tear, and may not function correctly due to a variety of
factors such as temperature, atmospheric pressure, and vibration.
➢ Environmental Factors: Environmental conditions such as wind, rain, and
heat can affect the accuracy of theodolite measurements by causing the
instrument to move or by distorting the line of sight.
➢ Refraction: The bending of light as it passes through the earth's
atmosphere can cause errors in theodolite measurements, especially over
long distances.
➢ Parallax Error: This error occurs when the crosshairs of the theodolite are
not precisely aligned with the point being measured, causing a
misalignment between the instrument and the target.
To minimize the impact of these errors, surveyors use techniques such as multiple
measurements, averaging, and error correction algorithms to obtain more accurate
results. They also carefully maintain and calibrate their instruments to ensure they are
functioning correctly.

❖ Open Traverse: A survey technique where the endpoints of the survey lines are not
connected.Used to determine the location of several points in a general area.
❖ Closed Traverse: A survey technique where the endpoints of the survey lines are
connected to form a closed loop. Used to determine the position of a point relative
to a known starting point.
In engineering problems, both open and closed traverse techniques are used for a
variety of purposes, such as determining the boundaries of a property, locating
underground utilities, and setting out construction.

6. Leveling:
a. Ruberoid
b. 308
c. 317
d. 318
e. LUght, fle xdbie &waterproof, Not afecte d
f. by heat or cold & not attacked by fire
g. Av ailable in rolls

13
 h. Construction
i. Constructio n: D'man Civil (NSOF- Revsed 2022) R.T. Ex.No. 1.15.65
j. Draughtsman Civil - Levelling
k. Introduction and terms used
l. Objectives :At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
m. • define leveling
n. • describe the uses of leveling
o. sed in leyelling.
p. ietroductien : it is the art of determining the relative heights of various
points on the surface of the earth
q. levelling is the branch of surveying which deals with the measurements in
the vertical plane.
7. Uses: Levelling is usualy caried out for the following purposes:
a. To prepare contour mapfor fixing sites for reservoirs, dams, barrages etc.
and to fx the alignmernts of road, railways, irrigation canals etc.
b. To determine the altitudes of different important points of different points
on or below the surface of the earth
c. To prepare a longitudinal section and cross section of a project (roads,
railways, irrigaion canals, eto,) in order to determine the volume of earth
work
d. To prepare a layout map for water supplying, sanitary or drainage schemes
8. Terms Used
a. Level Surrace: ine Suace whcns horma to the
b. surface. All the points on level suface is equidistant
c. from the centre of the earth and so t is curved surface.It is perpendicular to
the plumb ine all points Eg. surface of a still lake.
d. Level line: A line lying on a level surface is a level line This is normal to
plumb line at all points.
e. Horizontal Surface: A horizontal surface is the one which is tangential to
the level surface at any point.
f. Horizontal line: A horizontal line is the line lying in a a suace, It a straight
line tangential to the
g. Vertical line: A vertical line is a line perpendicuar to
h. the level line. Itis also otherwise known as plurmb line
i. as it passes through the cenitre of the earth
j. R. T. for Exercise 1.16.66
k. 6 Vertical plane: A vertical plane is the one, which
l. consi sts of many number of vertical lines
m. 7 Vertical angle: Vertical angle is an angle measured
n. between a ine and a horizortal line in a vertical plane
o. 8 Datum surface: Datum surface is an imaginary o
p. any arbitarily assumed level surface, from which
q. vertical distances of the poirts above or below the

14
 r. buthe Great trigonometrcal surew (GT S)denartment
s. of India is the mean sea level at Mumbai which is
t. taken as zero.
u. Mean Sea level (MS L) is the average height of the
v. sea for all stages of tides. It is the average of hourly
w. tides for a long period of 19 years.
x. 9 Elevation: The elevation of any point is it vertical
y. hegrt or Ceph above or beiow the datum surace t
z. The c4oro in Elhon
aa. s the vertcal distange between the level surfaces
bb. passing through the two points
cc. 10 Differer
dd. Ele
ee. 11 Bench Mark (B.M): A bench mark is the reference
ff. point of known elevation
gg. 12 Line of collimation: A line of collimation is the line
hh. joining the irtersection of cross-hairs in the diaphragm
ii. and the optical centre of the object glass, and it
jj. continuaticon Itis also otherwise knownas line of sight
kk. 13 Axis of the telescope: An axis of the telescope is the
ll. ne joining the optical cente of the object glass and
mm. telescope and the line of colimation coincides each
nn. other in case of a perfect leveling instrument.
oo. Fig2
pp. 14 Bubble line: A bubble line is an imaginary line
qq. tangential to the longtudinal curve of the bubble tube
rr. at its middile point It is horizontal when the bubbie is
ss. centered. (Fig 2)
tt. BUBOLE LANE
uu. BJBALE LINE
vv. 309
ww. 319/817Leveling refers to the process of making something flat or
even. In land surveying, leveling refers to the process of determining the
relative heights of different points on a piece of land.
xx. Leveling is a surveying technique used to determine the differences in height
(elevation) between different points on the earth's surface.
9. Some common terms used in leveling
a. Levelling survey: the process of determining the relative heights of points
on a land surface, used to create accurate maps and plans for construction.
b. Reduced level (RL): the height of a point relative to a fixed reference plane,
such as mean sea level, used in leveling survey
c. Line of collimation : The line of collimation is the imaginary straight line
extending through the center of the objective lens and the crosshairs of a

15
 level or transit, usedto determine the elevation of a point relative to the
level or transit.
d. Benchmark: a fixed reference point used as a basis for leveling, often
marked on a map or drawing with a specific elevation.
e. Datum: a fixed reference plane used as a starting point for leveling, often
represented on a map or drawing as a benchmark.
f. Leveling rod/ staff : a long, graduated rod used to measure heights in a
leveling survey.
g. Leveling instrument: a device used to determine the relative heights of
points on a land surface, such as a dumpy level, laser level, or auto level.
h. Survey line: a straight line connecting two points on a land surface, used as
a reference for a leveling survey.
i. Elevation: The height of a point above a reference surface, such as mean
sea level.
j. Foresight: the point at the end of a survey line that is being measured in a
leveling survey.
k. Backsight: the point at the beginning of a survey line that is used as a
reference for the foresight in a leveling survey.
l. Intermediate sight: A measurement taken between the back sight and fore
sight to determine the elevation of an intermediate point.
m. Grade: the slope or incline of a land surface, often expressed as a
percentage of rise over run.
10. Methods of levelling
a. Barometric leveling: Barometric leveling is a method of determining
heights or elevations using a barometer, which measures atmospheric
pressure. This method relies on the principle that atmospheric pressure
decreases with increasing altitude. By measuring the pressure at two
different points, the difference in height can be calculated.
b. Spirit leveling: Spirit leveling, also known as bubble leveling, is a method of
finding and measuring heights or elevations using a spirit level and a
leveling staff. This method relies on the principle that a liquid in a sealed
container will find its level, thus enabling accurate measurement of
differences in height.
c. Trigonometric leveling: Trignometric leveling is a method of determining
elevations using the principles of trigonometry and angular measurements
made with a theodolite or a total station. In this method, the instrument is
set up at a known elevation, and angular measurements are taken to the
top of a leveling staff at two or more points. The difference in elevation
between the instrument and the points can then be calculated using
trigonometric calculations.
11. Errors In Leveling Factors

16
 a. Human Error: Improperly trained or inexperienced personnel may cause
errors in leveling by misreading the instrument or incorrectly recording
data.
b. Mechanical Failure: Mechanical problems, such as broken parts or faulty
mechanisms, can cause errors in the readings.
c. Environmental Factors: The temperature, humidity, and wind can all
impact the accuracy of leveling readings.
d. Inadequate Calibration: Regular calibration of leveling equipment is
necessary to maintain accuracy. If the equipment is not calibrated properly,
errors can occur.
e. Interference: The presence of nearby metallic objects or other sources of
interference can cause inaccuracies in the readings.
f. Poor Maintenance: Neglecting to clean or maintain the equipment can
result in errors in leveling. Dust or debris can interfere with the readings,
and worn or damaged parts can affect accuracy.
g. Optical Distortions: When the line of sight between the instrument and the
target is obstructed or distorted, errors in leveling can occur.
h. Incorrect Setup: Improperly setting up the equipment or using the wrong
type of instrument for the job can result in errors in leveling.
i. Data Recording Issues: Inaccuracies in data recording or transcription
can lead to errors in the final results.
j. Instrument Limitations: The accuracy of the leveling instrument used can
impact the accuracy of the readings. It is important to use the right type of
instrument for the job and to have it calibrated regularly.

Introduction of BIS
BIS stands for Bureau of Indian Standards, which is an autonomous organization
established by the Government of India under the Bureau of Indian Standards Act, 1986. It
is responsible for setting and enforcing standards for products, services, and systems in
India to ensure their quality, safety, and reliability. The BIS operates through a network of
regional offices and laboratory facilities and provides certification services for a wide
range of products and services. The organization plays a critical role in promoting
competitiveness, consumer protection, and industrial growth in India.

Code for practice of architectural and building drawings

IS 962-1989, SP 46:2003
IS 962-1989 is an Indian Standard for "Guidance for the Preparation of Architectural
Drawings". This standard provides guidelines for the preparation and presentation of
architectural drawings, including plans, elevations, sections, and details. The standard
covers aspects such as the scale, dimensions, materials, and symbols that must be included
in the drawings, as well as the format, layout, and presentation of the drawings.
SP 46:2003 is an Indian Standard for "Guideline for Preparation of General Arrangement
Drawings for Building Services". This standard provides guidelines for the preparation of

17
general arrangement drawings for building services, such as electrical, plumbing, and fire
protection systems. The standard covers aspects such as the layout and presentation of the
drawings, the minimum information that must be included, and the coordination between
different services. The goal of the standard is to ensure that the building services are
designed and installed in a coordinated and efficient manner.

IS 962-1989: This Indian standard sets the minimum requirements for the design and
construction of timber bridges for rural roads and for the utilization of timber
components for bridges.
● Main objectives:
● To provide guidelines for the design and construction of timber bridges in rural
areas
● To ensure safety and durability of timber bridges
● To promote the use of timber components in bridge construction
● To provide cost-effective solutions for bridge construction in rural areas.
SP 46-2003: This Indian code of practice provides guidelines for the design, construction,
and maintenance of pre-stressed concrete bridges.
Main objectives:

To provide guidelines for the design and construction of pre-stressed concrete bridges
To ensure the safety and durability of pre-stressed concrete bridges
To promote the use of pre-stressed concrete technology in bridge construction
To provide cost-effective solutions for bridge construction in different types of
environments.

Construction
Draughtsman Civil - Masonry
Sequence of construction of a building
• parts of a building
• list the sequence of construction
explain the levels of different parts of building
Introduction : A Building consist of sub-structure and superstructure. Foundation, Plinth,
walls, floors and roofs are the main structural components of the building. Each of these
components is an essential part of a building and requires due consideration in design and
construction for their functional performance.
Parts of a building : The sectional view of a building shows all constructional details
from the foundation level to the top of roof such as total height and different levels i.e.
depth of foundation, plinth level ground floor level, thickness of wall, window sill level,

18
floor to ceiling height, window / door height, chajja level, roof top level, parapet level and
coping.
❖ The sequence is listed form foundation
➢ 1 Foundation
➢ Plinth
➢ Plinth course
➢ 5 Door & window
➢ 7 Floors
➢ 9 Parapet
➢ 2 Plinth
➢ 4 Sill
➢ 6 Lintel
➢ 8 Roof
➢ 10 Coping
1 Foundation It is the lowest artificially prepared part, below the surface of the
surrounding ground, which is in direct contact with sub-starter and transmits, all the loa
ds to the sub-soil.
2 Plinth : It is the middle of the structure, above the surface of the surrounding ground up
to the surface of the floor, immediately above the ground.
3 Plinth course: It is top most course at plinth level which is finished flush with the surface
of ground floor.
4 Sill: It is the horizontal member comprising concrete, stone or wood to give support to
the vertical members of woodern window. It helps in shedding rain water from
face of wall.
Door & window: Door is a frame work of wood, steel, glass. The purpose of door to give
access to the users of the structure and free movement into and outside
the structure. The door provide a good ventilation. Windows are constructed for providing
light and ventilation in the building.
Lintel: A horizontal member of stone, wood, brick, steel, rein forced brick, R.C.C etc above
the opening to support the masonry or load above, it is called lintel.
Floors: Floors are horizontal elements of a building structure which divide the building
into different levels for the purpose of creating more accommodation.
Roof:A root is the uppermost part of a building which is supported on structural members
and covered with a roofing material. The main function of a roof is to
enclose the building and to protect the same from the damaging effects of weather such as
rains, wind., snow etc.
9 Parapet : It is the wall built arounda flat roof which
acts as a protective wall for the users of the terrace. In
case of pitched roof, the parapet wall is used to conceal
to gutter at coves level.
10 Coping: The coping is covering of bricks or stones
which is placed on the exposed top of on external wall
to prevent seepage of water through joints of top most

19
cOurse in a wall.
Parts of a building (Fig 1)
Buildings: Building is not only a "SHELTER" but:
1 Energy saving
2 Efficiency improving
3 Environment friendly
4 Users friendly
5 Building can be defined as the three dimensional shape
or form in the space, resting on the earth, secured to the
earth by foundation for stability.
Different stages in the life of building
Planning: Decides the initial form
Designing: Decides the final form
Drawing: Tool to convert requirements into reality.

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